Celebrating Rome: 2,777 Years of Legacy and Legend

The Founding Myth of Rome

The city of Rome celebrates its foundational myth with the annual event known as Natale di Roma, marking what is believed to be its establishment in 753 BC by the legendary figure Romulus. According to tradition, the story begins with the miraculous survival of twin brothers, Romulus and Remus, who were abandoned on the banks of the River Tiber and nurtured by a she-wolf. The brothers later contended for the right to establish a new city, a dispute that tragically ended with Romulus killing Remus and naming the nascent city after himself. This dramatic tale not only sets the tone for Rome's storied history but also embeds a narrative of struggle and triumph in the city’s identity.

Rome’s Ascent to Glory

Rome's history is characterized by its remarkable transition from a modest settlement of shepherds to a vast empire that, at its peak, encompassed the Mediterranean and beyond. This expansion was driven by a combination of military prowess, strategic alliances, and a complex system of laws and governance that integrated a diverse array of conquered peoples. Rome’s architectural and engineering achievements—such as roads, aqueducts, and public buildings—further testify to its glory days, facilitating not just the empire's expansion but also the flow of ideas, cultures, and commerce.

Principles of Roman History

Central to the understanding of Roman history are several key principles:

1. Legal and Political Innovation: Rome’s contribution to the systems of law and governance is monumental. The principles of Roman law, such as justice, equity, and the protection of property, have influenced countless legal systems in the West. Politically, Rome evolved from a monarchy to a republic and finally to an imperial structure, reflecting an ongoing experiment in governance that would echo through the ages.

2. Military Discipline and Strategy: Rome’s military was a cornerstone of its empire, renowned for its discipline, tactical innovation, and the integration of foreign soldiers into its ranks. The legions were not just military units but crucial tools for political and social integration, spreading Roman culture and customs far beyond Italy.

3. Cultural Syncretism: As Rome absorbed territories, it also adopted and adapted the gods, rituals, and cultural practices of those it conquered. This syncretism enhanced Roman religious life and helped stabilize diverse empire regions by respecting and incorporating local traditions.

4. Public Welfare: The Romans pioneered the concept of public welfare with initiatives like grain doles and public baths. These efforts, aimed at maintaining public order and contentment, highlighted the state’s role in individual lives, setting precedents for future governance.

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Celebrations of the Eternal City

Today, the Eternal City commemorates its founding with a vibrant blend of historical re-enactments, parades, and cultural events that draw participants and spectators from across the globe. These festivities not only honor Rome’s past but also serve as a vivid reminder of its enduring influence on art, culture, and politics. Events like gladiator displays, re-enactments of ancient rituals at the Circus Maximus, and musical performances resonate deeply with both the historical significance and the mythic grandeur of Rome.

As the Italian Army Band's performance of the "Gladiator" soundtrack fills the Circus Maximus, it evokes not only the splendor of ancient Rome but also its portrayal in modern culture, reminding us of the timeless fascination with this unique city. Rome, at 2,777 years old, continues to be a powerful symbol of resilience and innovation, a city that has repeatedly risen from adversity and redefined itself, much like the mythical phoenix of its legends.

Today, Rome's birthday is not just a local festivity but a global celebration of an eternal city that has profoundly shaped human history and continues to inspire and intrigue millions around the world. Happy Birthday, Rome! Here’s to many more centuries of influence and renewal.

Unearthing Elegance: Artistic Jewelry Depictions in Ancient Frescoes and Their Archaeological Counterparts

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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When Artifacts Speak: The Veracity of Ancient Art in Archaeological Finds

The discovery of artifacts that closely resemble depictions in ancient art offers an extraordinary window into the aesthetic preferences, cultural practices, and craftsmanship of past civilizations. Through these findings, we gain invaluable insights into the daily lives of those who once wore such personal adornments and how these items were represented in their visual culture. The funerary portrait from Roman Egypt and the jewelry from Mycenaean Greece present remarkable cases where archaeological findings correlate directly with artistic representations, serving as a testament to the accuracy and value of ancient art as a historical source.

Eternal Adornment: The Intersection of Life, Death, and Jewelry

The first example features a funerary Fayum portrait of a woman from Roman Egypt, adorned with a necklace of emeralds and gold, dating back to the 2nd century AD. This era, often referred to as the period of Roman Egypt, highlights a convergence of cultural elements where traditional Egyptian practices and Roman influences coexisted and influenced one another. The encaustic painting method used to create such portraits provided a durable and lifelike representation of the deceased, making these funerary items not just art but intimate tokens of memory and identity. The fact that a real necklace mirroring the one worn in the portrait has been discovered affirms the importance placed on such objects in both life and death and suggests that the portrait likely aimed to represent the individual as she lived, with her personal belongings.

Golden Circles of Mycenae: Artistic Echoes in Aegean Goldsmithery

In the second instance, we examine a pair of gold earrings from the famed Burial Circle A of Mycenae, Tomb III, dating back to the second half of the 16th century BC. These exquisite pieces of jewelry embody the sophistication of Creto-Mycenaean goldsmithing techniques, showcasing a combination of relief work and granulation—a testament to the skill and artistry of Mycenaean craftsmen. The correlation between these earrings and those depicted on the women in the frescoes of Akrotiri on Santorini is startling. The fresco known as the "Saffron Gatherers" portrays women with similar earrings, providing not just an artistic representation of fashion of the time but an indication of trade, cultural exchange, and the flow of artistic motifs across the Aegean Sea.

Art and Archaeology in Dialogue

These correspondences between art and actual items carry profound implications. They validate ancient artworks as reliable sources for understanding the past, proving that these were not merely imaginative creations but genuine reflections of contemporary styles and customs. Moreover, they emphasize the role of personal adornments in ancient societies—not only as indicators of social status, wealth, or aesthetic preference, but also as objects of personal significance that accompanied individuals in life and, quite often, into the afterlife.

The interplay between archaeology and art history is beautifully illustrated in these examples. While archaeology provides us with the tangible remnants of the past, ancient art breathes life into these findings, allowing us to envision how these items were once used and perceived. Such discoveries underline the necessity for interdisciplinary approaches in historical inquiries, where artifacts and art coalesce to shape a fuller, more nuanced understanding of ancient peoples and their worlds. Through the careful examination of these items and their artistic counterparts, we not only reconstruct past realities but also honor the legacy of craftsmanship and expression that has endured through millennia.

How did Roman Aqueducts work?

Engineering Marvels of Ancient Rome: The Roman Aqueducts

The Roman aqueducts stand as enduring symbols of the impressive engineering prowess and advanced infrastructure of ancient Rome. These monumental structures were vital in supplying water to the citizens of Rome, ensuring access to clean water for public baths, fountains, and private residences. Notably, the aqueducts brought water to all Seven Hills of Rome, showcasing the scale and ambition of the Roman engineering efforts.

One of the most remarkable aspects of Roman aqueducts was their reliance on gravity flow to transport water across great distances. The precise construction of these systems, achieved through the use of advanced tools and engineering techniques, was a testament to the ingenuity of Roman engineers. The utilization of exposed open signinum, a waterproof cement mixed with crushed ceramics, played a crucial role in maintaining the flow of water through the aqueducts.

To ensure that the water reached its intended destinations, the Romans employed a network of castella, or distribution tanks, which diverted water into distinct channels. This intricate system allowed for the efficient allocation of water to various public and private amenities, enhancing the overall quality of life for Roman citizens.

Despite the ingenuity of the Roman aqueducts, their maintenance posed significant challenges. Mineral deposits often obstructed the flow of water, requiring continuous maintenance and clearing to ensure that the aqueducts functioned optimally. This maintenance was a testament to the dedication of the Roman engineers and laborers who worked tirelessly to uphold the functionality of these vital structures.

The Roman aqueducts served not only practical purposes but also symbolized the prestige and power of the Roman Empire. Their construction and continued maintenance were a demonstration of Rome's capabilities in civil engineering and public works. Furthermore, they represented the empire's commitment to providing for the welfare and comfort of its citizens, further solidifying Rome's reputation as an advanced and influential civilization.

In conclusion, the Roman aqueducts stand as awe-inspiring remnants of ancient engineering feats. From their innovative construction techniques to their vital role in supplying water for public and private use, these structures exemplify the exceptional craftsmanship and foresight of the ancient Romans. The legacy of the Roman aqueducts endures as a testament to the enduring impact of ancient engineering marvels and their significance in shaping the course of history.

The Palatine Hill: This is The Oldest Building in Rome

Unraveling the Myth of Romulus and Remus: Exploring the Palatine Hill, A Magnificent Root of Roman History

Nestled in the heart of Rome, the Palatine Hill stands as a testament to the city's rich history and mythological origins. This iconic landmark was home to the most influential and affluent families of the late Republic and housed the grand palaces of the emperors, showcasing the opulence and power that characterized ancient Rome.

The House of Romulus: Myth and Reality Interwoven

Legend has it that the Palatine Hill was also home to the House of Romulus, the fabled founder of Rome, and his twin brother Remus. According to myth, their evil uncle abandoned the twin brothers, who were Numitor's grandchildren, and left them to die. However, a she-wolf and a sympathetic shepherd found them and took care of them, sparing their lives. This legendary account has become deeply intertwined with the founding of Rome, and the House of Romulus has captured the imagination of scholars and enthusiasts alike for centuries.

Exploring the Mythical Origins: Romulus and Remus

The story of Romulus and Remus, the she-wolf, and the founding of Rome is deeply embedded in Roman folklore and has left an indelible mark on the city's identity. As the legend goes, the twins grew up to establish Rome on the Palatine Hill. This mythical tale, while a foundational part of Roman identity, has also sparked intense scholarly debate and scrutiny, with the line between myth and historical reality often blurred.

Debunking Myth with Historical Inquiry

While the Romulus and Remus myth has captured the world's imagination, modern scholarship has shed light on the complexities surrounding the founding of Rome. Though the myth of the Roman foundation differs from contemporary historical interpretations, it is widely acknowledged that the myth of Romulus and Remus contains a historical kernel, pointing to the existence of a significant figure or figures responsible for the city's inception.

The Palatine Hill: A Living Legacy

Today, visitors have the opportunity to delve into the captivating history of the Palatine Hill through various guided tours, such as the renowned "Explore Rome with Through Eternity Tours." These experiences provide a unique opportunity to immerse oneself in the breathtaking landscapes and remnants of ancient structures that once stood as a testament to the power and grandeur of Rome's elite.

In conclusion, the myth of Romulus and Remus, the House of Romulus, and the Palatine Hill stand as enduring symbols of Rome's storied past. While the narrative of the city's foundation may be intertwined with myth and legend, it remains an essential part of Rome's historical tapestry, and the remnants of the House of Romulus continue to inspire awe and fascination. Whether one seeks to unravel the mysteries of the past or simply bask in the grandeur of ancient history, the Palatine Hill offers an unparalleled journey through time, inviting all to explore the origins of one of the world's most iconic cities.

The Enigmatic Language of the Etruscans: Non-Indo-European?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Etruscan language, once spoken in the region of Etruria (modern Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio) in Italy, remains one of antiquity’s greatest enigmas, its secrets only partially unlocked. Though no longer living, its legacy endures through inscriptions and a handful of bilingual texts, offering a window into the lives of the enigmatic Etruscans.

From Greek Columns to Etruscan Inscriptions: The Alphabet's Journey

The Etruscan alphabet is the earliest recorded script in the Western world after the Greek script. It was adopted from the Greek alphabet of the Euboean variant, used by Greek colonists in Italy, specifically in Ischia and Cumae. This adoption likely occurred during the 8th century BC, coinciding with the flourishing of Etruscan civilization. The Etruscan script underwent a transformation tailored maybe to their non-Indo-European linguistic structure; some Greek letters were repurposed to represent Etruscan sounds, and a few were discarded as they were unnecessary for Etruscan phonetics.

The Etruscans

The Etruscans emerged as a distinct civilization by the beginning of the first millennium BC, dominating the cultural and economic landscape of pre-Roman Italy. They were skilled metalworkers, merchants, and seafarers, leaving a durable imprint on Roman religion, architecture, and society. Their social structure was complex, with evidence of significant roles for women, and their art and culture were rich with religious symbolism.

A Tale of Two Origins: Myth and Modern Inquiry

According to ancient lore, the Etruscans were the descendants of the mysterious Lydians, as narrated by Herodotus. He recounts a myth where the Lydians, under King Tyrrhenus, left their famine-stricken lands in Asia Minor, sailing westward to find a new home in Italy. This narrative has long colored the perceptions of the Etruscan origin, casting them as an exotic people with an eastern heritage.

Maximum extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an ancient Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, provided a contrasting viewpoint to the prevailing theories of his time concerning the origins of the Etruscans. In his work "Roman Antiquities," Dionysius presented a strong argument in favor of the Etruscans being autochthonous, meaning originating from the land itself, in this case, the Italian Peninsula. He contested the then-popular belief, as recounted by Herodotus, that the Etruscans were of Lydian descent.

Dionysius' opinion was rooted in several observations: the uniqueness of the Etruscan language, which did not resemble any other known tongues; the distinctive nature of their customs and laws; and the lack of any migration stories in their own historical records, which he presumed would exist if they had migrated from Asia Minor. He critiqued Herodotus' account as being based on mythical tales rather than concrete evidence. Moreover, Dionysius argued that the Etruscans shared physical characteristics with the indigenous peoples of the region, further supporting his autochthonous theory.

He went to considerable lengths to refute the Lydian origin theory, appealing to logical arguments and existing knowledge about the Etruscans and their culture. This stance by Dionysius of Halicarnassus has been one that modern archaeology and genetics have, to some extent, corroborated, showing a continuity of the Etruscan lineage within Italy and challenging the once widely accepted tale of their foreign origins.

Genetic studies suggest that the Etruscans were local to the Italian peninsula, with their DNA showing continuity with Neolithic farmers. This indigenous development theory is further supported by archaeological evidence, which indicates a gradual evolution of Etruscan culture from the earlier Villanovan civilization.

The Cippus Perusinus, a stone tablet bearing 46 lines of incised Etruscan text, one of the longest extant Etruscan inscriptions. 3rd or 2nd century BC.

A Historical Overview of Etruscan Language Theories

The Etruscan language, originating from the ancient Etruscan civilization within the regions of Etruria, Etruria Padana, and Etruria Campana in what is now Italy, has left a legacy of approximately 13,000 inscriptions dating from 700 BC to AD 50. Although most inscriptions are brief, there are some longer and bilingual texts, suggesting that while Etruscan influenced Latin, it was eventually replaced by it. Linguists and Etruscologists generally agree that Etruscan was a pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language related to the Raetic and Lemnian languages.

Inscriptions reveal the geographic spread of the Etruscan language across Italy and beyond. The consensus is that Etruscan was related to Raetic and Lemnian, forming part of the Tyrsenian language family, which predates Indo-European languages in southern Europe. Recent archeogenetic analysis supports the autochthonous nature of the Etruscans, genetically similar to the Early Iron Age Latins.

Historically, various theories have attempted to classify the Etruscan language, ranging from Indo-European to Semitic connections, most of which have been dismissed in favor of its status as a non-Indo-European and Paleo-European language.

Throughout history, numerous theories have been posited regarding the origins and classification of the Etruscan language, many of which have been deemed speculative or unfounded. The general scholarly consensus is that Etruscan, part of the Tyrsenian language family, is neither Indo-European nor Semitic but rather a pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language, closely related to Raetic and Lemnian.

One hypothesis considered Etruscan as part of a Paleo-European "Aegean" language family, alongside Minoan and Eteocretan, with potential ties to pre-Indo-European Anatolian languages. However, this connection has been largely dismissed.

The Anatolian Indo-European hypothesis, which suggested a relationship between Etruscan and the languages of Anatolia, such as Luwian, has been influenced by Herodotus' account of the Lydian origins of the Etruscans. Despite these theories and attempts to link Etruscan to Anatolian Indo-European languages or propose that the Etruscans brought the alphabet from Anatolia, scholarly evidence has not supported these claims.

Other fringe theories have ranged from Etruscan's origins being connected to Aramaic, Semitic languages, Armenian, Albanian, Uralic languages, and even Altaic languages. These theories have included suggestions of genetic relationships with Hungarian and connections with Northeast Caucasian languages. Such theories, including those positing that the Etruscan language influenced Hungarian, have been largely rejected by specialists in Etruscan, Finno-Ugric, and historical linguistics.

While there have been many attempts to classify Etruscan within various language families, the prevailing view among experts is that it shares kinship only with the Raetic and Lemnian languages and is an indigenous language of the Italian peninsula with no proven connection to the major language families of Indo-European or Semitic origins.

The Capua Tile, one of the longest Etruscan inscriptions, possibly 5th C BC. Image from Wikipedia.

The Etruscan language, a beacon of a civilization that influenced the course of Western history, still poses significant questions. Its alphabet, a product of cultural exchange with the Greeks, reveals the interconnectedness of ancient societies. The identity of the Etruscans, entangled with myth and history, reflects the complex narratives that ancient civilizations left behind. Whether as travelers from distant lands or children of the Italian soil, their legacy continues to captivate scholars and enthusiasts alike, a testament to the enduring allure of the ancient world.

Liqian: A city founded in China by Roman legionaries?

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EDITOR GROUP

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Did Roman Legionaries Find a City in China?

In the annals of history, tales of lost legions and ancient encounters between disparate civilizations have always captured the imagination. The city of Liqian in China stands as a testament to such a captivating historical mystery—could it have been founded by Roman legionaries, remnants of a once-mighty army lost to the annals of the East?

The monument that graces Liqian depicts a Chinese and a Roman figure in mutual greeting, a symbolic representation of a tale that intertwines the fates of the Roman and Chinese empires. This beguiling narrative finds its roots in the aftermath of the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, where the Romans suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of the Parthians. Ancient chroniclers like Pliny and Horace recount the tale of a captured legion, condemned to toil in the mines of Margiana or to serve as human bulwarks along the distant borders.

Source: Antiokhos in the East

Yet, it is a Chinese chronicle penned twenty years later that fuels this enduring legend, describing foes with combat formations echoing the Roman testudo—a tactical formation resembling a tortoise shell. Could these have been the Roman soldiers, somehow integrating into the fabric of Chinese military might?

The plot thickens with linguistic intrigue. 'Liqian' was once a name used by the Chinese to refer to Rome or the Hellenistic cities before adopting the term 'Daqin.' Some posit that 'Liqian' could be a linguistic corruption of 'Alexandria,' suggesting a deeper Hellenic connection.

Despite the romanticism of such theories, empirical evidence remains elusive. Archaeological excavations in Liqian have yet to yield any artifacts that betray a Mediterranean heritage. The famed testudo formation could have been adopted by another, non-Roman force, effectively dismantling the basis for asserting a Roman presence.

Skeptics argue that the notion of Roman origins may be a modern contrivance, an inventive ploy to stimulate tourism through the erection of commemorative monuments and the weaving of alluring legends. Thus, the enigmatic origins of Liqian remain shrouded in myth, a confluence of historical coincidence and creative interpretation rather than substantiated fact.

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As it stands, the story of Liqian is a patchwork of ancient texts and modern desires, a reflection of our yearning to connect dots across time and space. Until incontrovertible evidence comes to light, the legend of the Roman legionaries in China remains just that—a legend, as ephemeral and intriguing as history itself.

Ancient Pompeii's Political Clientelism: Electoral Inscriptions Shed Light on Aulus Rustius Verus

Pompeii, a city frozen in time by the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, continues to astonish archaeologists with its remarkable discoveries. Recently, the ancient equivalent of today's electoral posters and pamphlets, electoral inscriptions, were unearthed in a surprising location—inside a house on the Via di Nola, a central area of ancient Pompeii.

These inscriptions provide valuable insights into the political landscape of ancient Rome, revealing the prevalence of clientelism and its intricate ties to bread and public service.

The Surprising Location of Electoral Inscriptions

Traditionally, electoral inscriptions were displayed on the exterior facades of buildings, allowing citizens to read the names and qualifications of candidates vying for city magistracies. However, the recent discovery inside a house has puzzled archaeologists. According to experts, the practice of organizing events and dinners within the homes of candidates and their friends was common in ancient Rome to promote electoral campaigns. This context explains the presence of electoral propaganda within the house.

Aulus Rustius Verus: Aspiring Aedile

Among the discovered inscriptions, one stood out—the endorsement of Aulus Rustius Verus, a candidate for the position of aedile. Aediles was responsible for maintaining public buildings and regulating public festivals, typically held by young men aspiring to higher political office. Aulus Rustius Verus was not an unfamiliar name in Pompeii, having held the highest public office in the city in the 1st century AD.

Political Clientelism and Bread

One intriguing aspect of the discovery is the presence of a bakery with a large oven within the house. Near this bakery, the bodies of three victims—two women and a child—were found, victims of the attic collapse during the eruption. This combination of a bakery and electoral inscriptions sheds light on the ancient practice of political clientelism.

Maria Chiara Scappathiccio, a professor of Latin at the Federico II University of Naples and co-author of the study on these findings, explained that councilors and bakers "collaborated to the limits of legality" in ancient Rome. Aulus Rustius Verus, during his electoral campaign, seemingly recognized the importance of providing voters with bread.

This connection is reinforced by the discovery of the candidate's initials, ARV, on a volcanic stone millstone within the house, suggesting direct financing of the bakery by Aulus Rustius Verus for both economic and political purposes.

Rituals and Offerings

In addition to the electoral inscriptions, researchers found the remains of a last votive offering on the altar of the Lararium within the house. This ritual, likely performed shortly before the eruption, involved offering figs and dates that were burned in front of the altar. The rite was concluded by placing a whole egg directly on the masonry altar, which was then covered with a tile.

Previous offerings included vine fruits, fish, and mammal meat, providing a glimpse into the religious practices of the residents.

The recent discovery of electoral inscriptions inside a house in ancient Pompeii has provided fascinating insights into the world of ancient Roman politics. The presence of Aulus Rustius Verus's endorsements, the connection between political clientelism and a bakery, and the rituals at the Lararium all contribute to a richer understanding of life in Pompeii before its tragic end. These findings continue to underscore the enduring fascination of this remarkable archaeological site and its ability to shed light on the intricacies of daily life in the ancient world.

The Insane Logistics of a Roman Army on the March - 24 Hour Simulation 3D DOCUMENTARY

Unraveling the Intricate Logistics of the Roman Army

The Roman Empire is renowned for its military prowess and conquests, but behind the grandeur of their legions lies a complex web of logistical challenges. In a captivating 3D documentary titled "The Insane Logistics of a Roman Army on the March," we gain insight into the meticulous planning and coordination required for a 24-hour march of 50,000 Roman soldiers.

This immersive experience not only showcases the impressive mobility and endurance of the Roman army but also highlights the indispensable role of logistics in their success.

The documentary opens by emphasizing the formidable logistical challenges faced by Roman armies. The 24-hour march simulation vividly illustrates the need for strategic coordination when managing a colossal force like the Roman legions.

Acknowledging the inherent limitations in reconstructing the Roman Army, the video credits various authors and sources. It reveals a critical piece of information: the maximum distance an army can cover in a day is approximately 65 km at a regular pace and 75 km at a quick pace. These figures are based on meticulous calculations and a daylight chart for a Mediterranean latitude during campaign seasons.

Roman armies on the move had to meticulously plan logistics and employ innovative strategies. They would divide into smaller groups to handle various tasks efficiently. This approach aimed to avoid traffic jams and optimize their time on the march.

The documentary then unfolds the march of the Roman Army, spanning an astonishing 25 km. The army commences its journey in the pre-dawn hours, with reconnaissance forces and a vanguard prepared to surmount any obstacles that lie ahead.

The Roman army is a well-oiled machine with a highly organized formation. While support staff and gear remain behind, infantry and cavalry extend in a long column. The baggage train, though crucial, could potentially cause delays.

The Roman Army on the march is a massive operation that extends 25 km. It comprises various specialized groups, including the Rear Guard and Flank Guard, tasked with protecting the army and its precious baggage train. Although the planned distance is 20 km, it would take a marathon runner a staggering 1 hour and 12 minutes to cover the entire length.

The documentary highlights the efficiency of the Roman army in setting up camp, foraging for supplies, completing chores, and marching toward their objective. This underlines the monumental importance of logistics and road-building in ancient Rome.

As we delve into the intricacies of the Roman Army's logistics through this 3D documentary, we gain a profound appreciation for the meticulous planning and coordination that underpinned their military successes. From the sprawling march formations to the careful orchestration of support staff, every aspect of logistics played a crucial role in the Roman Empire's dominance. This immersive experience provides a window into the awe-inspiring capabilities of one of history's most formidable military forces, reminding us of the critical role logistics plays in any great endeavor.

The Vibrant Panel from the Tomb of the Dancers: A Testament to Ancient Artistry and Cultural Exchange

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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At the heart of Ruvo di Puglia, an Italian town in the metropolitan city of Bari in Puglia, a discovery from circa 400–350 BC continues to dazzle the world with its vibrancy and evocative representation of ancient life and merriment. The famed panel from the Tomb of the Dancers provides not just an unparalleled glimpse into antiquity but also serves as a bridge connecting the artistic traditions of the ancient Greeks and Etruscans.

Delving Deeper into the Tomb of the Dancers

The Tomb of the Dancers is a paramount example of the cultural and artistic effervescence of the 4th century BC. The tomb is an underground chamber tomb, a type commonly associated with the Peucetians, an ancient Italic people. Its unique frescoes have illuminated our understanding of Italic funerary practices and beliefs, suggesting a synthesis of indigenous traditions and Hellenic influences.

The dancers, adorned in typical ancient attire, move harmoniously across the chamber walls, inviting speculation about their societal roles and the nature of the depicted ceremony. Intriguingly, the frescoes also showcase a series of birds, hinting at possible ornithological symbolism or beliefs in the soul's transcendence. The Tomb of the Dancers isn’t just a mausoleum; it's a narrative canvas, telling tales of an era where death, life, art, and spirituality wove together into a tapestry of shared human experience.

Colors of Antiquity

The first thing that captures an observer's attention when examining the panel is the sheer brilliance and preservation of its colors. Deep reds, yellows, and blues interspersed with earthy browns and gentle hues of white tell the story of an ancient palette that was both rich and varied. The hues have been extracted from nature—mineral pigments, plants, and other organic sources—reflecting the ancients’ profound understanding of natural resources.

Movement and Life

The name "Tomb of the Dancers" is no accident. The panel portrays a dynamic scene of dancers reveling in the throes of a celebration or perhaps a ritual. The way the figures are rendered, with limbs stretched out and garments flowing, gives a tangible sense of movement. You can almost hear the music to which these ancient figures danced.

Individuality and Expression

Unlike some ancient art, where figures can appear standardized or even stolid, the Tomb of the Dancers captures the essence of individuality. Each dancer possesses a unique posture, facial expression, and even hairstyle. This not only serves as a testament to the artist's acute observational skills but also offers insights into the diversity and individual expression cherished in ancient societies.

Greek Influences and the Evolution of Roman Artistry

The artistic style and motifs found in the Tomb of the Dancers have their roots in the Greek tradition. The ancient Greeks were pioneers in many art forms, from sculpture to painting, and they celebrated human form, movement, and emotion. This Greek aesthetic had a profound influence on the regions they interacted with, including the Italian peninsula.

The Hellenistic period, emerging after the conquests of Alexander the Great and lasting from the 4th to the 1st century BC, was characterized by a remarkable spread and fusion of Greek culture across the known world. Hellenistic paintings, in particular, broke from the idealism of the Classical era, opting for more emotional intensity, intricate details, and realism. These artworks depicted daily life, landscapes, and even still lives, revealing a broader spectrum of human experience. As the Roman Republic expanded and came into close contact with Hellenistic kingdoms, they were deeply influenced by this artistic evolution.

Banquet scene from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, 4th century BC.

Three main qualities unique to Hellenistic painting style were three-dimensional perspective, the use of light and shade to render form, and trompe-l'œil realism.

Roman frescoes, often found in the luxurious villas of Pompeii and Herculaneum, bore the marks of this Hellenistic inspiration. They adopted the rich color palettes, depth, and perspective techniques and were notably influenced by the genre scenes, landscapes, and portraiture of Hellenistic art. In essence, through their vast conquests and subsequent cultural assimilations, the Romans became the torchbearers of Hellenistic art, refining it and making it an integral part of their architectural and artistic narrative.

However, as the Etruscan and later Roman civilizations began to rise and assimilate various cultures and their artistic traditions, a synthesis occurred. While the Romans drew heavily from the Greeks, they added their own touch, emphasizing particular themes, subjects, and techniques. The frescoes in Roman villas and public buildings are classic examples of this blended tradition.

The fresco technique, where paint is applied on wet plaster, was employed by both Greeks and Romans, making it a shared tradition that spanned centuries and evolved stylistic nuances. The Tomb of the Dancers, while predating the zenith of Roman art, can be seen as part of this continuum, where the artistic baton passed from the Greeks to the Romans.

The vibrant panel from the Tomb of the Dancers stands as a monument to the artistry of ancient civilizations and their interconnected histories. It serves as a brilliant reminder that art is not just a reflection of the time in which it was created but also a window into the cultural exchanges, innovations, and shared human experiences of epochs past. The connections between Greek and Italic paintings and fresco history, exemplified in masterpieces like this, underline the intertwined nature of their civilizations and their lasting impact on the art world.

The Buried City: Pompeii and the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The City that Time Forgot: Pompeii and the Eruption of AD 79

Before the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, the ancient Roman city of Pompeii was one of the most prosperous and thriving cities of its time. The eruption preserved the city for centuries, and excavations in the 18th century revealed its well-preserved buildings, frescoes, and artifacts, giving a rare glimpse into ancient Roman life.

The Roman city of Pompeii was in Campania, Italy, close to present-day Naples. The city's population was somewhere in the vicinity of 20,000. The city's luxurious villas and mansions complemented the city's public structures, which included a theater, an amphitheater, and a forum.

When Mount Vesuvius erupted in AD 79, it buried the city in a thick layer of ash and pumice, which miraculously preserved the city and its inhabitants. The ash and pumice crusted over to form a barrier that kept the city's structures and artifacts safe from further damage.

Excavations began in the 18th century, revealing many of the city's buildings, frescoes, and artifacts thanks to their excellent preservation. The city's artistic and cultural treasures were unearthed during the excavations. The city's mosaics and frescoes, which have been preserved remarkably well, offered a glimpse into the lives of its residents. The city's public buildings, including the theater, amphitheater, and forum, were uncovered during the excavations as well.

The homes and villas of Pompeii also revealed fascinating information about the inhabitants' daily lives. Many of the homes sported mosaics and frescoes that betrayed the owners' social standing and financial well-being. Many artifacts, including furniture, tools, and ceramics, were discovered in the homes, giving researchers a glimpse into the daily lives of the Pompeian residents.

Pompeii, one of the world's most significant archaeological sites, has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Millions of tourists flock there every year because of its high profile. To this day, the art, architecture, and daily life of ancient Rome that were uncovered in the excavations of Pompeii continue to fascinate and inspire people from all walks of life.

In sum, Pompeii offers an extraordinary window into the lives of the ancient Romans. Excavations dating back to the 18th century have revealed a city that was rich in art, architecture, and culture before it was buried by the ash and debris of Mount Vesuvius's eruption in AD 79 and lost to history for centuries. Pompeii is a major tourist destination and a must-see destination for anyone interested in ancient Roman history, and the excavations have provided valuable insights into the daily lives of the people of Pompeii.

The Roman Mosaic that was Found in Ancient Slave Monster’s Villa

Researchers have discovered an antique Roman mosaic that formerly adorned the residence of the dreadful tyrant Publius Vedius Pollio at a luxurious coastal mansion in Posillipo, close to Naples. Legend has it that Pollio, who is remembered for his heinous treatment of slaves, even fed his workers parasitic worms.

Pauslypon, which translates to "respite from concern," is a posh residential area in the Naples hills. Ancient Greek and Roman texts claim that wealthy Roman families during the Roman era were drawn to the coastline of Campania, much as today's residents of Los Angeles are drawn to beachside houses along the coast of Malibu.

The 770-meter (2526-foot)-long "Grotta Seiano" tunnel, which was initially dug during the Roman era, is the only way to get to Posillipo. A collection of historic Roman buildings facing the sea make up the Pausilypon Archaeological-Environmental Park, which is based on Vedius Pollio's main mansion, one of history's most dreadful dictators. Researchers discovered a unique mosaic floor from the villa's initial building at this old villa.

This location, also referred to as the Imperial Villa, is located on a rocky promontory at the far end of the Bay of Naples. An Odeon offered smaller performances and also a 2000-seat mega-theatre for major nights. Moreover, a bath complex and a Nymphaeum shrine dedicated to water nymphs made sure that the city's privileged citizens and visitors enjoyed the pinnacle of luxury.

In a recent news release, archaeologists from the University of Naples L'Orientale stated that the mosaic was found in a living room with a view of the sea in Naples. "Tiny white pieces of tesserae with a double black framing" were used to create the floor covering. The term "tesserae" refers to any tiny piece of stone, glass, or ceramic in ancient Roman mosaic art.

The mosaic's excavation was overseen by Professor Marco Giglio of the L'Orientale University of Naples, who noted that while stratigraphic dating was impossible, the mosaic's design suggested that it may have originated during "the late Republican age or Augustan at the latest." The relic may not be outstanding, but its setting is arguably of the utmost significance.

The mosaic is thought to have been buried beneath remodeling projects that Emperor Augustus ordered following Vedius's passing. We must first study a little about the dreadful deeds of Publius Vedius Pollio in order to comprehend why a Roman emperor spent money at a soldier's opulent resort.

According to an article in Heritage Daily, Pollio became well-known in the first century BC not only for his opulent tastes but also for his "cruelty to slaves." The fact that this affluent Roman cavalier was born into a family of freed slaves makes Pollio's horrendous treatment of his fellow humans, in this case slaves, all the more repulsive.

Hearing about the details of his particularly heinous treatment of slaves makes Pollio seem to have been a traitor of the highest and most vile sort. Yet Pollio wasn't only interested in "regular" torture; according to history, he also had a fetish for intense agony and horror.

The incident that occurred when Augustus himself visited the opulent mansion in the Bay of Naples is arguably the most illustrative of Pollio's diabolical methods. A slave carrying a cup stumbled while serving dinner and broke a crystal glass. Pollio ordered the man to be thrown into a well with parasitic lamprey worms as punishment for his small infraction. But this time, the slave begged Augustus for pity.

The emperor gave the order to destroy all of Publius Vedius Pollio's most valuable glasses because he was so dissatisfied with how Pollio had assessed and treated the slave. Furthermore, he gave the order to fill the eel pool.

Vedius Pollio was so ashamed of himself that he left Augustus his entire fortune in 15 BC when he passed away. All Roman emperors up until Hadrian in 138 AD had control over it as an imperial possession. So, the mosaic provides yet another window into the extravagant wealth of a very repulsive man who fed parasitic human beings.

Roman Castra - How Legionaries Built and Lived in their Fortresses

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THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Fortress Construction and Life in the Imperial Period

The Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and martial prowess, were not only formidable warriors but also adept builders. During the Imperial Period (27 BC – 476 AD), the expanding boundaries of the Roman Empire necessitated the establishment of fortified bases across diverse terrains. These fortresses served as vital hubs for military, administrative, and logistical operations. Understanding how legionaries built and lived in these fortresses offers a glimpse into the Roman military's daily life and the Empire's broader strategic objectives.

Construction of the Fortress

1. Site Selection: Ideally, the Romans selected sites that offered natural defenses, like hills or river bends, while also ensuring proximity to vital transportation routes.

2. Standardized Layout: Roman military forts, known as "castra", typically followed a standardized rectangular plan. The size could vary based on the intended number of troops, but the general design remained consistent.

3. Fortifications: Walls, usually constructed initially from turf or wood and later replaced with stone, encircled the fortress. These walls were further reinforced by towers and a V-shaped ditch known as a fossa.

4. Interior Structures: Inside the fortress, roads were laid in a grid pattern, with the main road, the via praetoria, leading to the main entrance. Essential buildings included the principia (headquarters), horrea (granaries), valetudinarium (hospital), and barracks for the legionaries. There were also workshops, bathhouses, and temples.

5. Speed and Efficiency: Owing to their training and experience, legionaries could construct a basic fort in a matter of days, making it possible to establish a secure base even during active campaigns.

Life Within the Fortress Walls

1. Daily Routine: The life of a Roman soldier was highly regimented. Days began with the sounding of a bugle, followed by morning drills, weapon training, and other duties. Soldiers also engaged in construction projects, road building, and maintenance tasks.

2. Diet: Legionaries consumed a diet primarily consisting of wheat or barley, which they often made into porridge or bread. They also ate lentils, beans, vegetables, and occasionally meat. The horrea, or granaries, played a crucial role, ensuring that legions had a steady supply of grains.

3. Recreation: While their lives were rigorous, soldiers did have moments of leisure. They visited bathhouses, engaged in gambling or board games, and sometimes attended performances in makeshift theaters within the fort.

4. Religious Life: The Romans were deeply religious, and this extended to their military life. Temples within the fortress were dedicated to various deities, including the god of war, Mars, and the Imperial cult. Rituals and sacrifices were an integral part of the legionaries' lives.

5. Cohesion and Morale: The fortresses were not just military bases; they were tight-knit communities. The sense of brotherhood among the soldiers, combined with a rigorous daily routine and shared responsibilities, fostered unit cohesion and high morale.

Conclusion

The Roman legions' fortresses were marvels of strategic design, engineering prowess, and organizational skill. They were not just impenetrable strongholds but also thriving microcosms of Roman society. By delving into the intricacies of their construction and daily life, one gains a deeper appreciation for the legionaries' adaptability and the Roman Empire's expansive infrastructure.

The Hidden Veins of Roman empire: The Underground Aqueducts

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Approximately 80% of the total length of Rome's aqueducts ran underground. Long after the prospect of invasion made underground structures necessary, they were still preferred. This was due to several advantages they had over surface structures.

The magnificent Colosseum, majestic arches, and vast roadways frequently spring to mind when thinking about the technical achievements of the Roman Empire. Yet, an elaborate network of above- and below-ground aqueducts connected these monumental emblems and ensured the development and vitality of towns from Rome to the far-off provinces. These aqueducts were not merely works of art; they were also the lifeblood that kept the massive Roman Empire alive.

Origins of the Underground Aqueducts

The Romans were unparalleled urban planners and architects, recognizing early on the importance of a reliable and clean water supply for a sprawling city. While the first aqueducts, like the Aqua Appia built in 312 BC, were primarily underground, it's the monumental above-ground arches that usually capture our imagination. But as the city grew and the demand for water increased, a vast underground network was developed to meet the needs of Rome's populace.

Engineering Prowess and Precision

Building an aqueduct wasn't a simple task. It demanded impeccable planning, an understanding of the terrain, and precision in execution. The Romans employed the force of gravity, ensuring that aqueducts, whether running on majestic arches above valleys or channeled deep underground, maintained a gentle gradient to ensure the water's continuous flow.

To protect the water's purity and the structures themselves, aqueducts were often lined with a special water-resistant mortar known as "opus signinum." This foresight ensured the water's purity and the structures longevity, which few other ancient constructions could match.

 Samuel Bailey / Wikipedia

The Significance and Purpose

The rationale behind the underground design wasn't purely functional; it was also strategic. By placing aqueducts underground, they were less vulnerable to enemy attacks and natural disasters. Moreover, underground channels minimized water loss from evaporation, ensuring a more reliable supply, especially during the scorching Roman summers.

This hidden network wasn't just about water supply. It was about the equitable distribution of water throughout the city. From the grand public baths and fountains to individual households of both the elite and the commoner, the underground aqueducts democratized access to one of the most vital resources.

Beyond Rome: Spanning an Empire

While the city of Rome boasted impressive aqueducts like the Aqua Claudia and Aqua Marcia, the aqueduct system was not confined to the capital. Major cities throughout the empire, from Segovia in Spain to Ephesus in modern-day Turkey, benefited from this Roman ingenuity. In these regions, aqueducts not only supplied water but also symbolized the empire's might and the benefits of Roman governance.

Social and Cultural Impacts

More than functional utilities, the aqueducts represented Roman societal values and priorities. They provided water for public baths, a hub of Roman social and cultural life, and large latrines that enhanced sanitation. The consistent flow of water facilitated urban living, ensuring cities remained vibrant centers of commerce, governance, and entertainment.

Furthermore, the public fountains, fed by these aqueducts, became symbols of generosity for benefactors and emperors. By ensuring equitable access to clean water, the Roman state reinforced its commitment to the welfare of its citizens.

Legacy and Continuation

Much of the Roman aqueduct system fell into disrepair with the empire's decline. However, their remnants stand as a testament to Roman engineering and the empire's expansive reach. Some sections, like the Aqua Virgo in Rome, still function today, serving both as historical landmarks and functional water sources.

Rediscovery and Recognition

While the remnants of above-ground aqueducts are visible reminders of Roman ingenuity, the subterranean aqueducts remained largely hidden and forgotten until modern times. Recent urban projects and archaeological excavations have brought parts of this intricate system to light, reminding us of the feats of Roman engineering.

Some sections of the underground aqueducts, like those of Aqua Virgo, remain functional today, feeding iconic fountains like the Trevi Fountain. This continuity of use over millennia is a testament to their robust and sophisticated design.

Roman aqueducts, which span continents and centuries, are enduring representations of the empire's size and forward-thinking approach to urban design. We are reminded of a civilization that, at its pinnacle, combined form and function to create a world in which cities could not only exist but also thrive as we stroll beneath the shadow of aqueduct arches or gaze in awe at the fountains they fed.

A Portable Sundial Adorns the Archaeological Museum of Philippi in Greece

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Ingenious Portable Sundial: A Testament to Hellenistic Innovation

In the heart of Macedonia, where history and archaeology intertwine, lies a hidden gem within the Archaeological Museum of Philippi: a portable sundial that takes us on a journey through time. Dating back to the period between 250 and 350 AD, this remarkable artifact offers a glimpse into the ancient world's fascination with measuring time, latitude, and the celestial heavens. Let us embark on a historical voyage to discover the secrets of this ingenious invention and its significance within the context of Hellenistic traditions.

The Portable Sundial's Unique Design

This portable sundial is unlike any other timekeeping device of its era. Comprising three interconnected flattened rings, it bears a striking resemblance to a spherical astrolabe. The beauty of this design lies in its versatility. Each of the three rings can be independently rotated a full 360 degrees, allowing for precise time measurements and astronomical observations.

Archaeological site of Philippi

On the outer curved side of the central ring, the names and latitudes of various cities are meticulously engraved in two half-rings. From Rome (ΡωΜΗC) to Alexandria (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΕΙΑC) and from Athens (ΑΘΗΝΑΙ) to Rhodes (ΡΟΔΟΥ), these inscriptions serve as geographical markers, facilitating latitude calculations.

Further enhancing its functionality, the sundial features month names engraved on both sides of the ring's thickness. These month inscriptions correspond to each city, with one side displaying January to June and the other July to December. This ingenious design allowed users to account for variations in daylight hours throughout the year, enabling more accurate timekeeping.

The innermost ring, found on the outer curved surface, contains a central optometric hole. This feature played a crucial role in determining the azimuth and altitude of celestial bodies, particularly the sun and stars. The inner domed side of this ring is divided into 12 sections by intricate engravings, enabling users to measure time with remarkable precision.

The Multifaceted Utility

This portable sundial is truly a marvel of ancient engineering. Its multifaceted utility is a testament to the ingenuity of the Hellenistic tradition. Beyond measuring time, this remarkable artifact allowed users to determine approximate latitude, chart the path of the sun or other celestial objects, and make calculations crucial for navigation and astronomy.

The Influence of Hellenistic Tradition

The roots of this portable sundial can be traced back to the Hellenistic tradition, a period marked by remarkable scientific and cultural achievements. However, it's important to note that the Byzantines, who succeeded the Hellenistic era, continued to cultivate these innovations under the influence of both Christianity and the Roman world. This blending of knowledge and ideas from different civilizations contributed to the refinement and development of devices like the portable sundial.

Visiting the Archaeological Museum of Philippi

For those fortunate enough to visit the Archaeological Museum of Philippi, this remarkable artifact is showcased among a wealth of historical treasures. On the first floor, visitors can explore archaeological and historical materials from the prehistoric settlement of Dikili Tash, as well as artifacts from the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The second floor offers a journey through the Christian city's history, from its early Christian prosperity to its eventual decline after the Ottoman conquest in the late 14th century.

The portable sundial from the period 250–350 AD, on display at the Archaeological Museum of Philippi, stands as a testament to the remarkable innovations of the Hellenistic tradition. Its intricate design and multifaceted utility speak volumes about the thirst for knowledge and precision that permeated the ancient world. As we marvel at this ancient timekeeping device, we are reminded of the enduring legacy of human curiosity and ingenuity that transcends the boundaries of time and place.

The square where Julius Caesar was assassinated is now open to the public

The Curia of Pompey, where Caesar was fatally wounded on the Ides of March, is still standing in this plaza. It served as a senators' gathering place.

Tuesday marked the official opening of a historic square where historians think Julius Caesar was fatally stabbed in one of history's most notorious killings.

A lowered boardwalk now allows visitors to get a close-up view of the Holy Area of Largo Argentina, which is home to the ruins of four ancient temples in a busy area of downtown Rome, for 5 euros ($5.50).

Moreover, the location is home to the ruins of the Curia of Pompey, where Caesar is thought to have been stabbed to death on March 15 (the Ides of March) in 44 B.C.

The location had been occupied by buildings since antiquity, and it wasn't until 1926 when those structures were torn down that it was rediscovered. Mussolini inaugurated it as a significant historical landmark three years later.

The numerous archaeological finds made at the location throughout the years are also documented in two new exhibition rooms.

Early in the third century, work began on what is known as Temple C, a building of significance on the site that was apparently erected in honor of the Roman goddess Feronia.

Most of the earlier structures were destroyed by fire in 111 B.C. and 80 A.D., and their remnants were buried beneath a new floor constructed in the first century by the emperor Domitian.

Even if its specifics and broader ramifications are still being discussed, Caesar's death has persisted in Western culture as one of the most seismic political events in history.

There is agreement that Brutus and a number of Roman senators had grown worried about Caesar's growing strength and influence as well as his undermining of the Republic.

Caesar's murder, however, sparked a period of retaliation and civil war that claimed thousands of lives and effectively ended the Republic. In 27 B.C., Octavian, who had been named as his successor and was then known as Augustus, his adopted 18-year-old son, became what is recognized as Rome's first emperor.

Many significant sites have not yet been investigated, and thousands of artifacts have been discovered that have never been displayed in public due to Italy's immense abundance of archaeological treasures.

As additional artifacts are discovered, historians' understanding of ancient Rome continues to change. In May, archaeologists described how people were killed in an earthquake brought on by the massive eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79. In April, a new study shed light on the usage of Roman vineyards in theatrical rituals.

Early traces of the world-famous foie gras in the land of ancient Egypt

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by Giorgio Pintzas Monzani

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Criticized by many for its production processes, hated by many for its peculiar flavor, and considered by many to be the most prized and delicious food there is: foie gras, it always brings with it ranks of supporters and opponents to every banquet it comes to.

Associated with French cuisine, and historically linked (mistakenly) to Gallic origins and the opulent eras of kings and palaces, foie gras actually traverses human history back millennia, and finds its origins in the Nile swamps, a land of legends, myths, and fascinating stories.

The reality is that the error in attributing the birth of this dish is made by even the most passionate foodies, as it is a paternity that Egypt has never pushed so hard to claim.

Thus, it remains a common mistake, but one that for the most curious must be analyzed historically.

Why does it originate specifically in Egypt?

How and who subsequently imports it into Europe?

How did it come to be famous within "cuisine francaise"?

The civilization of ancient Egypt, throughout its millennia of history, has always been a nucleus of innovation in every sphere, laying the foundation for the great European and African civilizations that flourished later.

Even from the point of view of food preparation and storage, some of the inventions that occurred on the banks of the Nile are still considered innovative and in our case even progenitors of the world of gourmet cuisine.

As introduced earlier, the process of foie gras preparation was first used by the farmers of ancient Egypt, and more specifically by those in the marshy areas of the Nile delta.

Birth unrelated to the world of food

Why this process was started on the animal in order to obtain a fatter liver still divides some historians today.

In addition to the goal of producing a food that was pleasing to the taste, in fact, the Egyptians used the liver of geese, ducks and other animals to produce the first candles known to man as early as around 3,000 b.c.e. by coating dried reed reeds with animal fat.

As for the food, on the other hand, there is evidence of its preparation dating to around 2,500 b.c.e., this thanks to frescoes found in the necropolis at Memphis.

Of course, there are no dates and certainties related to which practice was first implemented, although it is believed that the use of the candle originated first: thus assuming that after using a fatty liver as fuel to illuminate the dark desert nights, man tasted this extraordinary and original product for the palates of the time.

Pharaonic banquets

We have seen how foie gras originated in Egypt, thanks to the numerous presence of these animals in the paludal areas of the Nile and the craftsmanship of Egyptian artisans, despite which it cannot be described as a food on the tables of all inhabitants.

The labor commitment and cost of preparing foie gras was high from the very beginning, causing it to be presented as a niche product from the very beginning.

So if we could go back in time and conduct a documentary on the food of ancient Egypt, we would not find goose or duck liver pâté in the tables of peasants or merchants, but in the majestic banquets held in the imposing palaces of the pharaohs.

We might, in fact, enjoy ancient foie gras in the company of the priests and nobles of this splendid society.

The journey of foie gras to Europe

After analyzing the birth, the question arises.

How did the food arrive on European soil?

The answer lies behind the journey of the first Greek pharaoh in Egypt's history: Alexander the Great.

As we all know, the Macedonian king arrived on the shores of Egypt during his journey to conquer the then known world.

Alexander's army conquered the land almost peacefully, as the Persian empire (which had ruled the Egyptian lands since 525 b.c.e.) surrendered to the Greek forces, and Philip II's son was welcomed as a liberator, so much so that he was crowned pharaoh in 332 b.c.e.

The globalization brought by the Macedonian empire made cultural exchanges between all the conquered territories even more possible: thus the various culinary customs of the various cultures also came into contact, without collision but leading to the birth and discovery of many ingredients and preparations, including even Egyptian foie gras.

In fact, this increase in food exchange made possible the discovery of the product in the Greek peninsula as well.

The arrival of foie gras in Rome

The fall of the Macedonian empire by the hands of the Roman army, first with its defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 B.C. and later with its annexation to the Roman republic in 148 B.C., indelibly marked the history of Europe.

Although Roman policy toward the Greek territories was filled with contempt and exploitation, the empire's intellectuals and wealthy looked upon Hellenic culture with great admiration and respect, which fostered the "Greekization" of many cultural aspects of the then capital of the world.

The Roman poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus in one of his epistles wrote, "Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit," meaning that the crude and fierce conqueror, subdued the Greeks with arms, but the Greeks with letters and art civilized Rome and the whole of the then empire.

The increase then economic and mercantile exchanges between the two territories, now under the same reign, were fortified and increased exponentially.

It can therefore be assumed that the product whose history we are tracing came into close contact with the Roman empire at this time.

Certainly even earlier Rome was aware of the Greek culinary culture, but as mentioned above, goose fatty liver never represented an everyday food, but rather a whim and glitz of the rich in the palace.

And it is precisely during this period that it may have arrived in the empire's market.

A detail that reinforces this theory of ours, lies behind the figure of Marcus Gavius Apicius, the most important gastronome, cook, and writer that antiquity has ever seen.

An almost mythological figure in fact, given the paucity of information about his personal life, according to many a figure to whom cookbooks written by many different authors are credited, a kind of gastronomic deity.

Apicius' foie gras

Marcus Gavius Apicius, at the turn of the first century B.C. and the first century A.D., created real guidelines on feeding birds in order to obtain the best possible foie gras.

Within the collection "De re coquinaria," a bible of gastronomy considered by many to be the greatest gastronomic work in history, Apicius recounts how to sweeten the wild taste of the liver of these birds, it was necessary to feed the animal with figs.

This technique was so revolutionary that it also left an etymological trail behind it; enough to think that the word "ficatum", which means liver in Latin, takes its root from the very fruit that Marcus Gavio used to create his foie gras, the "ficum."

The arrival of the dish in France

As everyone knows, the Roman Empire extended to a great many territories in central Europe, including present-day France, called Gaul at the time.

Thanks to this rule we finally have the arrival of our protagonist in Gallic, French territory.

It was precisely the magnificent technique of the gastronome Apicius that made foie gras the protagonist at all imperial banquets, in every corner of Roman territory.

But how did it become famous in French cuisine in later years?

The reality is that the dish had a dark period after the fall of the Roman Empire, and the use of goose fat was carried on only by European Jewish families.

Until, during the reign of Louis XIV, cooks throughout the kingdom, seeking to impress the king's overweening and vitiated palate resorted to forgotten recipes that would charm royal banquets.

It was at one of the banquets, probably in the palace of Versailles, that a cook decided to prepare foie gras and have the king taste it: delighted by the delicacy and deliciousness of the dish, he declared it the "food of kings," giving it a second life and making it famous throughout the French palaces.

To mention only that in 1778, the governor of Alsace, had his best foie gras tasted by King Louis XVI, who immediately appreciated it, making a gift of 20 gold coins to the court cook: from there, every cook in the French kingdom studied new recipes to astound their sovereigns, making foie gras the most requested dish by the European aristocracy.

Even today the dish is still associated with wealth, power, and splendor; for as we know, history rarely changes.

Why?

Because after all, we are...what we used to eat.

What is the Phantom Time Hypothesis Theory?

By Katie Serena | Checked By John Kuroski

Original title: Bizarre Phantom Time Hypothesis Theory Says It’s Actually The Year 1720 Because The Early Middle Ages Were Faked

According to the Phantom Time Hypothesis, Charlemagne never existed along with 297 years that were just made up.

In a world where every idea seems divisive, it can help to know there are at least a few things that the world as a whole agrees on. Time, the calendar, and the basic idea that history as we know it happened pretty much like historians say it did are just a few of those things. After all, at the very least we can all agree that the year is 2017, right?

Wrong.

According to German historian Heribert Illig, the year is actually 1720, the Gregorian calendar is a lie, and a chunk of Middle Ages was completely made up.

No, this man is not crazy (at least not officially) and he actually claims to have archeological evidence to support his case.

In 1991, Illig proposed his theory, aptly called the Phantom Time Hypothesis. He claims there was conspiracy entered into back in 1000 AD to change the dating system by three world rulers.

Illig claims that Pope Sylvester II, Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII all got together and changed the calendar to make it seem as if Otto had begun his reign in the millennial year of 1000 AD, rather than 996. The reason being that 1000 sounded a lot more meaningful than 996 considering AD stands for “anno domini,” or, “the year of the Lord.”

Illig further claims that the trio altered existing documents, and created fraudulent historical events and people in order to back themselves up. He claims that Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne was not in fact a real ruler, but simply a King Arthur-type legend. He explains that through all of this tampering and forgery, an extra 297 years were added to history.

Two hundred and ninety-seven years that didn’t actually happen.

Illig says that an inadequate system of dating medieval artifacts, as well as an over-reliance on written history are to blame. According to his research, the years between 614 and 911 AD don’t quite add up. The years prior to 614 were full of historically significant events, as were the years after 911, however, he claims that the ones in between were unusually dull.

He also points out that mathematical discrepancies between the Julian and Gregorian calendars further complicates things. The Julian calendar says that a full year is 365.25 days long, whereas the Gregorian calendar — the one we use now — says it’s actually 11 minutes shorter than that.

Furthermore, Illig claims that Roman architecture in 10th century western Europe is too modern for the time period in which it was supposedly built.

Though his Phantom Time Hypothesis seems far fetched, Illig has actually managed to find some supporters.

Dr. Hans-Ulrich Niemitz published a paper in 1995 titled “Did the Early Middle Ages Really Exist?” in which he claims they did not.

“Between Antiquity (1 AD) and the Renaissance (1500 AD) historians count approximately 300 years too many in their chronology,” Niemitz wrote. “In other words: the Roman emperor Augustus really lived 1700 years ago instead of the conventionally assumed 2000 years.”

Some of Niemitz’s claims echoed Illig’s, such has the discrepancies between the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the lack of reliable historical sources. Though, Neimitz did admit that a counterargument could exist, as the Byzantium and Islamic regions were at war during the period, which was well documented.

Most historians worldwide are critical of the Phantom Time Hypothesis. Countless historians have chosen to argue it have used recorded dates of solar eclipses to do so, along with documented histories from other parts of the world that overlap the “missing” time periods.

Ancient Graffiti: How ancient Greek and Roman tourists left "bad reviews" in this Egyptian tomb

Text-photo: Ray Boone, PorcupineMerchant

“I visited and I did not like anything but the sarcophagus!”

That’s just one of many random scribblings left in the Tomb of Ramesses V & VI in the Valley of the Kings.

This tomb has been open since antiquity, and the evidence of that is everywhere. Ancient tourists left their marks — sometimes in Latin, most often in Greek. Usually they’re down low, but some are up near the ceiling, which obviously suggests there were spots where the sand rose quite high.

Some of the visitors were doctors. Others were philosophers or high-ranking officials. And for the most part, they weren’t only there as sightseers; they came as some sort of pilgrimage, as they believed the tomb to be that of Memnon, a hero in the Trojan War.

Which was obviously not true. Not even a little. But nearby, two giant statues were supposedly of Memnon — partially because of a singing sound they made in the morning. Don’t ask me how that story got started. I mean, I know why, but don’t ask. I’ll have to explain the whole thing, and neither one of us wants that.

Some of the graffiti is poetry, most is the equivalent of “I was here.” Someone would write their name and their occupation, and the most common phrase used was “I admired.” In one case, some dude’s secretary did the carving for him, and he just wrote “I admired” next to it. How lazy do you have to be, that you’re traveling around Egypt with your own personal graffiti artist?

Roman Holiday

It’s a little odd to think of Romans going on these elaborate vacations, but that’s exactly what happened. After all, they weren’t all that different from us. The wealthy ones would sail down to Alexandria, where they could see the famous lighthouse. Then they’d get a peek at the Pyramids, hop on a boat, and cruise down the Nile. Two of the Seven Wonders checked off the list.

Do you think they had some ancient equivalent of guide books? Probably — because all sorts of Romans were stopping at the Colossi of Memnon, which are absolutely covered in graffiti. Even the Emperor Hadrian visited. Then his boyfriend drowned in the Nile. But that’s a different story. Don’t ask. Why are you trying to get me off topic?

So you head down on this exotic Egyptian adventure, checking out all the sights, hanging around some awesome Egyptian festivals and drinking copious amounts of beer. And of course you’d go see those two huge statues and the tombs.

Like I said before, the Colossi of Memnon was a hot ticket item back then. Well, I don’t think there were actual tickets. It’s just an expression. Actually, there aren’t tickets now, either. They just sit by the side of the road.

These statues would “sing” in the morning, which we now think was the result of evaporating dew in the morning. The Romans thought these were of Memnon — they’re actually Amenhotep III — and due to him sharing one of his names with a name inside the tomb we’re talking about, the Romans decided it was the tomb of Memnon.

Now, despite the fact that we’re talking about a time over a thousand years after Ramesses V & VI, I’ve got to think some Egyptians knew the Romans were wrong. So why didn’t they correct them? That’s a good question, and I don’t have an answer. I guess if Romans are coming to your town and throwing money around, you just let them think what they want. Or maybe when an Emperor shows up, you don’t try to correct him. I probably wouldn’t. You just snicker at him behind his back.

Kind of like how I’d do if I met Jeff Bezos and he had some toilet paper stuck to his shoe. Am I going to tell him? No way.

The Entourage

“I, Ammonios, singularis of Italy, saw and admire it.”

With every super important official, there was surely an entourage. Like Bieber. Wait, is that an outdated reference now? Does Bieber still have an entourage?

So this guy named Ammonios wasn’t an official. He wasn’t a super important guy at all. Now, he was important in the military, as he was presumably a guard for an Emperor, but probably not the kind of dude who’d go on a really fancy vacation.

It gives you an idea of who was visiting these tombs. The rich folk, and everyone who came with them. And as I said, they were mostly respectful — well, as respectful as you can get when you’re scratching words into the walls. The bulk of the graffiti is placed in a way that it doesn’t obscure any of the hieroglyphs or other art.

A team from Poland did an extensive survey and found over a thousand instances of ancient graffiti in this tomb. But it’s not all just people writing their names and saying they had a nice time.

“I cannot read the hieroglyphs,” wrote one person.

“Why do you care that you cannot read the hieroglyphs? I do not understand your concern!” wrote someone else, right below it.

It seems that even back then, they had Twitter replies. I can just picture some Roman holding a torch, reading what someone else wrote, and thinking “Jesus Christ, what a moron. You’re looking at all of this awesome shit, and that’s what you’ve got to say?” So he hands his torch over to his buddy, pulls out a knife, and starts scratching a rebuttal.

Well…he probably didn’t say “Jesus Christ.”

Anyway, if you’re ever in Luxor I’d highly recommend visiting this tomb. It’s one of the biggest in the Valley of the Kings, and the colors are still extremely bright. It does require buying an extra ticket, but it’s worth it. You don’t really notice the graffiti unless you’re looking for it. And in case you’re wondering, Ramesses V built part of it, then he died and Ramesses VI finished it. They were both buried here. I guess old Number 6 figured it’d be easier to take over than starting fresh.

And like the spirits of those ancient kings who live on in the afterlife, my plugs for my Instagram @rayoboone will never die. I have some other tomb pictures on there, you’ll just have to scroll down past the Baby Yoda hand sanitizer.

Public Latrines in Ancient Rome

Almost every Roman city had large public latrines, where many people - often 20 or more - could relieve themselves in remarkably opulent settings. This video explores how the use, decoration, and (many) hazards of Rome's latrines.

The Romans were unprecedented in their adoption of toilets. Around the first century bc, public latrines became a major feature of Roman infrastructure, much like bathhouses, says Koloski-Ostrow. And nearly all city dwellers had access to private toilets in their residences.

They were afraid of connecting their houses to the sewers, since they feared what might climb out of a sewer into one's house. They also feared the mephitic gas fires that sometimes burned in sewer holes or in the open seats in public toilets.

Among them was the use of communal toilets, featuring the long benches with small holes cut into them. These benches sat above channels of flowing water, although each communal toilet was different in the depth and velocity of the water flowing underneath.

Our ancient Roman would simply wipe him- or herself, rinse the tersorium in whatever was available (running water and/or a bucket of vinegar or salt water), and leave it for the next person to use. That's right, it was a shared butt cleaner.

Apparently during the flood water with faeces could spill from toilets; in turn, a large amount of methane in the pipes could even cause a flame explosion. The proof that ancient Romans were afraid – in some sense – of toilets is the fact that we find fewer traces of graffiti in toilets than in other public places.

If you relieved yourself in a public latrine in ancient Rome, you may have used a tersorium to wipe. These ancient devices consisted of a stick with a vinegar- or salt water-soaked sponge attached.

Greek Archaeologists Unearthed Stunning Roman-Era Statue of Hercules at Philippi, Eastern Macedonia

A larger than life-sized statue of Hercules, unearthed by archaeologists from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, may have adorned a public fountain.

The statue, depicting a youthful Hercules, dates to the 2nd century AD. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The latest season of archaeological fieldwork at Philippi in northeast Greece, carried out by members of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, came to an end last week with a startling new discovery.

This year’s excavations, led by Professor Natalia Poulou, focused on the east side of one of the main streets of the ancient Macedonian city, which meets another main axis passing further north. The point of convergence between the two streets is marked by a large square dominated by a richly decorated edifice, most likely a public fountain.

A lion's pelt hangs from the statue's left arm, attesting to its identity as the ancient hero Hercules.

© Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The edifice bore a special architectural decoration, fragments of which were discovered during the excavation. Its decoration was complemented by an impressive larger than life-sized statue from the Roman period, dating to the 2nd century AD.

The statue depicts a youthful Hercules, the Roman equivalent of the Greek Heracles, holding a club – fragments of which were found during the excavation – and a lion’s pelt hanging from his outstretched left hand, attesting to the identity of the hero. He is also depicted wearing a wreath of vine leaves with a tape at the back, the ends of which drape across his broad shoulders.

The archaeologists believe the statue adorned a public fountain.

© Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

According to the research team, and based on the findings from the excavation, the statue adorned a much later building from the 8th or 9th century. It is known form contemporary sources that Classical and Roman-era statues were used to decorate buildings and places of public use up until the Late Byzantine period.

The discovery at Philippi now confirms this to be the case – that pre-Christian statues were used to decorate public spaces in important cities of the Byzantine empire.

The excavations, attended by 24 students and funded by the Research Committee of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, will continue next year.