Secrets of the Dead: Temple of Kom Ombo & Crocodile Museum

Standing on a promontory at a bend in the Nile, where in ancient times sacred crocodiles basked in the sun on the riverbank, is the Temple of Kom Ombo, one of the Nile Valley's most beautifully sited temples. Unique in Egypt, it is dedicated to two gods; the local crocodile god Sobek, and Haroeris (from har-wer), meaning Horus the Elder.

Temple in Kom Ombo - Sachin Vijayan Photography/Getty Images

The temple's twin dedication is reflected in its plan: perfectly symmetrical along the main axis of the temple, there are twin entrances, two linked hypostyle halls with carvings of the two gods on either side, and twin sanctuaries. It is assumed that there were also two priesthoods. The left (western) side of the temple was dedicated to the god Haroeris, and the right (eastern) half to Sobek.

Reused blocks suggest an earlier temple from the Middle Kingdom period, but the main temple was built by Ptolemy VI Philometor, and most of its decoration was completed by Cleopatra VII’s father, Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos. The temple’s spectacular riverside setting has resulted in the erosion of some of its partly Roman forecourt and outer sections, but much of the complex has survived and is very similar in layout to the Ptolemaic temples of Edfu and Dendara, albeit smaller.

Touring the Temple

Passing into the temple’s forecourt, where reliefs are divided between the two gods, there is a double altar in the centre of the court for both gods. Beyond are the shared inner and outer hypostyle halls, each with 10 columns. Inside the outer hypostyle hall, to the left is a finely executed relief showing Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos being presented to Haroeris by Isis and the lion-headed goddess Raettawy, with Thoth looking on. The walls to the right show the crowning of Ptolemy XII by Nekhbet (the vulture-goddess worshipped at the Upper Egyptian town of Al Kab) and Wadjet (the snake-goddess based at Buto in Lower Egypt) with the dual crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, symbolising the unification of Egypt.

Reliefs in the inner hypostyle hall show Haroeris presenting Ptolemy VIII Euergetes with a curved weapon, representing the sword of victory. Behind Ptolemy is his sister-wife and coruler Cleopatra II.

From here, three antechambers, each with double entrances, lead to the sanctuaries of Sobek and Haroeris. The now-ruined chambers on either side would have been used to store priests’ vestments and liturgical papyri. The walls of the sanctuaries are now one or two courses high, allowing you to see the secret passage that enabled the priests to give the gods a ‘voice’ to answer the petitions of pilgrims.

The outer passage, which runs around the temple walls, is unusual. Here, on the left-hand (northern) corner of the temple’s back wall, is a puzzling scene, which is often described as a collection of ‘surgical instruments’. It seems more probable that these were some of the accoutrements used during the temple’s daily rituals, although the temple was certainly a place of healing, the nearest thing to an ancient hospital.

Near the Ptolemaic gateway on the southeast corner of the complex is a small shrine to Hathor, while a small mammisi (birth house) stands in the southwest corner. Beyond this to the north you will find the deep well that supplied the temple with water, and close by is a small pool in which crocodiles, Sobek’s sacred animal, were raised.

Mummified Crocodiles at Kom Ombo

The path out of the complex leads to the new Crocodile Museum. It's well worth a visit for its beautiful collection of mummified crocodiles and ancient carvings, which is well lit and well explained. The museum is also dark and air-conditioned, which can be a blessing on a hot day.

Egypt: The Colonnade Entrance Of Djoser Complex that Looks Like a Greek Dorian Temple!

There are many theories as to the origins of the Doric order in temples. One belief is that the Doric was inspired by the architecture of Egypt. With the Greeks being present in Ancient Egypt as soon the 7th-century BC, it is possible that Greek traders were inspired by the structures they saw in what they would consider foreign land.

Left: The Colonnade Entrance Of Djoser Complex in Saqqara, Egypt Right: Temple Of Apollo In Ancient Corinth, Greece

The funerary complex of Djoser (Zoser) is believed to have been built around the beginning of the 3rd Dynasty. It is a walled compound that is constructed from stone rather than the mud brick that was used before this time. The stones that are used are different from the huge stones used in the pyramids at Giza, in that they are small in size. Imhotep was the architect of this revolutionary wonder. He was later worshipped as a god for the remarkable craftsmanship in the complex. Imhotep translated into stone the early Egyptian architecture of mud-brick, wood and reeds. This is seen in many of the monuments that are in the complex.
The entire complex was once surrounded by an enclosure wall, that when complete, was about 600 yards (549m) long and 300 yards (274m) wide and rose to over 30 feet (9.1m). The wall is made of brick-size stones and is very impressive in its own right. Just the size alone would have made the wall an incredible project, but that is not the only thing impressive about this enclosure wall.

Funerary Complex of Djoser

The single entrance to the enclosure is the southernmost doorway on the eastern side of the wall (the only one of the 15 doorways which is not a false door) and leads to the entrance colonnade. 20 pairs of engaged columns, resembling bundles of reeds or palm ribs line the corridor. Between the columns are 24 small chambers, thought perhaps to represent the nomes of Upper and Lower Egypt, which may once have contained statues of the King or deities.

The exit point from the Hypostyle Hall and Enclosed Portico. View looking East from the Great Court.

The roof of the entrance colonnade was constructed to represent whole tree trunks. This is one of the places where the challenging experiment of copying natural materials in stone is most evident. The columns were not yet trusted to support the roof without being attached to the side walls and the small size of the stone blocks used in the construction reflects the fact that previous structures were built from mudbricks.

At the end of the entrance hall two false stone doorleaves rest against the side walls of a transverse vestibule which has been reconstructed. Several statue fragments were found in the entrance colonnade but the most important was a statue base (now in Cairo Museum) inscribed with the Horus name and titles of Netjerikhet and also with the name of a High Priest of Heliopolis and royal architect, Imhotep.

The columns themselves are engaged columns, but unlike later examples where the column is next to a wall (known as pilasters), here the side wall projects out creating bays between each set of columns (often referred to as niches) and are on both the South and North sides of the center asile in both the East and West Hypostyle Halls. Above these bays in the East and West halls, near the roof are horizontally oriented clerestory openings. The columns are 'proud' of these projecting side walls allowing their circular shape to return and engage the geometry of the wall. The circular columns are carved to resemble papyrus bundles and were painted green to resemble the plant. The side walls themselves also taper to ensure that they do not overlap the decorative papyrus relief, but are placed in a common staggered stacking pattern as is the back wall of the bay. The side wall joints are very small and precise and the surface is relatively smooth.

The Greek Doric order

The Doric order was one of the three orders of ancient Greek and later Roman architecture; the other two canonical orders were the Ionic and the Corinthian. The Doric is most easily recognized by the simple circular capitals at the top of columns. Originating in the western Doric region of Greece, it is the earliest and, in its essence, the simplest of the orders, though still with complex details in the entablature above.

Three Greek Doric columns

The Greek Doric column was fluted or smooth-surfaced, and had no base, dropping straight into the stylobate or platform on which the temple or other building stood. The capital was a simple circular form, with some mouldings, under a square cushion that is very wide in early versions, but later more restrained.

When the three orders are superposed, it is usual for the Doric to be at the bottom, with the Ionic and then the Corinthian above, and the Doric, as "strongest", is often used on the ground floor below another order in the storey above.

Two early Archaic Doric order Greek temples at Paestum (Italy) with much wider capitals than later

Origins of the Doric Order

There are many theories as to the origins of the Doric order in temples. The term Doric is believed to have originated from the Greek-speaking Dorian tribes. One belief is that the Doric order is the result of early wood prototypes of previous temples. With no hard proof and the sudden appearance of stone temples from one period after the other, this becomes mostly speculation. Another belief is that the Doric was inspired by the architecture of Egypt. With the Greeks being present in Ancient Egypt as soon the 7th-century BC, it is possible that Greek traders were inspired by the structures they saw in what they would consider foreign land.

Finally, another theory states that the inspiration for the Doric came from Mycenae. At the ruins of this civilization lies architecture very similar to the Doric order. It is also in Greece, which would make it very accessible.

A faithful reconstruction of the Djoser’s Complex Colonnade Entrance as it was during the Hellenistic Period. Screenshots from the Assassin's Creed game by Ubisoft, called Origins. By Nikolay Bonev.

Egypt's Most Significant Archeological Discoveries of 2021

Egypt recently uncovered a significant archaeological discovery that sheds light on secrets in the Saqqara necropolis south of Cairo and on the 18th and 19th Egyptian dynasties.

The unearthed artifacts are a major find that could turn the ancient burial site into a major tourist and cultural destination and revise our understanding of region during the New Kingdom era under King Teti, the first pharaoh of Egypt’s Sixth Dynasty. The burial sites being excavated are around his pyramid.

Prominent archeologist Zahi Hawass told reporters at the Saqqara site on Jan. 17 that the joint Egyptian mission of researchers from the Supreme Council of Antiquities and the Zahi Hawass Institute of Egyptology, unearthed the funerary temple of Queen Nearti, the wife of King Teti, near the pyramid of her husband.

The mission also found plans for the temple's construction and three warehouse-like structures built of mud bricks in the southeast side of the funerary temple, used for storing ritual offerings to the deities.

In addition, 52 burial wells were found, with depths ranging from 10 to 12 meters and containing more than 50 wooden coffins dating back some 3,000 years during the New Kingdom period — a discovery unprecedented in the Saqqara area.

The sarcophagi are carved into human form and bear paintings of several gods as well as funerary writings from the Book of the Dead, which is said to be a guide for the deceased in their journey to the other world.

Several other artifacts were also found inside the wells, including statues of deities such as the gods Osiris, Ptah and Seker.

The archeological mission also unearthed a papyrus four meters long and one meter wide, bearing excerpts from the Book of the Dead and the signature of its owner, Bu-Khaa-Af.

This same name was found on four Ushabti funerary statues. A wooden coffin carved in human form was also found, in addition to other Ushabti statues made of wood and tin-glazed pottery from the New Kingdom era.

A set of wooden masks and a shrine to Anubis, a god of the afterlife, were also uncovered, as well as statues of Anubis found in good condition. Several games left for the dead were also unearthed such as senet, which is very similar to today’s chess, and as set for the Game of Twenty Squares bearing the name of its owner.

Other artifacts included depictions of geese as well as a bronze ax, indicating that its owner was one of the leaders of the army during the New Kingdom era, and paintings depicting scenes of the deceased and their wives and bearing hieroglyphics.

One limestone panel in good condition depicts a man identified as Khu-Ptah and his wife Mut-am-waya. One part of the painting shows the couple worshiping the god Osiris, while the lower part depicts the man seated and his wife sitting behind him with their daughters, one at her mother’s feet holding a lotus flower to her nose.

Hawass said that the excavation works continue and new archeological discoveries can be expected as many of Saqqara's antiquities have not been unveiled.

Sabri Farag, director of the Saqqara archaeological site, told Al-Monitor that the latest discovery is a very important one in the Saqqara necropolis and that the excavation mission is ongoing. He said, “Saqqara has not revealed all its many secrets yet”, adding that the mission uncovered eight archeological finds in 2020 and this new one already in 2021. He said that more discoveries can be expected over the course of the year.

Waad Abu al-Al, director of projects at the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, told Al-Monitor that restoration works are underway in the southern cemetery of King Djoser to open the necropolis for tourists.

“Excavations works in the ancient site are also ongoing and once they're completed, Saqqara will take its place on the world’s tourist map,” he said.

By Alaa Omran

The ‘Lost Egyptian Labyrinth' of Hawara: Is a 2,000-Year-Old Mystery Finally Solved?

Archaeologists uncovered what is believed to be the remains of a "lost labyrinth" below the sand of a famous pyramid site, in what was previously thought to be a mythical structure. Known also as the Labyrinth, the Pyramid of Hawara (built by Amenemhet III) was the most visited sites of the ancient World. Herodotus claimed to have counted three thousand rooms in the pyramids funeral complex during the 5th century BC.

There are many discoveries beneath the surface of our planet which could potentially change the way we look at history itself. One of them is a forgotten world of underground chambers and tunnels that have remained unexplored for centuries. Mentioned in ancient texts and local legends, these mysterious chambers have been considered as a myth up until they were actually discovered.

The ‘Lost Labyrinth of Egypt’ is without a doubt one of those incredible ancient sites that are a lost jewel in today’s history.

This I have actually seen, a work beyond words. For if anyone put together the buildings of the Greeks and display of their labours, they would seem lesser in both effort and expense to this labyrinth… Even the pyramids are beyond words, and each was equal to many and mighty works of the Greeks. Yet the labyrinth surpasses even the pyramids. Herodotus (‘Histories’, Book, II, 148),

This mysterious underground complex of caverns and chambers was described by authors such as Strabo and even Herodotus who had the opportunity to visit and record the legendary labyrinth before it disappeared into history. According to writing by Herodotus I the IV century BC: the labyrinth was “situated a little above the lake of Moiris and nearly opposite to that which is called the City of Crocodiles” (‘Histories,’ Book, II, 148).

The labyrinth (as it has been called by some in the distant past) is said to be an extraordinary underground complex which could hold the key to mankind’s history. It is said that there, we could find details about unknown civilizations in history, great empires, and rulers that lived on the planet before history as we know it began.

“When one had entered the sacred enclosure, one found a temple surrounded by columns, 40 to each side, and this building had a roof made of a single stone, carved with panels and richly adorned with excellent paintings. It contained memorials of the homeland of each of the kings as well as of the temples and sacrifices carried out in it, all skilfully worked in paintings of the greatest beauty.”

Based on the descriptions of ancient texts such as those from Herodotus, and others who visited the magical labyrinth in the distant past, a 17th century German Jesuit scholar called  Athanasius Kircher, created the first pictorial reproduction of the enigmatic labyrinth just as Herodotus described it: “It has twelve courts covered in, with gates facing one another, six upon the North side and six upon the South, joining on one to another, and the same wall surrounds them all outside; and there are in it two kinds of chambers, the one kind below the ground and the other above upon these, three thousand in number, of each kind fifteen hundred. […]The upper set of chambers we ourselves saw, but the chambers underground we only heard about. For the passages through the chambers, and the goings this way and that way through the courts, which were admirably adorned, afforded endless matter for marvel, as we went through from a court to the chambers to colonnades, and from the colonnades to other rooms, and then from the chambers again to other courts. […]Over the whole of these is roof made of stone like the walls; and the walls are covered with figures craved upon them, each court being surrounded with pillars of white stone fitted together most perfectly; and at the end of the labyrinth, by the corner of it, there is a pyramid of fourty fathoms, upon which large figures are carved, and to this there is a way made under ground. Such is this labyrinth.”

Reconstruction of the Egyptian Labyrinth by Athanasius Kircher (copper-plate engraving) 1670.

According to these authors, the underground temple consists of over 3000 rooms which are filled with incredible hieroglyphs and paintings, the enigmatic underground complex is located less than 100 kilometers from Cairo at Hawara. There, in 2008 a group of researchers from Belgium and Egypt arrived to investigate the enigmatic underground complex, with the aid of ground penetrating technology which was used to study the sand in hopes of finding and solving the mystery behind the mysterious underground complex. The Belgian-Egyptian expedition was able to confirm the presence of the underground temple not far from the Pyramid of Amenemhat III.

Possible location of the tunnels.

With no visible remains, the story was thought to simply be a legend passed down by generations until Egyptologist Flinders Petrie uncovered its “foundations” in the 1800s, leading experts to theories the labyrinth was demolished under the reign of Ptolemy II, and used to build the nearby city of Shedyt to honour his wife Arsinoe. Without a doubt, the expedition led by Petrie stumbled upon one of the most incredible discoveries in the history of Egypt, and they did not even need to excavate in order to confirm the finding.

But, in 2008, archaeologists working on the Mataha Expedition made a stunning find below the sands, researcher Ben Van Kerkwyk revealed on his YouTube channel ‘UnchartedX’. The results of the expedition ere published in 2008, shortly after the discovery in the scientific journal of the NRIAG and the results of the research were exchanged in a public lecture at the University of Ghent, which Media from Belgium attended. But the finding was quickly suppressed since the Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (Egypt) put a hold to all further communications about the discovery due to Egyptian National Security sanctions.

Mr Van Kerkwyk went on to detail what the area may have looked like some 2,000 years ago.

He added: “Unknown until 12 years ago, the discovery was suppressed and today the incredible potential of this site is being slowly and irrevocably destroyed by both inaction by authorities and by the water table in the area that’s rising. Compared with Giza, or any of the other well-known ancient Egyptian sites, there really isn’t a lot to immediately take in.”

Mr Van Kerkwyk detailed how Mr Petrie first stumbled across the find.

He added: “Some fragments of once-mighty granite columns carved in palm or lotus shapes along with other small fragments of ancient stonework are left lying in a small, open-air museum. The site is dominated by the remains of the pyramid of Amenemhat III with only the mud-brick internal structure remaining to see. The remains of the labyrinth have been discovered in the sandy areas to the south of the pyramid. The first to find any real evidence of this was the great Flinders Petrie, who, in the late 1800s, discovered the remains of a huge stone foundation, more than 300 metres broad around four metres beneath the sand. He concluded that this was the remnants of the foundations for the labyrinth, with the structure itself being long since quarried and destroyed.”

Archaeologists found evidence of a huge structure hiding below the sand in 2008, but Mr Van Kerkwyk said the area has never been excavated. He continued: “However, new evidence collected in modern times is challenging his conclusion and it now seems likely that what Petrie found was not the foundation, but instead was part of the ceiling or roof. These same areas were scanned in 2008, using ground-penetrating radar, by the Mataha Expedition, a collaboration between Egyptian authorities, the Ghent University of Belgium and funded by contemporary artist Louis De Cordier. The results of this expedition clearly indicate the presence of grid-like and ordered structures deep beneath the sand in levels much deeper than Petrie ever excavated. Although this expedition was conducted with the full cooperation and permission of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, the official results and conclusion of this legitimate scientific study have never been released.”

The Pyramid of the 12th Dynasty Pharaoh Amenemhat III at Hawara.

Louis de Cordier, the lead researchers of the expedition waited patiently for two years for the Supreme Council to acknowledge the findings and make them public, regrettably, it never happened. In 2010, de Cordier opened a website in order to make the discovery available to the entire world. Even though researchers have confirmed the existence of the underground complex, mayor excavations need to take place in the future in order to explore the incredible finding. It is believed that the treasures of the underground Labyrinth could hold the answers to countless historic mysteries and the ancient Egyptian civilization.

Source: Ancient Code Team, CALLUM HOARE

Official website of the expedition: labyrinthofegypt.com

Ancient Origins: The Lost Labyrinth of Ancient Egypt

You can download the report of GEOPHYSICAL STUDIES OF HAWARA PYRAMID AREA-Faiyum by the National Research Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics HERE.

You can find out more by visiting the website or Facebook Page of the Labyrinth of Egypt

Evidence of Oldest Gynaecological Treatment on Record, Performed in Ancient Egypt 4,000 Years Ago

Scientists from the Universities of Granada and Jaén are studying the physical evidence found in the mummified remains of a woman who suffered severe trauma to the pelvis in 1878–1797 BC, linking them to a medical treatment described in various Egyptian medical papyri of the time

During the Qubbet el-Hawa Project, led by the University of Jaén (UJA) in Aswan (Egypt), in which scientists from the University of Granada (UGR) are participating, researchers have found evidence of the oldest gynaecological treatment on record, performed on a woman who lived in Ancient Egypt some 4,000 years ago and died in 1878–1797 BC.

During the 2017 archaeological dig organised in Qubbet el-Hawa, on the western bank of the River Nile, Andalusian researchers found a vertical shaft dug into the rock in tomb QH34, leading to a burial chamber with ten intact skeletons.

Mummification techniques were not very effective at that time, at least at this site in Upper Egypt. However, the individuals buried there generally belonged to the upper classes of society meaning that they would have been given special care. These particular mummies are very well-preserved and are wrapped in thick layers of linen strips, sometimes bearing remnants of dried soft tissue.

“The mummies had grave goods (usually necklaces of different types); in some cases, their faces were covered with cartonnage masks; and they were preserved inside two rectangular sarcophagi, one inside the other. These featured hieroglyphic inscriptions and were typically badly damaged due to termite infestation,” explains Miguel Botella, forensic anthropologist and Emeritus Professor at the UGR, who conducted the analyses.

The last mummy buried

One of the mummies excavated by the team of anthropologists was perhaps the last to be buried in the chamber. It belonged to a woman of high social class, whose name, Sattjeni, has been preserved in the remains of the outer coffin. That name must have been common among the upper classes of the region, perhaps explaining why she was named Sattjeni A.

Between her bandaged legs, in the lower part of the pelvis and beneath the linen wrappings, the researchers found a ceramic bowl with signs of use, containing charred organic remains. The analysis of the skeletal remains was carried out by a team of anthropologists from the UGR (coordinated by Professor Botella) and it confirmed that the woman had survived a serious fracture in her pelvis, perhaps caused by a fall, which must have caused severe pain.

It is highly likely that, to alleviate these pains, the woman was treated with fumigations, as described in medical papyri of the time describing solutions to gynaecological problems.
“The most interesting feature of the discovery made by the researchers from the University of Jaén is not only the documentation of a palliative gynaecological treatment, something that is quite unique in Egyptian archaeology, but also the fact that this type of treatment by fumigation was described in contemporary medical papyri.

But, until now, there had been no evidence found to prove that such treatment was actually carried out,” explains the UJA’s Dr. Alejandro Jimenez, an expert in Egyptology and director of the Qubbet el-Hawa Project. This work has now been published by one of the most prestigious academic journals in Egyptology, Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Spracheund Altertumskunde.

The project was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Research, Fundación Gaselec, Fundación Palarq, the Calderón Group, and the Spanish Association of Egyptology.

University of Granada

1910: The Discovery Moment of King's Menkaure and his Queen's Khamerernebty Statue

The moment of the great discovery of statue of King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and his wife Khamerernebty in the Temple of the King Menkaure Valley in Giza.

Serene ethereal beauty, raw royal power, and evidence of artistic virtuosity have rarely been simultaneously captured as well as in this breathtaking, nearly life-size statue of the pharaoh Menkaure and a queen. Smooth as silk, the meticulously finished surface of the dark stone captures the physical ideals of the time and creates a sense of eternity and immortality even today.

Pyramids are not stand-alone structures. Those at Giza formed only a part of a much larger complex that included a temple at the base of the pyramid itself, long causeways and corridors, small subsidiary pyramids, and a second temple (known as a valley temple) some distance from the pyramid. These Valley Temples were used to perpetuate the cult of the deceased king and were active places of worship for hundreds of years (sometimes much longer) after the king’s death. Images of the king were placed in these temples to serve as a focus for worship—several such images have been found in these contexts, including the magnificent seated statue of Khafre, now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Menkaure's Pyramid Complex.

On January 10, 1910, excavators under the direction of George Reisner, head of the joint Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Expedition to Egypt, uncovered an astonishing collection of statuary in the Valley Temple connected to the Pyramid of Menkaure. Menkaure’s pyramid had been explored in the 1830s (using dynamite, no less). His carved granite sarcophagus was removed (and subsequently lost at sea), and while the Pyramid Temple at the base was in only mediocre condition; the Valley Temple, was—happily—basically ignored.

Reisner had been excavating on the Giza plateau for several years at this point; his team had already explored the elite cemetery to the west of the Great Pyramid of Khufu before turning their attention to the Menkaure complex, most particularly the barely-touched Valley Temple.

George Reisner and Georg Steindorff at Harvard Camp, looking east toward Khufu and Khafre pyramids, 1935, photo by Albert Morton Lythgoe.

In the southwest corner of the structure, the team discovered a magnificent cache of statuary carved in a smooth-grained dark stone called greywacke or schist. There were a number of triad statues—each showing 3 figures—the king, the fundamentally important goddess Hathor, and the personification of a nome (a geographic designation, similar to the modern idea of a region, district, or county). Hathor was worshipped in the pyramid temple complexes along with the supreme sun god Re and the god Horus, who was represented by the living king. The goddess’s name is actually ‘Hwt-hor’, which means “The House of Horus,” and she was connected to the wife of the living king and the mother of the future king. Hathor was also a fierce protector who guarded her father Re; as an "Eye of Re" (the title assigned to a group of dangerous goddesses), she could embody the intense heat of the sun and use that blazing fire to destroy his enemies.

There were 4 complete triads, one incomplete, and at least one other in a fragmentary condition. The precise meaning of these triads is uncertain. Reisner believed that there was one for each ancient Egyptian nome, meaning there would have originally been more than thirty of them. More recent scholarship, however, suggests that there were originally 8 triads, each connected with a major site associated with the cult of Hathor. Hathor’s prominence in the triads (she actually takes the central position in one of the sculptures) and her singular importance to kingship lends weight to this theory.

In addition to the triads, Reisner’s team also revealed the extraordinary dyad statue of Menkaure and a queen that is breathtakingly singular.

The two figures stand side-by-side on a simple, squared base and are supported by a shared back pillar. They both face to the front, although Menkaure’s head is noticeably turned to his right—this image was likely originally positioned within an architectural niche, making it appear as though they were emerging from the structure. The broad-shouldered, youthful body of the king is covered only with a traditional short pleated kilt, known as a shendjet, and his head sports the primary pharaonic insignia of the iconic striped nemes headdress (so well known from the mask of Tutankhamun) and an artificial royal beard. In his clenched fists, held straight down at his sides, Menkaure grasps ritual cloth rolls. His body is straight, strong, and eternally youthful with no signs of age. His facial features are remarkably individualized with prominent eyes, a fleshy nose, rounded cheeks, and full mouth with protruding lower lip.

Menkaure’s queen provides the perfect female counterpart to his youthful masculine virility. Sensuously modelled with a beautifully proportioned body emphasized by a clinging garment, she articulates ideal mature feminine beauty. There is a sense of the individual in both faces. Neither Menkaure nor his queen are depicted in the purely idealized manner that was the norm for royal images. Instead, through the overlay of royal formality we see the depiction of a living person filling the role of pharaoh and the personal features of a particular individual in the representation of his queen.

Menkaure and his queen stride forward with their left feet—this is entirely expected for the king, as males in Egyptian sculpture almost always do so, but it is unusual for the female since they are generally depicted with feet together. They both look beyond the present and into timeless eternity, their otherworldly visage displaying no human emotion whatsoever.

The dyad was never finished—the area around the lower legs has not received a final polish, and there is no inscription. However, despite this incomplete state, the image was erected in the temple and was brightly painted—there are traces of red around the king’s ears and mouth and yellow on the queen’s face. The presence of paint atop the smooth, dark greywacke on a statue of the deceased king that was originally erected in his memorial temple courtyard brings an interesting suggestion—that the paint may have been intended to wear away through exposure and, over time, reveal the immortal, black-fleshed
"Osiris" Menkaure.

Unusual for a pharaoh’s image, the king has no protective cobra (known as a uraeus) perched on his brow. This notable absence has led to the suggestion that both the king’s nemes and the queen’s wig were originally covered in precious metal and that the cobra would have been part of that addition.

Based on comparison with other images, there is no doubt that this sculpture shows Menkaure, but the identity of the queen is a different matter. She is clearly a royal female. She stands at nearly equal height with the king and, of the two of them, she is the one who is entirely frontal. In fact, it may be that this dyad is focused on the queen as its central figure rather than Menkaure. The prominence of the royal female—at equal height and frontal—in addition to the protective gesture she extends has suggested that, rather than one of Mekaure’s wives, this is actually his queen-mother. The function of the sculpture in any case was to ensure rebirth for the king in the Afterlife.

Essay by Dr. Amy Calvert

Sculpture Eye-crafting Techniques: The Piercing Gazes that brought life to sculptures

Ιnlaid eyes are found in sculpture in many periods, from ancient times till Middle Ages. The history behind these wonderful innovations is great and dates back centuries.

Historically, several cultures have come up with some very ingenious solutions for how to bring more life to the eyes of their sculptures. Ancient Greeks would assemble eyes from copper, glass and/or shell, and anchor them from the inside of a hollow bronze head. Ancient Greek bronzesmiths had a variety of techniques at their disposal to enhance the appearance of their creations. Due to their often fragmentary state of preservation, the modern observer tends to think of early Greek bronzes as monochromatic, but it is clear that the practice of inlaying other materials into bronze started early in ancient Greece.

Inlays appear in a broad variety of bronze object types from weapons and armor to vessels and jewelry to relief-decorated objects and figural sculpture. Many of the finest early Greek bronzes were embellished with inlays that enlivened the sculptural forms and may have added symbolic or even magical qualities. Eyes were often given particular prominence with inlays. Of special interest is a new technical analysis of a Late Geometric statuette of a man and a centaur (Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. 17.190.2072) in which the eyes of the man were inlaid with silver to contrast with the eyes of the centaur, which appear to have an iron-rich inlay. Although the evidence is frequently incomplete, it is clear that a wide variety of colorful inlays such as gold, silver, iron, bone, ivory, and amber were utilized, and other materials, such as stone and shell, were certainly used as well.

Another great sculpture with eyes tha magnetize everyone who looks at them is Iniochos (Charioteer of Delphi). It has its own room in the museum of Delphi, and a quick glance is not enough to see it. You have to look at it closely from all sides and admire the multitude of details on its body and its bronze tunic. The eyes of Iniochos look alive, and perhaps no other statue gives this unique feeling. White enamel was used for the eyeballs to make them look exactly like a natural human eye. For the iris, brown semi-precious stone was used, while the pupils of the eyes are black. The eyelashes were made of small copper wires, while its lips were made of thin reddish copper plates.

Detail of the Iniochos statue's head, showing the inlaid eyes.

The Egyptians combined materials of alabaster, rock crystal & copper, and inserted them from the outside of the face to bring vitality to their sculptures and busts. There are early examples of Egyptian statues in which the inlaid eyes are either blue or grey in colour. Some epictions of deities such as Horus showed them with eyes that had a blue pupil. A range of materials are known to have been used depending on the desired effect and perhaps the situation, location and purpose for which the eye, and its artifact, were created to represent. Those eyes, for example, include the use of materials such as limestone, quartz, rock crystal, obsidian, bone and ivory, copper alloys, resin, plaster, animal glue and pigments. What is surprising is the recognition of what exquisite craft skill and technology are implied by the use of such crystal for the eyes of these statues.

Ancient Egyptian inlaid eye: (top) view of the eye from below; (bottom) x-radiograph of the eye from the same position, showing some of the technical features.

The sculpture of the Seated Scribe or Squatting Scribe is one of these famous works of ancient Egyptian art. It represents a figure of a seated scribe at work. The sculpture was discovered at Saqqara and dated to the period of the Old Kingdom, from either the 5th Dynasty, c. 2450–2325 BCE or the 4th Dynasty, 2620–2500 BCE. It is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. It is a painted limestone statue, the eyes inlaid with rock crystal, magnesite (magnesium carbonate), copper-arsenic alloy, and nipples made of wood.

Detail of inlaid eye belonging to the "Seated Scribe”.

The Chinese would position small obsidian beads in the center of the eyes, (a technique which was sometimes also seen in Japan during the Asuka and Nara periods (combined 538-974). In the late Heian period (974-1185), however, a new process for infusing a startlingly realistic quality into the eyes of sculpture elevated Japanese Buddhist statuary to new heights.

In the early periods of Japanese art history, eyes were simply carved into the wood (and then painted). This way of depicting a sculpted eye is called chougan (彫眼), and examples of this can be seen in many temples throughout Japan. However, when visiting a temple with carvings that have crystal eyes, it is impossible to ignore the intimacy of the statuary’s pensive gaze or piercing glare. This style of eye-crafting is called gyokugan (玉眼).

Left: Twenty-Eight Attendants (Basu Sennin) Sanjusangendo. Right: photo by David Bilbrey, Sculptor and Art History hound.

In 1151, an Amida Triad in the Chougakuji was the first in Japan to employ gyokugan. The technology behind this craft can simply and casually be described as an eyeball sandwich. The būshi of the Chougakuji’s Amida group carved rock crystal into a lens, painted the inside with a pupil & iris, backed it with paper, and then inserted it into an uchiguri (hollowed-out) head. The result was revolutionary. Made more famous by the Kei school about 30 years later, this technique became the sculpting standard which further set Japanese butsuzo apart from what was happening with the rest of the world.

'Egyptian Pompeii': Egyptologist Zahi Hawass announces discovery of 3000-year-old 'Lost Golden City' in Luxor

The Egyptian mission under Zahi Hawass discovered an ancient Egyptian city in Luxor - The Rise of Aten - that was lost under the sands 3000 years ago. The city - dubbed the Lost Golden City - dates to the reign of Amenhotep III, and continued to be used by Tutankhamun and Ay.

“Many foreign missions searched for this city and never found it. We began our work searching for the mortuary temple of Tutankhamun because the temples of both Horemheb and Ay were found in this area,” Hawass said.

The Egyptian expedition was surprised to discover the largest city ever found in Egypt. Founded by one of the greatest rulers of Egypt, king Amenhotep III, the ninth king of the 18th dynasty, who ruled Egypt from 1391 till 1353 B.C. This city was active during the great king’s co-regency with his son, the famous Amenhotep IV/Akhenaton. It was the largest administrative and industrial settlement in the era of the Egyptian empire on the western bank of Luxor.

“The city’s streets are flanked by houses; some of their walls are up to 3 metres high,’ Hawass continued, “we can reveal that the city extends to the west, all the way to the famous Deir El-Medina.”

Betsy Brian, professor of Egyptology at John Hopkins University in Baltimore USA, said “the discovery of this lost city is the second most important archeological discovery since the tomb of Tutankhamun”.

“The discovery of the Lost City not only will give us a rare glimpse into the life of the Ancient Egyptians at the time when the empire was at its wealthiest, but will help us shed light on one of history’s greatest mysteries: why did Akhenaten & Nefertiti decide to move to Amarna?” Brian added.

The excavation area is sandwiched between Rameses III’s temple at Medinet Habu and Amenhotep III’s temple at Memnon. The Egyptian mission started working in this area in search of Tutankhamun’s Mortuary Temple. Tutankhamun’s successor, king Ay, built his temple on a site which was later adjoined on its southern side by Rameses III’s temple at Medinet Habu.

Egyptologists believe Ay’s temple may formerly have belonged to Tutankhamun, as two colossal statues of the young king were found there. The northern part of the temple is still under the sands. The excavation started in September 2020, and within weeks, to the team’s great surprise, formations of mud bricks began to appear in all directions. What they unearthed was the site of a large city in good condition of preservation, with almost complete walls and with rooms filled with tools for daily life.

The archaeological layers have laid untouched for thousands of years, left by the ancient residents as if it were yesterday. The first goal of the mission was to date this settlement using hieroglyphic inscriptions found on clay caps of wine vessels. Historical references tell us the settlement consisted of three royal palaces of king Amenhotep III, as well as the empire’s administrative and industrial centre.

A large number of archaeological finds, such as rings, scarabs, coloured pottery vessels, and mud bricks bearing seals of king Amenhotep III’s cartouche, confirmed the dating of the city. After only seven months of excavation, several areas or neighbourhoods have been uncovered. In the southern part, the mission found a bakery, a cooking and food preparation area, complete with ovens and storage pottery. From its size, we can state the kitchen was catering to a very large number of workers and employees.

The second area, which is still partly uncovered, is the administrative and residential district, with larger and well-arranged units. This area is fenced in by a zigzag wall, with only one access point leading to internal corridors and residential areas. The single entrance makes us think it was some sort of security, with the ability to control entry and exit to enclosed areas.

Zigzag walls are one of the rare architectural elements in ancient Egyptian architecture, mainly used towards the end of the 18th dynasty. The third area is the workshop. On one side, the production area for the mud bricks used to build temples and annexes. The bricks have seals bearing the cartouche of king Amenhotep III (Neb Maat Ra). On the other, a large number of casting molds for the production of amulets and delicate decorative elements. This is further evidence of the extensive activity in the city to produce decorations for both temples and tombs.

All over the excavated areas, the mission found many tools used in some sort of industrial activity like spinning and weaving. Metal and glass-making slag has also been unearthed, but the main area of such activity has yet to be discovered. Two unusual burials of a cow or bull were found inside one of the rooms. Investigations are underway to determine the nature and purpose of this practice. And an even more remarkable burial of a person found with arms outstretched to his side, and remains of a rope wrapped around his knees. The location and position of this skeleton are rather odd, and more investigations are in progress.

One of the most recent finds is a vessel containing two gallons of dried or boiled meat (about 10 kg); it has a valuable inscription: Year 37, dressed meat for the third Heb Sed festival from the slaughterhouse of the stockyard of Kha, made by the butcher luwy. This valuable information not only gives us the names of two people that lived and worked in the city, but confirmed that the city was active at the time of King Amenhotep III’s co-regency with his son Akhenaten.

The excavation also reveals a mud seal with inscriptions that can be read: “gm pa Aton” which can be translated to “the domain of the dazzling Aten”, this is the name of a temple built by King Akhenaten at Karnak. As history goes, one year after this pot was made, the city was abandoned, and the capital relocated to Amarna. But was it? And why? And was the city repopulated again when Tutankhamun returned to Thebes?

Only further excavations of the area will reveal what truly happened 3,500 years ago. To the north of the settlement, a large cemetery was uncovered, the extent of which has yet to be determined. So far, the mission has discovered a group of rock-cut tombs of different sizes that can be reached through stairs carved into the rock, a common feature of tomb construction in the Valley of the Kings and in the Valley of the Nobles. Work is underway and the mission expects to uncover untouched tombs filled with treasures.

The 'Osireion' Temple at Abydos: A unique structure which simulates an island

The Osirion or Osireon is an ancient Egyptian temple. It is located at Abydos, to the rear of the Mortuary Temple of Seti I. The Osireion is a weird and wonderful structure, unique in Egypt and still baffling for Egyptologists. The entire structure is closed to visitors, making inspection of the funerary and ritual texts carved on its walls impossible, but you can look down on it from the rear of Seti's temple, from where there is a good overview of the cenotaph and its surrounding waters.

Originally thought to be an Old Kingdom construction, on account of the great blocks of granite, it has now been dated to Seti’s reign and is usually interpreted as a cenotaph to Osiris, or more specifically to Seti as Osiris. Its design is believed to be based on the rock-cut tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Reached by a 420-ft subterranean passage, the centre of its 10-columned ‘burial chamber’, which lies at a lower level than Seti’s temple, is a dummy sarcophagus. This chamber is surrounded by water channels to simulate an island.

Photo by Mohsen Sharawy

It was discovered by archaeologists Flinders Petrie and Margaret Murray, who were excavating the site in 1902–03. Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie (3 June 1853 – 28 July 1942), was an English Egyptologist and a pioneer of systematic methodology in archaeology and preservation of artefacts. He held the first chair of Egyptology in the United Kingdom, and excavated many of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt in conjunction with his wife, Hilda Petrie. Some consider his most famous discovery to be that of the Merneptah Stele, an opinion with which Petrie himself concurred. Margaret Alice Murray (13 July 1863 – 13 November 1963) was an Anglo-Indian Egyptologist, archaeologist, anthropologist, historian, and folklorist. The first woman to be appointed as a lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom, she worked at University College London (UCL) from 1898 to 1935. In 1902–03 she took part in Petrie's excavations at Abydos, Egypt, there discovering the Osireion temple and the following season investigated the Saqqara cemetery

Petrie at Abydos.

Strabo, who visited the Osireion in the first century BC, said that it was constructed by Ismandes, or Mandes (Amenemhet III), the same builder as the Labyrinth at Hawara:

Above this city [Ptolemaïs] lies Abydus, where is the Memnonium, a royal building, which is a remarkable structure built of solid stone, and of the same workmanship as that which I ascribed to the Labyrinth, though not multiplex; and also a fountain which lies at a great depth, so that one descends to it down vaulted galleries made of monoliths of surprising size and workmanship.

There are some Flower of Life symbols painted on the inside of one of the monoliths. For those unfamiliar, the Flower of Life is one of the most important symbols of sacred geometry. Sacred geometry is a complicated topic beyond the scope of this Abydos temple guide. But the ancient Egyptians took it very seriously, and based much of their architecture and art on special proportions which they regarded as sacred.

Pythagoras was greatly inspired by the Egyptians and spent time studying there. While we don’t know exactly when the Flower of Life was painted at Abydos, Greek text can be spotted nearby, indicating sometime during the Ptolemaic era. 

The Osireion consists of large square rose granite pillars, most of which are completely void of any carvings or inscriptions. Some of the pillars are as heavy as 100 tons and had to be transported all the way from Aswan.

Despite the major stylistic differences between the Osireion and other New Kingdom monuments, many Egyptologist give Merenptah all the credit. The reason why it was built at such a low level is stil a mystery. Many suggest that Seti I chose this particular spot of Abydos for his temple because the Osireion was already there. The Egyptians, all throughout their history, regularly renovated older monuments while adding new artwork.

The 'Turin King List' - The most extensive papyrus list of Ancient Egyptian Pharaos

The Turin King List, also known as the Turin Royal Canon, is an ancient Egyptian hieratic papyrus thought to date from the reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II, now in the Museo Egizio (Egyptian Museum) in Turin. The papyrus is the most extensive list available of kings compiled by the ancient Egyptians, and is the basis for most chronology before the reign of Ramesses II.

1904 version of attempt to assemble parts of the Turin King list.

Creation and use

The papyrus is believed to date from the reign of Ramesses II, during the middle of the New Kingdom, or the 19th Dynasty. The beginning and ending of the list are now lost; there is no introduction, and the list does not continue after the 19th Dynasty. The composition may thus have occurred at any subsequent time, from the reign of Ramesses II to as late as the 20th Dynasty.

The papyrus lists the names of rulers, the lengths of reigns in years, with months and days for some kings. In some cases they are grouped together by family, which corresponds approximately to the dynasties of Manetho's book. The list includes the names of ephemeral rulers or those ruling small territories that may be unmentioned in other sources.

The list also is believed to contain kings from the 15th Dynasty, the Hyksos who ruled Lower Egypt and the River Nile delta. The Hyksos rulers do not have cartouches (enclosing borders which indicate the name of a king), and a hieroglyphic sign is added to indicate that they were foreigners, although typically on King Lists foreign rulers are not listed.

The papyrus was originally a tax roll, but on its back is written a list of rulers of Egypt – including mythical kings such as gods, demi-gods, and spirits, as well as human kings. That the back of an older papyrus was used may indicate that the list was not of great formal importance to the writer, although the primary function of the list is thought to have been as an administrative aid. As such, the papyrus is less likely to be biased against certain rulers and is believed to include all the kings of Egypt known to its writers up to the 19th or 20th Dynasty.

Discovery and reconstruction[edit]

The papyrus was found by the Italian traveler Bernardino Drovetti in 1820 at Luxor (Thebes), Egypt and was acquired in 1824 by the Egyptian Museum in Turin, Italy and was designated Papyrus Number 1874. When the box in which it had been transported to Italy was unpacked, the list had disintegrated into small fragments. Jean-Francois Champollion, examining it, could recognize only some of the larger fragments containing royal names, and produced a drawing of what he could decipher. A reconstruction of the list was created to better understand it and to aid in research.

The Saxon researcher Gustav Seyffarth (1796–1885) re-examined the fragments, some only one square centimeter in size, and made a more complete reconstruction of the papyrus based only on the papyrus fibers, as he could not yet determine the meaning of the hieratic characters. Subsequent work on the fragments was done by the Munich Egyptologist Jens Peter Lauth, which largely confirmed the Seyffarth reconstruction.

In 1997, prominent Egyptologist Kim Ryholt published a new and better interpretation of the list in his book, "The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C." After another study of the papyrus, an updated version from Ryholt is expected. Egyptologist Donald Redford has also studied the papyrus and has noted that although many of the list's names correspond to monuments and other documents, there are some discrepancies and not all of the names correspond, questioning the absolute reliability of the document for pre-Ramesses II chronology.

Despite attempts at reconstruction, approximately 50% of the papyrus remains missing. This papyrus as presently constituted is 1.7 m long and 0.41 m wide, broken into over 160 fragments. In 2009, previously unpublished fragments were discovered in the storage room of the Egyptian Museum of Turin, in good condition. A new edition of the papyrus is expected.

The name Hudjefa, found twice in the papyrus, is now known to have been used by the royal scribes of the Ramesside era during the 19th Dynasty, when the scribes compiled king lists such as the Saqqara King List and the royal canon of Turin and the name of a deceased pharaoh was unreadable, damaged, or completely erased.

Contents of the papyrus

The papyrus is divided into eleven columns, distributed as follows. The names and positions of several kings are still being disputed, since the list is so badly damaged.

• Column 1 — Gods of Ancient Egypt

• Column 2 — Gods of Ancient Egypt, spirits and mythical kings

• Column 3 — Rows 11-25 (Dynasties 1-2)

• Column 4 — Rows 1-25 (Dynasties 2-5)

• Column 5 — Rows 1-26 (Dynasties 6-8/9/10)

• Column 6 — Rows 12-25 (Dynasties 11-12)

• Column 7 — Rows 1-2 (Dynasties 12-13)

• Column 8 — Rows 1-23 (Dynasty 13)

• Column 9 — Rows 1-27 (Dynasty 13-14)

• Column 10 — Rows 1-30 (Dynasty 14)

• Column 11 — Rows 1-30 (Dynasties 14-17)

The Turin papyrus in Museo Egizio (Egyptian Museum) in Turin, Italy.

Egyptian Police Used Baboons to Catch Criminals in Ancient Egypt

The Surprising Use of Baboons as Police Animals in Ancient Egypt

Throughout history, humans have found surprising and innovative ways to work alongside animals. In modern times, dogs are often associated with law enforcement, helping to apprehend criminals, sniff out explosives, and maintain order. However, long before the use of K-9 units, ancient Egyptian authorities had their own version of animal assistants: baboons. In a practice that may seem shocking today, trained baboons were used by the Egyptians as police animals.

Baboons as Law Enforcement in Ancient Egypt

Hieroglyphs and artwork from ancient Egypt provide a fascinating glimpse into this practice. Scenes depicting baboons on leashes, helping to apprehend criminals, have survived through the centuries, offering an extraordinary perspective on how these animals were integrated into the society. Like police dogs in modern times, baboons were unleashed upon lawbreakers, trained to subdue or corner them. One particularly vivid piece of artwork shows an Egyptian authority figure unleashing a baboon on a thief in a bustling marketplace. The criminal, in a state of distress, is shown begging for mercy as the baboon bites his leg, a dramatic image that underscores the power of these animals.

Old Kingdom, 5th Dynasty, ca. 2498-2345 BC. Detail from the Mastaba of Tepemankh, Saqqara necropolis. Now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

This striking scene suggests that baboons were not merely ornamental or symbolic in ancient Egypt but were practical tools in maintaining order. The speed, strength, and intelligence of baboons likely made them effective partners in enforcing the law. Although it is difficult to imagine today, baboons must have been trained rigorously to perform these tasks, responding to commands much like modern police dogs.

Baboons in Egyptian Tomb Art

The use of baboons extended beyond mere law enforcement. Egyptian tomb walls, famous for their detailed depictions of daily life, also featured scenes of baboons interacting with humans in a variety of contexts. A fascinating example comes from the low-relief of Tepemankh, an Egyptian noble. In one of these scenes, a nude man is shown being grasped by a large baboon, biting or holding onto his legs, while the man attempts to fend off the animal with his left arm. Behind them, a second figure, dressed in a short kilt, holds a whip in one hand and leads a female baboon with a baby in the other.

This low-relief artwork, which still retains traces of its original color, suggests that baboons were deeply embedded in Egyptian culture and daily life. The presence of a whip implies that the baboon might have been under the control of the man behind it, reinforcing the idea that these animals were domesticated and trained for specific purposes, possibly even law enforcement or security.

Symbolism and Practicality

Baboons also held significant symbolic value in ancient Egypt, being associated with Thoth, the god of wisdom, writing, and the moon. As sacred animals, they were often depicted in temple art, serving as mediators between the human and divine realms. However, their practical use as police animals suggests a duality in their roles — both symbolic and functional.

The scene from the Tepemankh tomb might not be just an everyday depiction of a baboon apprehending a criminal but could symbolize the enforcement of order, punishment, or the protection of the deceased in the afterlife. It is also possible that such images reflected the reality of the deceased’s earthly life, offering an idealized or dramatized version of how they helped to maintain peace and order during their lifetime.

The idea of baboons as police animals in ancient Egypt is both surprising and fascinating. The fact that ancient Egyptians were able to train such wild animals to aid in law enforcement shows their ingenuity and deep connection with the animal world. While the use of baboons in this role may seem unusual to modern audiences, it highlights the remarkable ways in which ancient civilizations utilized the resources around them. These scenes, preserved in Egyptian tombs and artwork, offer a compelling look at a lost chapter of animal-human cooperation in maintaining law and order.