Parthenon Marbles: British Museum Opens Door to Potential Loan to Greece

A significant shift appears to be underway regarding the longstanding debate over the Parthenon Marbles, as the British Museum now openly states on its official website that the return of the Marbles to Greece is a negotiable matter — in the form of a potential loan.

According to a report by the newspaper Apogevmatini, the museum’s website does not reference a permanent return, but specifically discusses the possibility of a loan arrangement.

This stance echoes earlier remarks made by Greek-British advisor to the House of Lords, Ioannis Chountis de Fabry, who had suggested to Apogevmatini that such a move would likely come after a change in the UK government.

The first signs of this policy shift emerged during an interview with Museum Director Nicholas Cullinan in The Times, where he publicly spoke for the first time about the idea of “lending” the Marbles and forming an “innovative partnership with Greece.”

On the relevant section of the Museum's website, it is stated that “trustees will seriously consider any request to borrow any part of the Collection, provided it is done under the terms outlined by current UK legislation.”

This development has been decades in the making. The call for the Marbles' return was officially made by Greece in 1983 and has remained a top cultural priority ever since. Now, with the British Museum signaling openness to a loan — and explicitly acknowledging the Acropolis Museum’s role — momentum appears to be building.

The website even notes: “In 2009, a new museum in Athens, the Acropolis Museum, was completed to house the remaining Parthenon Sculptures along with other archaeological treasures.”

Finally, according to Apogevmatini, which cites sources in the UK, approximately 80% of the issues surrounding the return of the Marbles have already been resolved. The remaining 20% — involving legal and technical details — will determine the final form of the reunification, even if it begins under the framework of a loan.

This latest development marks a pivotal moment in the decades-long cultural dialogue between the UK and Greece, potentially laying the groundwork for a historic return — or at least a symbolic first step.

Revelations at the Dromolaxia Necropolis: Rare Tombs and Treasures from the Late Bronze Age

A Glimpse into Burial Customs and International Connections in Ancient Cyprus

Excavations at the Dromolaxia-Vyzakia site, located along the edge of Larnaca’s Salt Lake, have unveiled remarkable insights into the burial practices of a thriving Late Bronze Age port city. Unearthed by the Swedish archaeological mission during their May–June 2024 dig, three chamber tombs dating back to the 14th century BCE offer a fascinating window into the lives—and deaths—of the city’s ancient inhabitants.

These tombs not only provide valuable information about funerary customs, but also serve as evidence of the settlement’s extensive international trade connections, as indicated by the origin of many of the objects found within.

An Ongoing Discovery Near a Sacred and Strategic Site

The Department of Antiquities announced another successful excavation season at the Dromolaxia necropolis, situated near the Hala Sultan Tekke Mosque and Larnaca International Airport. The ancient city, which spanned at least 25 hectares, flourished between approximately 1630 and 1150 BCE.

Among the standout finds from this year’s dig is an exceptionally rare, locally made clay figurine of a seated woman with bird-like features. Other notable discoveries include two intricately carved cylinder seals—one made of hematite, the other of copper, a rare material for such artifacts. Both feature detailed imagery of gods, humans, animals, and symbolic motifs.

Chamber Tombs Offering Clues to Past Lives

Based on surface findings and geophysical surveys from prior years, the team focused their efforts on Area A, the city’s extramural cemetery. The excavation revealed three chamber tombs (designated ZZ, ABE, and ABW), preliminarily dated to the 14th century BCE.

Though their ceilings had collapsed in antiquity—damaging some of the grave goods—this collapse also sealed the burial contents in an undisturbed state. As such, the tombs offer a unique glimpse into ancient burial rites and long-distance interactions. Many of the items found reflect a cosmopolitan community deeply engaged in international exchange.

Imported Treasures from Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean

In addition to locally produced pottery, tools, and jewelry, the tombs held a wealth of imported items. These hailed from various regions, primarily the Aegean—including Crete, mainland Greece, and the Cycladic islands—as well as Egypt, Anatolia, the Near East, and more distant cultures.

Among the Aegean imports were finely crafted ceramics, such as the so-called “Chariot Kraters,” decorated with vivid scenes of warriors bearing weapons and riding chariots drawn by paired horses.

Neutron Activation Analysis of pottery fragments from previous seasons revealed that many Mycenaean vessels came from two main centers in the Peloponnese—Berbati (primarily) and Tiryns. Others originated from different locales in Crete and the Aegean islands.

From Egypt came exquisite goods made from ivory and hippopotamus bone, alongside high-quality alabaster vessels, precious metals, and scarabs—carved amulets of symbolic significance.

Burial Practices Reflecting Generations and Rituals

In some tombs, evidence suggests the deliberate arrangement of bones from earlier generations, indicating a ritualized reuse of burial space over time. The stratigraphy of these multi-generational tombs complements that of the city itself, helping scholars establish a more precise chronological framework for the site.

Excavating the remains of so many individuals is a time-consuming and delicate task. As a result, the tombs could not be fully excavated during this season. Protective measures were taken at the end of the season to preserve the site for future study.

Skeletons Tell a Human Story

Bioarchaeological analysis is ongoing, with researchers working to determine the total number of individuals, as well as their age, sex, health conditions, and any signs of trauma. Preliminary findings already indicate the presence of neonates, children, adolescents, and adults—some over the age of 40. These results suggest a relatively low average life expectancy during this period.

A City Built on Copper and Cross-Cultural Exchange

The city's wealth was clearly tied to its role in copper production and its strategic participation in regional and long-distance trade. Judging by the richness of the grave goods, the tombs likely belonged to elite families involved in these industries. The selective use of certain imported items in specific family burials may also hint at the presence of specialized merchants or even immigrant groups within the community.

The Team Behind the Discovery

The excavation was led by Professor Peter Fischer of the University of Gothenburg and included archaeologist Rainer Feldbacher. Alongside them, members of the Swedish mission, guided by Professor Therese Birge, catalogued and analyzed artifacts from both current and previous seasons, now stored at the Larnaca District Archaeological Museum.

The team was further supported by bioarchaeologists Professor Kirsi Lorentz and doctoral researcher Yuko Miyauchi, as well as Professor Sorin Hermon and his colleagues from The Cyprus Institute. These collaborators contributed their expertise in uncovering and documenting human remains, and in producing 2D and 3D reconstructions and materials analyses.

Conclusion: Uncovering the Past, One Layer at a Time

The Dromolaxia necropolis continues to reveal the rich tapestry of life, death, and commerce in the Late Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean. Through a combination of meticulous excavation, interdisciplinary research, and international collaboration, the site stands as a testament to the complexity and connectivity of ancient Cypriot society.

As excavations continue, we can expect even more revelations about this vibrant port city—its people, its rituals, and its role in shaping a globalized Bronze Age world.

Therasia’s 4,500-Year-Old Seal Impressions: The Earliest Known Form of Writing in the Aegean?

In a groundbreaking find on the tiny Aegean island of Therasia, archaeologists have uncovered two seal impressions on a 4,500-year-old pottery jar that may rewrite the early history of writing in the region. These impressions – stamped onto the handle of a large storage jar before it was fired – date to the Early Bronze Age (circa 2700–2300 BC). That makes them significantly older than the known scripts of Bronze Age Greece, challenging the long-held view that writing in the Aegean first emerged on Minoan Crete around 2000 BC. Some experts suggest that one of the Therasia seals might even represent the earliest evidence of a hieroglyphic-like writing system in the Aegean, predating Cretan hieroglyphs by centuries. While the researchers caution that these symbols are not writing in the strict sense, they acknowledge that the find offers an tantalizing glimpse at how organized symbols in the Cyclades could have laid cognitive groundwork for true writing.

Ancient Writing Systems of the Aegean: A Brief Background

For context, the civilizations of the Aegean Bronze Age developed writing relatively late compared to their Egyptian and Mesopotamian counterparts. The earliest known Aegean scripts appeared on Crete in the early second millennium BC – Cretan Hieroglyphic and the linear script known as Linear A – roughly around 1900–1700 BC. (Linear A was used by the Minoans and remains undeciphered, while the later Linear B script, adapted from Linear A, was used to write Mycenaean Greek in the 14th–12th centuries BC.) According to archaeological consensus, Cycladic and other Greek Bronze Age cultures before 2000 BC did not have true writing. They did, however, employ seals and symbolic marks for administrative or ownership purposes, much like other early societies. On the Greek mainland, for example, sites like Lerna have yielded clay sealings that show advanced sealing practices by the mid-3rd millennium BC. In contrast, evidence of such seals and seal impressions in the Cyclades (the islands that include Therasia) has been scarce and sporadic. This gap in the record left scholars wondering if the Cycladic people simply hadn’t developed complex symbol systems – or if we just hadn’t found them yet.

Against this backdrop, the Therasia discovery is striking. It suggests that an isolated Cycladic community was engaging in a form of symbolic record-keeping or communication long before Minoan writing blossomed. The seal impressions from Therasia come from an Early Cycladic II context (circa 3rd millennium BC), pushing the timeline of Aegean proto-writing back by several centuries. The find hints that the Cyclades, far from being culturally peripheral, may have played a foundational role in the lead-up to writing in the Aegean. As one report put it, the Cycladic islands could have sown “the intellectual seeds of writing… centuries earlier” than Crete.

The Therasia Discovery: A Bronze Age Time Capsule

The two ancient seal impressions were unearthed at a site called Koimisis on Therasia, a small volcanic island in the Santorini archipelago. During excavations of a Bronze Age settlement, a team of archaeologists led by Dr. Konstantinos Sbonias (Ionian University), along with Dr. Vassiliki Papazikou and Dr. Iris Tzachili, discovered a fragmentary pithos (large storage jar) in one of the rooms. This jar handle fragment turned out to be a time capsule: pressed into its clay surface were two distinct seal impressions, preserved perfectly since the jar was kiln-fired over four millennia ago.

Such stamped pottery is itself a rare find in Cycladic archaeology. The fact that two different seals were impressed on the same jar is even more intriguing. The impressions have been labeled THS.1 and THS.2 by the research team (with “THS” denoting Therasia). Scientific dating of the context confirms an age between 2700 and 2300 BC for the vessel and its stamps, predating any known writing system in the Aegean world. In other words, while the palaces of Crete would not see clay tablets and hieroglyphic seals for several centuries, the inhabitants of this small Cycladic island were already experimenting with marking their goods using organized symbols.

The archaeological context suggests that the jar was an imported item: petrographic analysis of the clay shows it likely came from Naxos, a larger island about 100 km away. This indicates active inter-island trade in the Early Bronze Age Cyclades. The jar may have been traded to Therasia carrying some commodity, and the seals could have been applied to denote the contents, ownership, origin, or some kind of status. The use of marked jars in commerce would be akin to a prehistoric form of branding or labeling, conveying information at a glance. It’s fascinating to imagine merchants of 2500 BC recognizing a seal mark as we recognize a logo today.

The Seal Impressions THS.1 and THS.2: Decoding Their Symbols

THS.1, the first seal impression, is by far the most extraordinary aspect of the find. Imprinted on the upper part of the jar handle, THS.1 consists of a sequence of abstract symbols arranged in what looks like three horizontal rows, almost like lines of text. The individual signs include shapes that resemble leaves, spirals, and other geometric or floral motifs. They are carved in a uniform size and aligned deliberately, creating the appearance of an inscription read in sequence. In total, there are multiple symbols repeated across this impression; the precise count is unclear due to some wear, but researchers report five to seven signs visible in each segment or “field” of the impression. The key point is that the symbols are not randomly scattered or purely decorative – they follow a deliberate order and layout.

Such an organized, repetitive layout is something very unusual for the Early Bronze Age Cyclades. As the Cambridge University study describes, THS.1 “features signs arranged in a linear sequence, creating the impression of an inscription”. In fact, the Therasia team notes that no other find from such an early Cycladic context shows a comparably structured sequence of signs. It appears that the seal used for THS.1 had multiple engraved faces (likely three sides) which were pressed in succession to create a continuous chain of symbols. Multi-faced seals – essentially a prism or stamp with more than one engraved surface – were rare in that era, which suggests that whoever wielded this seal had a special purpose in mind. The careful placement of THS.1 at the top of the handle (where it would be most visible when the jar was upright) underscores that it was meant to be seen and “read”. In essence, THS.1 looks less like a potter’s decorative flourish and more like a deliberate message in symbol form.

What might THS.1’s mysterious symbols mean? The honest answer is we don’t know – there is no Rosetta Stone for these prehistoric markings. However, archaeologists have proposed plausible functions. The linear arrangement strongly hints at a communicative purpose: perhaps the seal spelled out an owner’s name, a title, or the contents of the jar in an abstract way. Another idea is that it could be a kind of emblem or crest associated with a family or a trading group, conveying identity. The conceptual leap here is significant: THS.1 shows an attempt to use repeated symbols systematically, which scholars see as a “rudimentary communication system” – a stepping stone toward writing proper. While these symbols likely didn’t correspond to spoken words or sounds (as true writing does), they do appear to encode information beyond mere decoration. As one analysis put it, “their alignment and repetition imply a conceptual leap toward structured symbolic thought. This is a key step in the development of true writing.”

In contrast, THS.2, the second seal impression on the same handle, is of a different character. Stamped on the lower part of the handle, THS.2 bears a more traditional decorative motif typical of Early Bronze Age Cycladic art. Its design features geometric patterns – notably triangles and meandering lines – which are common on Cycladic seals and pottery. THS.2 doesn’t convey an obvious sequence or “text” but rather looks like an ornamental stamp or a marker of ownership or quality. Similar designs have been found on other islands, so this seal falls squarely in the known Cycladic glyptic (seal-carving) tradition. In essence, THS.2 likely served as a visual tag or a status symbol, perhaps indicating the maker or asserting a certain prestige, without encoding a specific message in the way THS.1 seems to.

Seal THS.2 displays decorative Cycladic motifs such as triangles and meanders, typical of the era’s aesthetic style. Credit: Konstantinos Sbonias, Iris Tzachili, Vasiliki Papazikou

The combination of both seal impressions on one object is especially enlightening. Having one seal that appears “textual” and another that is decorative on the same jar suggests a surprisingly sophisticated labeling system for such an early period. It’s as if one stamp was used to convey practical information (like content or origin) and the other to convey status or simply to beautify – a dual-purpose approach. This dual stamping implies the people of Therasia had a nuanced understanding of symbols, using them in multiple ways simultaneously. It’s a bit like how today a product might have both a barcode (for information) and a brand logo (for identity and appeal). The Therasia jar hints that even in 2500 BC, people had begun to deploy symbols in a layered fashion.

Trade, Identity, and “Proto-Writing” in the Cyclades

Why would a Cycladic island community start using such complex seal imagery? The clues lie in the interconnected world of the ancient Aegean. The fact that Therasia’s jar itself came from Naxos points to lively trade networks. Goods – whether olive oil, wine, grains, or other commodities – were moving among the islands. In such a context, seals could serve a practical need: marking containers to indicate ownership, origin, or contents. We know that in other ancient societies, administrative sealing was a precursor to writing. For example, in Mesopotamia, clay tags and cylinder seals were used to label goods long before cuneiform writing was fully developed. A similar dynamic may have been at play in the Cyclades. The Therasia seals might represent an early administrative or commercial notation system – a way to “label” a pithos so that everyone would know whose it was or what was inside, even if they couldn’t read in a literate sense.

The symbolic experimentation evident in THS.1 also had a cultural dimension. Cycladic art is famous for its stylized figurines and bold geometric patterns. The people of the Cyclades clearly ascribed meaning to visual symbols, whether in religious, personal, or economic contexts. The researchers note that multi-faceted seals like the one used for THS.1 are virtually unheard of in that era, which implies a conscious innovation. “The use of multi-faceted seals (with more than a single engraved face) was unusual at the time,” the study observes, “indicating the person who applied THS.1 aimed to communicate something more nuanced than a mere ownership mark.” In other words, the seal user on Therasia was pushing the envelope of what seal art could do – moving from simple marks towards a system of signs with its own internal syntax.

It is also telling that not long after this period, early forms of script do begin to appear on Crete. Scholars have long theorized that the idea of writing often evolves out of earlier accounting or labeling practices. The Therasia evidence fits that pattern: it sits at the nexus of trade, art, and communication. We see a community leveraging symbols for economic exchange (the jar, the trade from Naxos) and at the same time embedding those symbols with meaning and structure (the THS.1 “inscription”). This convergence of commerce and communication may have been the crucible in which writing was born. Indeed, the presence of two distinct seals on the jar – one possibly conveying functional info, the other a kind of signature or brand – suggests a society on the cusp of developing a true recording system.

Rethinking the Origins of Aegean Writing

The discovery on Therasia has profound implications for how we view the dawn of writing in the Aegean. Until now, the mainstream narrative placed the genesis of Aegean literacy on Crete, where the Minoans developed their scripts (Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A) in the Middle Bronze Age. The Cycladic islands, by contrast, were thought to have no part in that story – at least no direct contribution. They were often seen as secondary players who eventually fell under the cultural influence of Minoan Crete. But the Therasia seals upend this Crete-centric view. If the Cycladic people were already experimenting with quasi-script symbols centuries before the Cretan palace administrations, it suggests that the innovation of writing may have been a more distributed process across the Aegean.

Instead of a single “invention of writing” by the Minoans, we might envision multiple parallel experiments in symbolism happening in different places – with the Cyclades now emerging as a potential pioneer. Dr. Sbonias and his colleagues stop short of claiming that Therasia had a true script, but they argue that what we see at Koimisis “forms part of the cognitive and practical processes that led to the invention of writing.” In their measured view, THS.1 and similar seal impressions would represent a crucial developmental stage: not writing itself, but the missing link between simple iconography and full-fledged writing. It’s a bit like finding a proto-alphabet – something that isn’t quite an alphabet yet, but you can see how the pieces could eventually come together.

One exciting question is how this Cycladic experiment might relate to the scripts that came later. Could the Therasia symbols be an ancestor (or at least a cousin) of the Cretan Hieroglyphic signs? The orderly rows of THS.1 do bring to mind the pictographic tablets and seal stones of Minoan Crete that appear a few hundred years later. Some of the motifs – spirals or foliage-like shapes – even resemble symbols that turn up in later Cretan contexts, according to the researchers. It’s conceivable that as people moved and traded among islands, these ideas spread: the notion of using a multi-faced seal or a sequence of signs might have traveled or been reinvented on Crete, contributing to the emergence of the Minoan writing systems. If future excavations uncover more such sealings in the Cyclades, we might find direct links – for instance, a symbol on a Cycladic seal that matches one in Linear A’s repertoire. As one report noted, “If archaeologists unearth additional seals such as these, they could directly link them to the development of writing systems like Linear A and Linear B.”

At the very least, Therasia teaches us that the Cyclades were not simply passive bystanders in the story of writing. They were an active arena of innovation. The Cycladic islanders of 2500 BC were navigating a world of commerce and interaction, and in the process they were likely grappling with how to record and transmit information. This find forces historians to broaden their view and consider that the cradle of Aegean writing might not have been only the palaces of Crete, but also the small villages and trade outposts of islands like Therasia. In essence, the Aegean may have had multiple cradles of literacy.

Conclusion: A Small Island’s Big Contribution

Therasia’s Early Bronze Age seals offer a rare and illuminating snapshot of a transitional moment in human history – the moment when meaningful symbols edged closer to written language. The researchers have wisely urged caution: “the evidence from Koimisi does not support the existence of a formal script”, they explain, “it highlights the processes that led to the emergence of writing – particularly the use of seals as one of the earliest media for encoded symbolic transmission in the Aegean.” In other words, what was found on Therasia is not writing as we usually define it (there’s no alphabet or syllabary), but it is part of the story of how writing came to be. The Therasia seals show that even without a true writing system, people were already bridging the gap between art and information, using symbols with intention and consistency.

As research continues, this humble volcanic island could become a key reference point in Aegean prehistory. The Therasia seals, though limited in number, provide invaluable insight into the symbolic experimentation happening over four millennia ago. They might represent one of the earliest attempts by Aegean peoples to record meaning, assert identity, and communicate across time and space using marked signs. In a poetic sense, they are voices reaching out from 4,500 years ago, telling us that the urge to write – to make thoughts visible and permanent – was alive even in those early Cycladic communities.

The full significance of the find will become clearer if and when more examples come to light. Archaeologists are hopeful that similar seal impressions might be found at other Cycladic sites, strengthening the case that this was a broader practice and not an isolated quirk of Therasia. Each new discovery could help connect the dots between these proto-symbols and the later scripts of Minoan and Mycenaean civilization. As one commentary observed, the Therasia seals “may turn out to be a vital missing link in the story of how humans in the Aegean first began recording meaning”. It’s remarkable to think that a single jar handle, buried for millennia in volcanic soil, is now challenging us to reconsider where and how the written word was born in the Aegean. Such finds remind us that history is not a fixed script but a living draft – one that can still surprise us with new chapters from the distant past.

Tromelin Island: The Forgotten Story of Slavery, Survival, and Resilience in the Indian Ocean

In 1761, the French ship L’Utile, operated by the French East India Company, was clandestinely transporting 160 Malagasy individuals for the illegal slave trade when it wrecked on a desolate sandbank in the Indian Ocean, later named Tromelin Island. While the white crew and some slaves survived the initial disaster, they were stranded on an inhospitable islet lacking fresh water and essential resources. Initially, cooperation prevailed as survivors constructed a makeshift vessel, La Providence, from the ship’s remnants. However, upon its completion, the crew departed on September 27, 1761, leaving behind approximately 80 Malagasy captives with a promise of rescue that never materialized.

For fifteen years, these abandoned individuals exhibited remarkable resilience. They built shelters from ship debris and coral, fashioned tools from metal scraps, and sustained themselves on turtles, bird eggs, and fish. Their ingenuity extended to weaving clothing from braided feathers. Archaeological excavations led by Max Guérout have uncovered artifacts that attest to their resourcefulness and determination to survive under extreme conditions.

In 1776, the French ship La Dauphine arrived, rescuing the remaining eight survivors—seven women and an eight-month-old child. They were taken to Mauritius and granted freedom. However, fearing re-enslavement, they declined to return to Madagascar. Subsequent historical records offer little insight into their lives post-rescue, reflecting a broader pattern of erasure of enslaved peoples’ narratives.

The tragedy of Tromelin Island serves as a stark reminder of the brutalities of colonialism and slavery. It underscores the systemic disregard for human life inherent in these institutions. Today, Tromelin stands not only as a geographical location but also as a symbol of resilience and a call to acknowledge and preserve the histories of those who endured such profound injustices.

Tomb of Egypt’s Second Greatest Pharaoh Discovered

A team of archaeologists has made a groundbreaking discovery: the long-lost tomb of Thutmose II, an ancestor of Tutankhamun and one of the last great rulers of Egypt’s 18th Dynasty. Until now, the final resting place of this historically important pharaoh had remained elusive.

At first, researchers believed they had uncovered the tomb of a royal wife. But as excavations progressed, they revealed an impressive entrance, a grand staircase, and burial chambers decorated with vivid scenes from the Amduat — an ancient Egyptian funerary text describing the soul’s journey through the underworld. Among the artifacts, the team found alabaster vessels inscribed with the names of Pharaoh Thutmose II and his wife Hatshepsut, confirming the tomb belonged to the king himself — a first for Egyptology since the discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb.

A Tomb Damaged by Time, but Rich in Clues

Although the tomb suffered significant damage from ancient flooding, parts of its contents were remarkably well-preserved. These finds offer valuable insights into the burial practices and political atmosphere of the time. There is also evidence suggesting that the pharaoh’s mummy may have been moved to a second, as-yet-undiscovered burial chamber.

Who Was Thutmose II?

Thutmose II ruled Egypt for a brief period, from 1493 to 1479 BCE. He was the son of Pharaoh Thutmose I and married his half-sister, the iconic Queen Hatshepsut. Despite being overshadowed by his powerful wife — who took the throne after his death — and by his son, Thutmose III, one of ancient Egypt’s greatest military leaders, Thutmose II played a key role in the royal lineage that led to the Golden Age of the New Kingdom.

What This Means for Science and History

For the global archaeological community, this discovery is a landmark moment.

“With this monumental success, we’ve solved one of ancient Egypt’s greatest mysteries: the location of one of the early kings of the 18th Dynasty,” said Dr. Piers Litherland, director of the excavation team.

But the find doesn't just bring answers — it also raises new questions. One major point of debate is the mummy labeled CG61066, previously believed to be Thutmose II. New evidence suggests the age at death does not match historical records, a detail that could reshape long-held assumptions.

The international team behind the discovery, composed of Egyptian and British archaeologists, has been working in the area for over 12 years. Their next goal is to locate the second tomb mentioned in ancient sources, which may hold the actual remains of the pharaoh.

Archaeologists Uncover Three Exceptional Roman Mosaics — Rare Dolphin Imagery Sparks New Questions

Archaeologists in Austria have unearthed three remarkably well-preserved Roman mosaics, one of which features an unexpected depiction of dolphins — a rarity in this part of Europe that’s prompting fresh debate among researchers.

The discovery was made in Talschheim, near the city of Wels, and includes a series of stunning artworks:

• One mosaic shows a krater, a large ceremonial vessel with curved handles traditionally used for mixing wine, outlined with an elegant decorative border.

• Another features a symmetrical geometric pattern, meticulously crafted with precision and balance.

According to the excavation team, these findings support the hypothesis that the site was once a residential building, likely an urban Roman villa, reflecting the elevated social status of its inhabitants.

A Unique and Unusual Depiction

Local authorities emphasized the exceptional nature of the find, both in terms of preservation and the iconographic content of the mosaics.

“This discovery holds a prominent place within the regional archaeological landscape,” officials stated. “Although significant finds have been made across the country in recent years, the site at Talschheim stands out due to its artistic variety, architectural context, and scientific importance.”

Mosaics Soon to Go on Display

The excavation will continue through June 6, after which the mosaics will be moved to the Linz Castle Museum, currently undergoing renovations. The pieces will become part of a new archaeological exhibition.

Beginning June 10, the public will have the opportunity to see the mosaics in person, both in the museum and on-site, where guided tours of the excavation will allow visitors to view the structural remains and mosaics in their original context.

Rethinking the Roman North

With this discovery, Talschheim is poised to take its place on the map of Roman archaeological sites in the Alpine north. But what’s drawing the most attention is the dolphin motif — an artistic element rarely found outside the Mediterranean basin.

This unusual inclusion raises intriguing questions about the artistic and symbolic connections between the northern provinces of the Roman Empire and the cultural centers of the South. Could this be evidence of deeper trade, migration, or influence than previously understood?

As excavations continue, scholars hope these mosaics will not only illuminate daily life in Roman Austria but also offer a new lens on the artistic currents that flowed across the Empire.

Was Alexander the Great’s Best Friend Buried in a Solstice-Aligned Tomb? New Study Uncovers Astronomical Clues

A monumental tomb in northern Greece—possibly built for Hephaestion, the beloved friend and bodyguard of Alexander the Great—may have been carefully aligned to the winter solstice, allowing sunlight to illuminate its interior on the year’s darkest day. That’s the bold conclusion of a new study that re-examines the Kasta monument near the ancient city of Amphipolis.

Discovered in 2014, the Kasta tomb has long intrigued archaeologists and historians. Its immense size, ornate carvings, and multiple burials suggested it was reserved for someone of exceptional significance. Now, a fresh astronomical analysis hints that its builders may have infused the tomb with cosmic symbolism, linking death with light, rebirth, and celestial order.

A Sunlit Secret in the Stones

Independent researcher Demetrius Savvides used 3D modeling and the astronomical software Stellarium to simulate the position of the sun in 300 BCE. He discovered that on December 21, the winter solstice, sunlight would have reached deep into the tomb’s burial chamber, fully illuminating it between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. local time.

A 3D model of the tomb. By using astronomical software, a researcher determined that sunlight would have reached the burial chamber during the winter solstice. (Image credit: Image courtesy of Demetrius Savvides)

Intriguingly, this alignment wasn’t part of the tomb’s original design—Savvides argues that the builders altered the plan mid-construction to align the chamber with the solstice. The implication? A deliberate intention to time the light’s arrival with a moment of deep symbolic power, representing renewal, resurrection, and cosmic harmony.

“It is highly probable that rituals were held within or near the Kastas Monument, especially around the winter solstice,” Savvides told Live Science.

Echoes of Divine Myth and Symbolism

Savvides' interpretation finds support in the tomb’s artistic decoration. The Kasta monument features a mosaic of Persephone, goddess of agriculture and queen of the underworld—herself a symbol of death and seasonal rebirth. Elsewhere, possible depictions of Cybele, a mother goddess associated with fertility, and Attis, a dying-and-rising vegetation god, reinforce the theme of cyclical life and death.

Savvides argues that this convergence of myth, light, and architecture would have sent a powerful message to ancient viewers: death is not the end, but part of a greater cosmic rhythm.

A Tomb Worthy of Hephaestion—or Alexander?

The Kasta tomb has stirred debate since its discovery. Though five individuals’ remains were found inside, scholars have speculated that the grand scale and quality of the site suggest it was intended for someone of the highest rank. Many point to Hephaestion, Alexander the Great’s closest companion, who died in 324 BCE. His loss plunged Alexander into profound mourning, and he is known to have ordered monumental honors for his fallen friend.

Savvides goes further: the Kasta tomb’s architectural sophistication and solar alignment may even resemble what Alexander would have desired for himself. “The use of solar illumination and a consistent geometric design aligns with Hellenistic traditions,” Savvides noted, “where rulers like Alexander used solar symbolism to reinforce their divine authority.”

Could Alexander's long-lost tomb—presumed to be somewhere in Alexandria—feature similar astronomical alignment? If so, the Kasta monument might offer more than just insight into Hephaestion’s final resting place; it could be a blueprint for royal burials in the Hellenistic world.

Not Everyone Is Convinced

Despite the compelling visuals and creative modeling, not all experts are ready to embrace the winter solstice theory.

Juan de Lara, a University of Oxford scholar who has studied ancient Greek architecture and celestial alignments, praised the study’s ambition but urged caution.

“I think it’s great that scholars are asking these questions and using this technology,” de Lara said. “But we must be careful when interpreting such alignments as intentional. The Macedonians used a lunisolar calendar, meaning their winter solstice shifted from year to year.”

This calendrical drift, combined with frequent winter cloud cover in northern Greece, could have made the sun’s dramatic entrance into the burial chamber difficult to predict or even observe consistently. In other words, if the alignment was intentional, it may not have delivered the visual spectacle we imagine today.

A Glimpse into a Forgotten World

Still, Savvides' research taps into a larger, growing field: how ancient civilizations used astronomy, architecture, and symbolism to express beliefs about life, death, and power. Whether or not the Kasta tomb was definitively aligned with the winter solstice, the idea that ancient builders may have woven the cosmos into their monuments reminds us how sophisticated—and deeply spiritual—Hellenistic culture could be.

And if Alexander the Great's tomb is ever discovered, we may find the same dance of light and stone waiting for us there.

Secrets Behind Athenian Warship Names Revealed: A Psychological Strategy at Sea?

A fascinating new study published in the Journal of Maritime Archaeology has shed light on an overlooked aspect of ancient Greek naval warfare: the names of Athenian warships. By analyzing 279 trireme names inscribed during the 4th century BCE, researchers concluded that Athenians didn’t choose names at random. Instead, they used them as psychological tools to inspire unity, loyalty, and morale among crews preparing to face the perils of naval combat.

More Than Just Ships: The Role of the Trireme

The Athenian trireme was a marvel of ancient engineering—a swift, maneuverable warship manned by 170 rowers and equipped with a deadly bronze ram capable of crippling enemy vessels. But these vessels were more than floating weapons. They were symbols of Athens’ democratic spirit, technological prowess, and social cooperation.

A trireme in an illustration by E. Keble Chatterton (1911). Credit: Internet Archive Book Images / Wikimedia Commons

Triremes couldn’t have existed without the collective efforts of a complex society. Wealthy citizens helped finance the fleet annually, while people from all walks of life contributed—felling trees, constructing ships, and ultimately rowing into battle. These vessels were the physical embodiment of Athenian identity and unity.

Names That Mattered

Athens relied heavily on its navy to assert dominance across the Aegean Sea. A single defeat could threaten the very survival of the city. As such, every detail of a warship—including its name—was imbued with meaning.

A study led by Dr. Georgios Apeitos of the University of Oxford categorized the names into four distinct themes:

Model of a Greek trireme. In battle she would dispense with masts and sails. Credit: MatthiasKabel / Wikimedia Commons

• Divine and Heroic Associations (24%): Many triremes were named after gods or legendary figures such as Athena, Artemis, and Achilles, reinforcing the idea of divine favor and heroic valor. Curiously, Poseidon, god of the sea, is absent—perhaps because he was implicitly seen as protector of all seafarers.

• Abstract Ideals (19%): Names like Democracy, Justice, and Freedom directly reflected the core values of the Athenian state. Democracy was particularly popular, given to 14 different ships over five decades.

• Natural Forces and Triumph (12%): Names like Lightning, Dawn, and Nike (Victory) evoked strength, speed, and success. Nike was so revered that two ships carried the name simultaneously.

• Animals of Power (4%): Names such as Lioness and Serpent projected fearlessness and cunning, key traits in warfare.

A Tool of Psychological Warfare?

Why put so much thought into naming hundreds of ships? According to the study, it was more than a naming convention—it was a psychological strategy.

The modern trireme Olimpias, in port. Credit: George E. Koronaios / Wikimedia Commons

Sailors, often young and far from home, faced brutal conditions and high mortality rates. Giving each ship a meaningful name created a sense of identity and camaraderie. It was easier to fight for something with a name like Freedom or Achilles than for a faceless vessel.

The ships themselves were designed to feel “alive”—often painted with eyes and adorned with vibrant decorations. Naming them only reinforced that feeling, turning each trireme into a symbol of collective protection and purpose.

When a ship performed well in battle, its name would often be passed down to new vessels, carrying its legacy and maintaining morale through tradition and pride.

Names That Bond Crews

Each year, the crew and trierarch (ship commander) of every trireme were rotated. Yet despite these annual changes, the names helped form a stable psychological bond. The shared identity created by the ship’s name offered cohesion and unity far more quickly than personal relationships alone.

Today, navies around the world still follow this ancient tradition. Warships continue to be named after heroic figures, ideals, or legendary victories—just as the Athenians once did with Ajax, Justice, or Nike.

"We believe Leonardo da Vinci could see things we simply can't," said Jesse Ausubel, co-founder of the Leonardo da Vinci DNA Project.

Breathtaking Beauty: The Archaeological Trail in Livatho That Went Viral — Hundreds Walked in the Footsteps of History!

On Sunday, May 25, 2025, an extraordinary cultural walk captivated the hearts and minds of its participants, drawing a large and enthusiastic crowd. Titled “Walking the Archaeological Trails of Livatho”, the event was part of the Greek Ministry of Culture’s Green Cultural Routes initiative — and it was nothing short of a triumph.

Organized by the Ephorate of Antiquities of Kefalonia and Ithaca, in collaboration with the Municipality of Argostoli, this unforgettable journey led visitors through two of the region’s most iconic heritage sites: the Mycenaean Cemetery of Mazarakata and the historic Castle of Saint George.

Participants were treated to an immersive experience where history and landscape intertwined. As they wandered along the trails, they uncovered lesser-known aspects of Livatho’s rich archaeological legacy — a treasure trove of stories waiting to be told. The fusion of natural beauty, cultural heritage, and hands-on exploration made the walk truly unforgettable for visitors of all ages.

More than just a hike, this initiative embodied the spirit of sustainable cultural development, showing that engaging with history and nature can be both profoundly educational and deeply enjoyable.

This viral success confirms one thing: when culture meets community in the great outdoors, the results can be absolutely breathtaking.

Da Vinci’s DNA: Unlocking the Secrets of a Genius

Leonardo da Vinci’s origins remain as enigmatic as the masterpieces he gave the world — from the Mona Lisa to The Last Supper. A polymath of unmatched creativity and output, he left behind a vast collection of works, many of which are attributed to him without absolute certainty. One fact, however, is indisputable: Leonardo was a genius.

But to what extent did his genius come from his genes? This question doesn’t just concern the Renaissance's ultimate homo universalis, but taps into a broader fascination with the roots of human brilliance. Now, five centuries after he sketched flying machines and immortalized the world’s most famous smile, scientists may be inching closer to an answer, according to The Times of London.

Searching for the Genetic Code of a Genius

We know that Leonardo was the illegitimate son of a Florentine notary and died without direct descendants in France in 1519. Still, over the past decade, researchers have been working to create a complete map of his DNA.

Their efforts relied on the only sources available from the era: parish and family records. Through these, they believe they’ve identified 15 male-line descendants of Leonardo’s father. Six agreed to genetic testing, which revealed they all shared the same Y chromosome — a piece of DNA passed almost unchanged from father to son.

This Y-chromosome data could help resolve one of the long-standing mysteries surrounding the bones believed to be Leonardo’s, currently buried at Château d’Amboise in France’s Loire Valley.

But more importantly, researchers hope that reconstructing Leonardo’s full genome might reveal how his biology contributed to his extraordinary talents, as The Times reports.

Seeing What Others Couldn’t

A painter, engineer, anatomist, and inventor, da Vinci was as fascinated by bird flight as he was by war machines. His notebooks brim with sketches of helicopters, hydraulic systems, and visions of ideal cities.

One theory suggests he possessed an unusually “fast eye” — an ability to freeze fleeting moments in time that others would overlook. It's how, some believe, he captured the forming of Mona Lisa’s smile or the out-of-sync wing beats of a dragonfly.

“He may have seen things that you and I simply can’t,” said Jesse Ausubel, co-founder of the Leonardo da Vinci DNA Project.

A Global Scientific Collaboration

Launched in 2016, the Da Vinci DNA Project involves scientists from Rockefeller University in New York, the J. Craig Venter Institute in California, and the University of Florence. Its central aim is to discover whether Leonardo’s visual acuity — among other gifts — may have had a genetic basis.

Early findings are now being published in Genia da Vinci (The Genius of Da Vinci), a new book by Italian researchers Alessandro Vezzosi and Agnese Sabato.

Clues from Bones and Brushstrokes

The researchers acknowledge the road ahead is long. Excavations are ongoing at Santa Croce Church in Vinci, Leonardo’s birthplace, where bones believed to belong to his grandfather and half-brothers have been unearthed. A male skeleton dated to Leonardo’s era is now under analysis at the University of Florence.

If scientists can match this DNA to the living male descendants of Leonardo’s paternal line, it could unlock the possibility of testing even more uncertain samples — such as skin cells found on Leonardo’s manuscripts and sketchbooks.

Unraveling Da Vinci’s Maternal Lineage

The book also explores Leonardo’s ancestry. Drawing on property records and legal documents, it proposes that his mother, Caterina, may have been of Middle Eastern origin — possibly a slave in the home of a Florentine banker — a theory that has gained traction in academic circles in recent years.

Another fascinating focus is a large charcoal drawing found on the hearth of an old house in Vinci, believed to be Leonardo’s work. It depicts a mythical beast called the “Dragon Unicorn,” featuring a spiral horn, membranous wings, claws, and a twisting tail. Art historians are currently examining the piece, with some noting stylistic similarities to other fantastical creatures drawn by Leonardo.

Final Thoughts

While the mystery of da Vinci’s genius may never be fully unraveled, this remarkable project stands to bring us closer than ever to understanding how biology, creativity, and cultural context intersected in one of history’s most extraordinary minds. Whether encoded in his DNA or shaped by his time, Leonardo da Vinci remains a symbol of limitless human potential.

Has the “Atlantis of the Sands” Been Found? A Lost 5,000-Year-Old Civilization Unearthed on the Arabian Peninsula

A stunning archaeological discovery on the Arabian Peninsula is reigniting interest in one of history’s most captivating legends: the so-called “Atlantis of the Sands.” Researchers have uncovered the remains of a previously lost civilization, believed to be over 5,000 years old, offering fresh insight into early human settlement in one of the harshest environments on Earth.

The Discovery: A Civilization Hidden Beneath the Desert

Archaeologists have brought to light an ancient urban center buried deep within the sands of the Rub' al Khali—also known as the Empty Quarter, the largest contiguous sand desert in the world. Long thought to be inhospitable, this region now appears to have once supported complex human communities with organized infrastructure, trade routes, and agriculture.

The “Atlantis of the Sands”: Myth Meets Reality?

For centuries, explorers and historians have been captivated by tales of a mythical city lost in the desert—Ubar, often referred to as the Atlantis of the Sands. Mentioned in Arab legends and Western exploration accounts, Ubar was said to be a prosperous city that vanished beneath the dunes as punishment for its people’s arrogance.

While the identification of this site as the legendary Ubar remains unconfirmed, the findings align intriguingly with descriptions passed down through oral histories and ancient texts.

A Glimpse into a Forgotten World

Preliminary studies of the site indicate that this civilization had:

• Advanced irrigation systems

• Structured urban planning

• Evidence of trade and long-distance connections

What’s even more remarkable is that this settlement existed thousands of years before many of the better-known ancient civilizations, challenging long-held assumptions about human adaptation in arid regions.

A Turning Point for Archaeology in the Middle East

This discovery doesn’t just shed light on a single lost city—it’s part of a broader effort to redefine the historical narrative of the Arabian Peninsula. Archaeologists hope that ongoing excavations will reveal more about early social structures, technological innovations, and the relationship between human societies and extreme environments.

Conclusion: Legend, Fact, or Both?

Whether or not this ancient city is the fabled Atlantis of the Sands, one thing is certain: history is still hiding in the dunes. As researchers continue to excavate and analyze this monumental site, the story of human civilization in the Middle East grows richer—and more complex—than ever imagined.

Stay tuned. The desert is speaking. And it has stories to tell.

Mysterious Skull Found in Argentina: Ritual Practice, Alien Evidence, or Ancient Surgery?

Archaeologists in Argentina have uncovered a bizarrely shaped skull, igniting a global wave of curiosity. Is it a genuine artifact from an ancient civilization, or something far stranger—perhaps even evidence of extraterrestrial life? Here’s what we know so far.

The Find: A Skull with an Unusual Shape

The discovery took place in San Fernando, in Argentina’s Catamarca Province, during the installation of a new water system. Workers stumbled upon two burial urns—one containing a complete human skeleton, and the other holding a portion of a skull with an unusually elongated form.

Photos of the skull quickly made headlines. Its distinctive shape strongly resembles the stereotypical "alien" look popularized by films like Mars Attacks!, sparking wild theories about its origins.

Alien Origins or Cultural Practice?

Some local media even dubbed the skull an “antman,” drawing a curious connection to the ancient Greek myth of the Myrmidons—a people said to live in complex underground nests filled with treasure.

Despite these outlandish ideas, archaeologists believe there’s a far more grounded explanation: the skull likely underwent artificial cranial deformation, a common practice among pre-Columbian civilizations in South America.

Cranial Deformation: Ritual or Abuse?

Artificial cranial deformation involved shaping the heads of infants by binding them with bandages or wooden boards to mold the skull into a desired form—often elongated, rounded, or conical. Key facts:

• Performed during infancy while skull bones were still soft

• Common among cultures like the Ciénaga and Aguada (3rd to 12th centuries CE)

• Used to signify social rank or ethnic identity

Professor Rick Schulting from the University of Oxford notes:

“There’s no evidence that this practice caused harm to the child.”

Child’s Skull or Medical Condition?

Dr. Heidi Dawson-Hobbis, a biological anthropologist, observed that the skull might belong to a child, and the unusual shape could be linked to a neurological condition such as hydrocephalus—a buildup of fluid in the brain. Still, with limited evidence, no diagnosis can be confirmed.

Other Deformation Practices: Trepanation

Another fascinating and often misunderstood practice is trepanation—the surgical removal of part of the skull, either for medical treatment or ritualistic reasons. This highlights the surprisingly deep understanding ancient cultures had of both anatomy and symbolism.

What Do Experts Say?

The University of Catamarca released a statement:

“Interpreting these findings offers an opportunity to deepen our relationship with the past and honor the cultural practices of our ancestors.”

Excavations are ongoing, and the site has been sealed off and secured to preserve its integrity.

Final Thoughts: Culture or Contact?

The discovery of this mysterious skull:

• Highlights ancient rituals that shaped the human body

• Opens up dialogue between myth and science

• Reinforces the importance of cultural understanding when exploring history

As always, the final word will come through scientific analysis—and it may reveal more than we ever imagined.

Over 100 Prehistoric Structures Uncovered in Spanish Cave Reveal Ancient Human Activity

Archaeologists from the University of Alicante and the University of Zaragoza have uncovered more than 100 prehistoric structures deep within the Cova Dones cave system in Valencia, Spain—a discovery that sheds new light on early human activity and ritual behavior.

Originally revealed in 1821 when an earthquake opened its entrance, Cova Dones is a sprawling cave extending over 500 meters in depth. Known for its remarkable Palaeolithic rock art, the site contains one of the most extensive collections of ancient paintings and engravings along the eastern Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula.

Among the cave’s rich visual legacy are over 100 works of rock art, including at least 19 animal figures such as horses, stags, aurochs, and female red deer (hinds)—all dating back approximately 24,000 years.

Mysterious Speleofacts: A Window into Prehistoric Symbolism

In their latest study, researchers have identified more than 100 speleofact structures—prehistoric formations made from broken and reassembled stalagmites. These aren’t natural rock arrangements; they are the result of deliberate human modification, possibly with symbolic, ritualistic, or functional purposes.

“The presence of calcitic regrowth on some of the fractures suggests that at least part of these interventions occurred during prehistoric times,” said a spokesperson from the University of Alicante. “This will be further verified through an ongoing multidisciplinary investigation.”

Speleofacts like these may have played a spiritual or ceremonial role, possibly related to early cosmological beliefs or communal rites. Other theories suggest they functioned as markers, barriers, or navigational aids within the cave’s interior.

A Broader Prehistoric Pattern

This isn’t the first time such structures have been found. One of the most striking parallels is Bruniquel Cave in France, where Neanderthals built circular arrangements of broken stalagmites roughly 175,000 years ago—indicating that the intentional manipulation of cave formations was a long-standing tradition among early humans.

Now, archaeologists at Cova Dones are launching an in-depth research project that combines geomorphological analysis, archaeological excavation, and advanced dating techniques to determine when exactly these speleofacts were created and how they may have been used.

As one of the most promising archaeological sites in the region, Cova Dones is gradually revealing a hidden chapter of human prehistory, where art, ritual, and survival intersected beneath the earth’s surface.

Divine Mother or Anatolian Priestess? Interpreting "Ma-te-re Te-i-ja" in Light of Maija Gierhart’s New Study on Linear B Tablets

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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In her 2025 Master’s thesis at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Mother Goddess or Divine Mortal? A Reconsideration of ma-te-re te-i-ja in PY Fr 1202, Maija Oline Gierhart offers a bold reinterpretation of one of the most enigmatic figures in the Linear B corpus: ma-te-re te-i-ja, recorded uniquely in the Pylos tablet PY Fr 1202. Long assumed to be a mother goddess—perhaps an early form of Demeter or even Kybele—this figure has been shrouded in scholarly speculation, often entangled in anachronistic assumptions or the urge to project later Greek religion onto Mycenaean material.

Gierhart’s thesis breaks from these inherited models. Through a careful contextual and linguistic analysis, she argues that ma-te-re te-i-ja should not be seen as a deity at all, but rather as a “divine mortal”—a priestly figure analogous to the Anatolian šiwanzanniš, a title known from Hittite texts and typically applied to queens who held ritual authority. This reinterpretation not only reconfigures our understanding of the PY Fr 1202 tablet but also situates Mycenaean religious practice within broader networks of diplomatic and cultic exchange across the Aegean and western Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age.

This article presents the main findings of Gierhart’s thesis in a clear, structured format, intended as an accessible and respectful representation of her original contribution.

Context: The Perfumed Oil Tablets from Pylos

PY Fr 1202 is part of a broader class of Linear B texts known as the Fr tablets, which detail the production and disbursement of perfumed olive oil from the palace of Pylos. These tablets, often linked to religious offerings, were economic records—administrative documents that nonetheless give precious insight into the ideological and ceremonial dimensions of Mycenaean society.

© Hellenic Ministry of Culture (HOCRED)
© The Palace of Nestor Excavations, Department of Classics, University of Cincinnati (photo by Emile Seraphis)
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Tablet PY Fr 1202, along with its counterpart PY Fr 1206, is distinctive for two reasons: it records an unusually large amount of oil (approximately 160 liters), and it includes a rare personal or divine name—ma-te-re te-i-ja. This name does not appear anywhere else in the corpus. The similarity in handwriting and findspot of PY Fr 1202 and PY Fr 1206 (both written by the same scribe, Hand 2, and found in Room 38 of the Palace of Nestor) has led scholars to treat them as thematically linked.

PY Fr 1206 refers to po-ti-ni-ja a-si-wi-ja—that is, “Potnia of Assuwa (Asia?),” likely a reference to a goddess associated with the Anatolian region of Assuwa. This tablet has been widely interpreted as evidence of either Anatolian cult importation into Pylos or cross-Aegean religious transactions. Gierhart uses this contextual framework to inform her reading of PY Fr 1202, while at the same time questioning the assumptions that have traditionally led to interpreting ma-te-re te-i-ja as a deity.

Challenging the “Mother Goddess” Paradigm

The designation ma-te-re te-i-ja has typically been read as a theonym, translated either as “Mother of the Gods” or “Divine Mother.” Gierhart systematically critiques these interpretations.

First, she addresses the linguistic construction. In Mycenaean Greek, te-i-ja (equivalent to Classical Greek θεῖα) is most likely an adjective meaning “divine,” not a genitive phrase like “of the gods.” Thus, the phrase more accurately reads “Divine Mother,” not “Mother of the Gods.” While this may seem a minor distinction, it significantly undermines efforts to identify the figure with the later Greek goddess Meter Theon (Μήτηρ Θεῶν) or the Phrygian Kybele. Gierhart notes that such identifications are rooted more in retrojection than evidence: Kybele’s cult is well-attested only from the Iron Age onward and is primarily Phrygian, not Mycenaean.

She also critiques the popular idea—based on early 20th-century scholarship—that the Minoan and Mycenaean world centered around a pan-Mediterranean “Great Mother Goddess.” Drawing on the critiques of scholars like Sarah Morris and Lisa Bendall, Gierhart argues that these universalizing models are methodologically flawed and often reflect modern cultural ideologies more than ancient realities.

The Anatolian Connection: Reinterpreting the Evidence

The core of Gierhart’s argument is comparative. She proposes that the title ma-te-re te-i-ja is a Mycenaean rendering of the Hittite šiwanzanniš—a priestly title, often translated as “mother of the god,” borne by royal women with ritual functions in Hittite religious life. The šiwanzanniš was not a deity but a queen or high priestess with sacral authority, capable of overseeing cultic offerings and public ceremonies.

By interpreting ma-te-re te-i-ja as a translation of this title, Gierhart reframes the Linear B tablet not as a record of worship toward a deity, but as a disbursement of oil—possibly a year’s worth—to a high-ranking woman, probably abroad. This reading is strengthened by the extraordinarily large quantity of oil involved, which far exceeds the amounts recorded for local deities such as Poseidon or Potnia.

She further points out that the month recorded on PY Fr 1202—me-tu-wo ne-wo, “Month of New Wine”—suggests that the offering coincided with a seasonal or ritual event. This, too, is consistent with gift exchange or ritual diplomacy between ruling elites across the Aegean and Anatolia.

Supporting Evidence: The Use of Theios in Early Greek

Gierhart reinforces her argument by turning to the usage of the adjective θεῖος (divine) in Homeric and Hesiodic poetry. There, the term is rarely used for major gods. Instead, it frequently describes mortals of high status—kings, warriors, and bards—and occasionally minor divine figures like river gods or nymphs. For instance, Thetis, the divine mother of Achilles, is called μήτηρ θεῖα—a strikingly close parallel to ma-te-re te-i-ja.

This suggests that, in archaic Greek usage as well as Mycenaean, theios may have connoted divine favor or sacred function without implying that the person so described was a full deity. It fits, therefore, with a mortal woman of ritual status: a queen-priestess, not a goddess.

Diplomacy, Identity, and Religious Exchange

What, then, was the nature of this priestess, and why would she appear in the Pylian archives?

Gierhart explores several possibilities. The recipient of the oil could have been an Anatolian noblewoman—perhaps even a former princess married into the Pylian elite. Hittite records mention political marriages between Anatolian women and Ahhiyawan (Mycenaean) kings. In such cases, these women often retained priestly roles. Alternatively, she might have remained abroad, and the oil represents a diplomatic gift dispatched across the sea.

She draws parallels with PY Fr 1206, where the oil offering to Potnia of Assuwa may also have been sent outside the Mycenaean sphere. Bendall has noted that the volume of oil in these tablets far exceeds typical local offerings and is consistent with ceremonial shipments—perhaps annual tributes or diplomatic gestures. Such interpretations place Mycenaean Greece within the interregional exchange systems of the Late Bronze Age, resembling the political and religious networks documented in Hittite and Ugaritic archives.

Conclusion: From Divine Name to Sacred Role

Maija Gierhart’s thesis contributes significantly to the study of Mycenaean religion and international diplomacy in the Late Bronze Age. By reinterpreting ma-te-re te-i-ja not as a goddess, but as a translated title for a sacred mortal, she draws attention to the nuanced ways in which language, identity, and ritual status intersected in palace societies.

Her analysis avoids both the overly theological and overly literal approaches of previous decades. Instead, she restores to the PY Fr 1202 tablet its true complexity—as a document reflecting the palace’s role not only in religious administration but in cross-cultural negotiation, religious diplomacy, and elite female agency.

In doing so, Gierhart opens a path toward reevaluating other ambiguous figures in the Linear B corpus, and more broadly, toward understanding the role of women in Mycenaean and Anatolian religious systems not merely as recipients of cult, but as actors, intermediaries, and holders of sacred power.

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Citation of Original Work:

• Gierhart, Maija Oline. Mother Goddess or Divine Mortal? A Reconsideration of ma-te-re te-i-ja in PY Fr 1202. Master’s Thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2025.

The Rare Square Theater of Calydon: Where Drama Met a Strange Geometry

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Calydon/Kalydon: Mythic City and Sacred Sanctuary

Ancient Kalydon, in western Greece’s Aetolia region, was steeped in legend and worship. In Greek mythology it was founded by Aetolus and named after his son Calydon, and it gained renown as the setting of the Calydonian Boar Hunt—a famous saga in which the goddess Artemis, offended by King Oeneus’s neglect, sent a monstrous boar to ravage the land. Heroes like Atalanta and Meleager converged to slay the beast, linking Kalydon’s name with one of the best pre-Trojan War adventures. The city’s prestige continued into historical times as a major Aetolian center. Homer praised the “lovely” fertile plain of Calydon in the Iliad, and later geographer Strabo noted that Kalydon (and its neighbor Pleuron) had once been the “ornament” of Greece—though by his own era (1st century BC) they had faded into insignificance .

At the heart of Kalydon’s cultural identity was the Laphrion, a sprawling extramural sanctuary dedicated to Artemis Laphria and Apollo Laphrios. This sanctuary, just outside the city’s walls near the main gate, was one of the most important in Aetolia. Archaeology shows the cult was ancient: by the late 7th century BC there were two adjacent temples—one to Artemis and one to Apollo—adorned with painted clay roof tiles. The sanctuary was repeatedly expanded; a grand new temple to Artemis was erected in the 6th century BC, then rebuilt in stone around 400 BC, ultimately boasting a gold-and-ivory cult statue of Artemis crafted by artisans from Naupaktos. Artemis Laphria’s worship was renowned for its fiery annual festival, the Laphria, involving a spectacular sacrifice. Ancient accounts describe how during this festival a towering altar was piled with logs and live animals—deer, boars, wolves, bears, even birds—and set ablaze, with any creatures that leapt from the flames thrown back in by the participants. This dramatic rite underscored Artemis’s fierce aspect, and indeed the cult of Artemis Laphria was so esteemed that when Rome’s Emperor Augustus devastated Calydon and relocated its people, he had the magnificent statue of the goddess transported to Patras, where the Laphria festival continued in her honor. Apollo Laphrios, Artemis’s brother, was venerated alongside her at Kalydon, though Artemis clearly took center stage as the city’s divine protector. Together, their sanctuary was a focal point for regional gatherings, athletic games, and devotion. It is here, on the slopes of Mount Varassova overlooking the Gulf of Corinth, amid a place of myth and piety, that an intriguing architectural gem was discovered: the ancient Theatre of Kalydon, where drama quite literally met geometry.

Unearthing a Rare Square Theatre

Modern eyes first glimpsed Kalydon’s theater only by accident. In the 1960s, construction of a new national road cut across the east slope of Laphrion Hill (also called Lafriou), revealing tiers of stone seats buried in the earth. Initially, archaeologists mistook the remains for a bouleuterion (council hall), perhaps due to their atypical layout. It wasn’t until systematic excavations began—in 2001–2003 and again in 2011–2013 by the Greek Archaeological Service and the Danish Institute at Athens—that the true nature of the structure became clear. The dig uncovered a full-fledged theater, albeit one with a most unusual design. Unlike the familiar fan-shaped Greek theaters of the Classical and Hellenistic world, Kalydon’s theater had a “pi-shaped” plan: its cavea (seating area) wrapped around three sides of the performance space instead of forming a broad semicircle. In place of the typical circular orchestra, Kalydon offered a near-perfect square. The orchestra floor, about 16 by 14 meters in dimensions, forms an almost square stage at the center of the theater. The lowest tiers of seats meet at right angles, creating a rectangular, U-shaped audience arrangement that frames the square orchestra’s north, east, and west sides .

Three sides of the square orchestra in the unearthed theater of Kalydon have seating carved into the hillside. This pi-shaped layout (open to the south) is unique among Greek theaters, which usually featured circular orchestras and fully rounded seating tiers.

Archaeologists identified 31 rows of limestone seats in the theater’s auditorium, organized in straight tiers that form 90° corners at the orchestra’s northeast and northwest edges. This rectilinear geometry is striking—ancient Greek theaters “typically have circular orchestras and semicircular seating arrangements,” as the site’s investigators note. In Kalydon’s case, the lower nine rows of seats belong to an earlier construction phase (Classical period), while the remaining upper seats were added later during a renovation in the Hellenistic era. Intriguingly, the transition between the straight seating sections and the more curved upper tiers is smoothed by slightly rounded corners in the top rows, creating a continuous connection despite the square plan below. The result is a theater that is both angular and flowing—a carefully geometrical design that may reflect advanced architectural planning. In fact, an acoustic study of Kalydon’s theater found that its blueprint was likely calculated with “great care using geometrical shapes—the square, the diagonals, and quarter circles.” By the 4th century BC, Greek mathematicians like Eudoxus and Aristoxenus had formalized geometry and music theory, and the theater’s design seems to echo that sophistication. The square orchestra, for instance, could be inscribed with diagonals and quarters to align sightlines or acoustic focal points. Simulations suggest that in such a Π-shaped theater, the audience’s attention (and sound focus) would naturally center on the middle of the orchestra. The downside was some minor echo in the far corners of the seating, whereas fully semicircular theaters distribute sound more evenly. Thus, the architects of Kalydon achieved generally excellent acoustics in most areas of the audience seating, although later Greek theaters favored a curved design to eliminate those dead spots.

Despite its unorthodox form, the Theatre of Kalydon was a substantial venue. The cavea’s 31 rows could accommodate an estimated 5,000–5,600 spectators, a remarkably large crowd—far exceeding what the small city’s own population would have been. This theater's capacity suggests it served as a venue for significant events that drew attendees from the surrounding region, possibly during festivals or pan-Aetolian gatherings. To support so many viewers, the auditorium was partly hewn into the hillside’s soft sandstone and partly built up with earthen embankments and retaining walls, especially toward the open southern side. The absence of permanent stone staircases (klimakes) between seating sections suggests the use of wooden or removable aisles to access the rows. On the open end of the “U,” where the audience faces south, evidence of a stage building was uncovered, confirming the theatre’s theatrical function. Excavators found the foundations of a broad proskenion (stage facade) just east of the orchestra, including a stylobate that once held 10 to 12 columns. Several Ionic column bases and fragments of capitals survived, indicating the proskenium had elegant colonnades in the Ionic order. In front of the stage, rectangular post holes suggest there were doorways or movable panels, and a drainage duct led runoff to a square cistern—a smart bit of engineering to keep the orchestra dry during performances. Abundant terracotta roof tiles were also found around the stage, showing that parts of the stage building (perhaps a two-story skene at the back and a covered proskenion in front) were roofed. Actors may have performed on a raised logeion (stage platform) accessed by stone ramps flanking the proskenion. In essence, by the 3rd century BC, Kalydon’s theater had all the typical amenities of a Hellenistic theater—save for the atypical shape of its “stage” area.

a Sacred Space or a Showplace? Functions of the Square Stage

Why did Kalydon’s theater take on this rare square form? Its evolving role and the sanctuary's primacy in its construction likely provide the answer. Archaeologists have discerned at least two major construction phases at the site, suggesting the space did not begin as a standard drama theater. The earliest phase (the lower nine seat rows) may date to the Classical period (5th–4th century BC), before the Hellenistic-stage addition. Some scholars speculate that this original construction wasn’t a theater at all but perhaps a political assembly area or cult venue. Researchers even published the structure's discovery as a potential bouleuterion (town hall). Dr. Lazaros Kolonas, who led early excavations, proposed a compelling theory: the square orchestra might reflect an initial use for mystery cult rituals or religious gatherings, long before plays were staged there. The site’s proximity to Artemis’s temple supports this idea. We can imagine rows of spectators (or worshippers) seated on three sides of a square courtyard, observing sacred dances, sacrifices, or initiatory rites in honor of Artemis Laphria or Apollo. This configuration is almost reminiscent of a monumental temenos courtyard or an open-air ecclesiasterium, rather than a typical theater. Indeed, the sanctuary context suggests the space could have hosted ceremonial performances—perhaps chanting choirs, hymns, athletic displays, or reenactments during the annual Laphria festival—that benefited from a broad, flat floor. If the earliest phase served flexible cult purposes, the absence of a permanent stage building makes sense. Archaeologists noted a curious structural detail that might support this: a low retaining wall or terrace break behind the eighth row of seats, possibly demarcating the boundary of the original enclosure. Later, the community dismantled that wall and extended the seating upwards to expand the theater's capacity.

By the Hellenistic period (likely the 3rd century BC, based on pottery finds), Kalydon underwent a theatrical upgrade: the stone proskenion and skene were built, and the cavea was enlarged. From this point on, the complex functioned as a genuine theater for dramatic and musical performances. Rune Frederiksen, one of the site’s modern editors, argues that the peculiar form of the orchestra might have been well-suited to choral performances or pageants involving groups of singers/actors. A square orchestra could accommodate larger choruses or ensemble action that moved in formations different from the circular dances of classical Greek drama. It’s notable that Kalydon’s design essentially puts a premium on frontal viewing: the audience is concentrated on three sides focusing toward the center, which might have been advantageous for certain spectacles or even speeches. Yet Frederiksen and his colleagues do not exclude standard dramatic performances at Kalydon. The discovery of the stage house and ornate facade leaves little doubt that tragedies and comedies—or at least poetic recitations, concerts, and other entertainments—were held here in the city’s heyday. The theater’s impressive size also suggests an intent to serve a broad public. Perhaps during major religious festivals or regional assemblies, Kalydon’s square “theatron” hosted crowds from across Aetolia. Scholars have even speculated that the Aetolian League (the federal state to which Kalydon belonged) might have used the theater for large meetings or festivals, given the seating far exceeds the local populace. In any case, the theater’s function appears to have been multifaceted—a place where sacred ritual, civic gathering, and staged art all overlapped.

The subsequent fate of the theater aligns with Kalydon’s changing fortunes. Archaeological evidence indicates that the theater was no longer in use by the late Hellenistic period and most likely abandoned by the early 1st century BC. This time frame corresponds with the tumult of Roman conquest: after 31 BC, Augustus forcibly resettled the region’s population to his new city of Nicopolis, turning old Kalydon into ruins. In the theater itself, excavators found hints of secondary use—cooking pots, loom weights, and even two human burials—suggesting people sheltered or lived in the derelict structure after its theatrical life ended. One can imagine the grand stone tiers that once hosted Artemis’s devotees and theatergoers eventually becoming just another part of an abandoned hillside, frequented by farmers or squatters. Over time, nature and silence took over, until the modern world rediscovered this sleeping monument.

Theatrical Experiments: From Kalydon to Thorikos and Messene

Kalydon's theater stands out as a rarity of design, yet it is not entirely alone in defying the norms of Greek theater architecture. Throughout antiquity, especially in earlier periods, Greek builders experimented with different stage and seating layouts before the semicircular template became canonical. In fact, some of the earliest theaters known have layouts that make Kalydon’s seem less bizarre in context. A prime example is the Theatre of Thorikos in Attica—often cited as the oldest surviving stone theater (late 6th–5th century BC). Thorikos’s seating plan is elongated and irregular rather than a neat half-circle. Its rows form an almost oval or rectilinear shape, with a central section of seats nearly straight and only the flanks gently curved. Correspondingly, the orchestra of Thorikos is rectangular, about 16×30 meters—significantly longer than wide. The corners of that orchestra are slightly rounded where they meet the cavea, but essentially it is a long rectangle open on one side. Scholars believe this form reflects an early stage of theater development, when choral dances and ceremonies preceded the classical circular orchestra. At Thorikos, tellingly, a small temple of Dionysus stood adjacent to the orchestra, and a rectangular altar occupied part of the orchestra floor. The arrangement suggests that in 5th-century Thorikos, as perhaps in early Kalydon, the theatre area served double duty as a sacred performance ground for Dionysian cult rituals and proto-drama. Only later would standard round orchestras (of about 20 m diameter) become common—a transition that seems to have occurred around the mid-4th century BC. Kalydon’s square stage, then, might be considered a local holdover of an archaic form or a deliberate adaptation to cult practice, persisting into the Hellenistic age.

Another instructive comparison comes from Messene, a large city in the Peloponnese, where the Hellenistic theatre shows innovation of a different sort. The Theatre of Messene, built in the 3rd century BC, conformed to the usual circular orchestra design, but archaeologists have uncovered evidence that its stage buildings were moveable—a remarkable technical feat. Excavations revealed stone tracks (rows of cut grooves) on either side of Messene’s stage and a long storage room behind it. Researchers from Kumamoto University concluded that these tracks were used to roll a wooden proskenion/skene in and out, effectively creating a mobile stage backdrop. In other words, Messene’s architects engineered a way to slide the entire stage facade on wheels, likely to change scenery or convert the venue for different uses. This discovery, along with similar traces at Megalopolis and Sparta, proved that by the late Hellenistic period, Greek theaters could be technologically very advanced—capable of scene-shifting mechanisms over 2,000 years ago. While Messene’s experiment dealt with stage machinery rather than orchestra shape, it underscores a key point: ancient theaters were not all uniform. Different cities, at different times, tailored their theaters to their needs, whether ritual, artistic, or political. Kalydon chose an unusual geometric layout; Thorikos retained an oblong dancing floor; Messene toyed with movable stages. These variations remind us that Greek theater design was an evolutionary process, full of regional quirks and one-off solutions, rather than a monolithic tradition of carbon-copy amphitheaters.

Yet another compelling case, less frequently mentioned in general discussions but highly relevant, is the Theatre of the Demos Evonymos, located in the region of Trachones (modern Alimos) in southern Attica. This theatre, first excavated in the 1960s, is remarkable for its strictly rectangular orchestra—a design that predates and may even foreshadow the square orchestra at Kalydon. Dating roughly to the late 5th to early 4th century BCE, the Evonymos theatre is thought to have served one of the most important demes (districts) of the Athenian polis. The orchestra is laid out as a clean-cut rectangle, not only in floor plan but also in its functional conception: it likely accommodated formal dithyrambic or civic performances, which did not necessarily require the circular dance floor of later dramatic choruses. What makes the Evonymos theatre particularly valuable in this context is that it represents a pre-canonical phase in Attic theatrical evolution. Some scholars argue that rectangular orchestras were perhaps common in the earlier, locally-managed deme theatres before the influence of Dionysian theater architecture from Athens imposed standardized round orchestras. The lack of a curved koilon and the tight geometry of the orchestra at Evonymos show that performance space in the Classical period was still fluid, shaped by practical needs and local traditions more than aesthetic ideals. It is entirely plausible that Kalydon’s architects, working in a provincial and religious context, drew on such archaic Attic models or shared ritual precedents when opting for a rectilinear form.

Legacy of the Square Stage

Today, the ancient theater of Kalydon offers a fascinating glimpse into this diversity of Greek architectural and cultural practice. Often overshadowed by their more famous circular counterparts like Epidaurus, square or rectilinear theaters such as Kalydon’s are gems that illuminate the range of theatrical traditions. In Kalydon’s case, the theater’s very form captures a convergence of influences—religious ritual, civic life, and geometric experimentation. The theater sits at the intersection of drama and sanctuary, where performances can both honor the gods and entertain the people. As one walks among the weathered, blocky rows of its auditorium (some still in situ on the hillside of Evinochori), it’s easy to envision a perpetual front-row seat to history: to the chants of an Artemis cult choir, to the speeches of an assembly, or to the acts of a traveling theater troupe playing out under the Aetolian sky.

Rediscovered in modern times and still under study, the Kalydon theater continues to surprise archaeologists. Recent publications have meticulously documented its architecture in two volumes, confirming that what was once deemed a “so-called theatre or bouleuterion” is indeed a fully developed theatre—but one that bends the rules of Greek design. Its square stage and straight-edged koilon may have been unusual, yet they proved functional and resonant for its community’s purposes. In the broader history of theater architecture, Kalydon now holds a special place: a reminder that the ancient Greeks, famed for their love of symmetry and circles, sometimes thought outside the circle. Here, on the slopes of Kalydon, drama met geometry in the most literal way—leaving us a stone footprint of innovation, piety, and human creativity from over two millennia ago.

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References:

• Lazaros Kolonas, “Theatre of Kalydon – Description” (Diazoma.gr)

• Danish Institute at Athens, Calydon Excavation Project – site reports

• Rune Frederiksen & Olympia Vikatou (eds.), The Ancient Theatre at Kalydon in Aitolia (2024) – via BMCR review

• Tasos Kokkinidis, Greek Reporter: “The Rare Square Theater of Ancient Calydon” (2025)

• Signe Barfoed, “Rediscovering Artemis Laphria at Kalydon” – Proceedings of the Danish Institute at Athens IX (2019)

• Pausanias, Description of Greece 7.18.8–11

• Thorikos Theatre – Ancient Theatre Archive/Diazoma

• Kumamoto Univ. research on Messene theatre (ScienceDaily 2017) .

• Paga, Jessica, “Deme Theaters in Attica and the Trittys System” Published in Hesperia, Vol. 79, No. 3 (2010)

Durupınar Formation: Natural Phenomenon or Noah’s Ark Remnant?

In the rugged terrain of eastern Turkey, a peculiar, ship-shaped formation known as the Durupınar site has long intrigued both scientists and biblical enthusiasts. Located near Mount Tendürek, this 538-foot-long ridge bears a striking resemblance to the dimensions described for Noah’s Ark in the Book of Genesis. Discovered in 1959 by Turkish cartographer İlhan Durupınar during aerial surveys, the site has since been the subject of numerous investigations aiming to determine its origins.

Early explorations, including those by American researcher David Fasold, initially suggested the formation could be the petrified remains of the Ark. However, subsequent studies, including a 1996 peer-reviewed paper co-authored by Fasold, concluded that the structure is a natural geological formation, specifically a syncline composed of sedimentary rocks. The paper highlighted that features interpreted as man-made were, in fact, natural concentrations of minerals like limonite and magnetite.

Despite these findings, interest in the Durupınar site persists. Recent efforts by a team of researchers from the group Noah’s Ark Scans have employed ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to examine the subsurface of the formation. Their scans revealed angular shapes and a tunnel-like feature, which they argue could correspond to the Ark’s internal structure. Soil analyses also indicated differences in organic material and chemical composition within the formation compared to surrounding areas, suggesting possible decayed wood remnants.

While these findings have reignited debates about the site’s significance, the scientific community remains cautious. Many geologists and archaeologists consider the evidence insufficient to support claims of the formation being the remnants of Noah’s Ark, emphasizing the need for more rigorous, peer-reviewed research.

As investigations continue, the Durupınar site stands as a testament to the enduring human fascination with ancient legends and the quest to find tangible connections to them in the natural world.

Massive Bones Belonging to "Colossal Creatures" Discovered During Texas Road Construction

In a remarkable discovery during a routine road construction project in Texas, archaeologists unearthed massive prehistoric bones, believed to belong to “colossal creatures.” The find was made during a salvage excavation related to the expansion of Loop 88—a highway project aimed at easing traffic congestion in the region.

While some of the bones are still being examined, paleontologists are not yet certain whether all of them belong to a single giant ground sloth or if the site includes remains of other Ice Age animals such as mammoths or mastodons.

Collaboration for Preservation

The Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) is working closely with the Texas Tech Museum to properly identify and preserve the findings. In addition, the agency has launched a full archaeological investigation of the area.

Archaeologists at Work During Salvage Excavations.
Photo: Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT)

According to TxDOT, “Texas lacks known sites with evidence of human activity dating back to the megafauna period.” As a result, the current phase is considered “preparatory,” focusing on locating potential human-made artifacts such as broken stone tools or spear points.

No Evidence of Human Activity So Far

So far, there’s been no indication of human presence at the site. Even if human artifacts are eventually found, it wouldn’t be unprecedented—TxDOT has encountered such discoveries during other construction projects in the past.

Should evidence of human activity be confirmed, the construction timeline could face delays. Federal law mandates the preservation of historic and prehistoric sites that contain human remains or cultural artifacts.

“The Cradle of Texas”

While the Loop 88 project covers a 12.4-mile stretch currently being transformed into a high-capacity expressway, archaeologists are paying special attention to sites like the Brazos River in Washington County—often dubbed “the cradle of Texas.” There, over 10,000 human artifacts have been found.

In another notable location, Buttermilk Creek, researchers unearthed spear points dating back between 13,500 and 15,500 years, pushing the timeline of early human settlement in the Americas even further back.

A Prehistoric Treasure Trove

The United States is home to many significant archaeological sites, including the Natchez Trace Parkway in Mississippi and Poverty Point in Louisiana—a 3,500-year-old Native American mound complex.

In an interview with Newsweek, a TxDOT spokesperson explained:
“Once unearthed, these prehistoric finds are transferred to the Texas Tech Museum, where the paleontology department handles the identification process. Experts confirm that while the area is rich in megafauna, there’s currently no evidence of human interaction.”

“We Set Out to Build a Road—And Unearthed Giants”

Chris Ringstaff, project planner with TxDOT’s Environmental Affairs Division, shared in a press release:
“During the environmental assessment for Loop 88, we commissioned an archaeological survey. That’s when we discovered bones from massive prehistoric creatures—what we call megafauna. It’s not uncommon in this region.”

“If we do uncover signs of human presence, we’ll alter our construction plans in compliance with both state and federal preservation laws,” he continued. “If the site turns out to predate human activity and lacks artifacts, we’ll recommend halting further studies and proceed with the project as planned.”

Rebekah Dobrasko, director of Cultural Resources at TxDOT, added:
“Excavations like this are just one of the many steps we take before roadwork begins. It’s our responsibility to protect Texas’ historical legacy.”

What’s Next?

TxDOT, in collaboration with Texas Tech University, will continue to examine and attempt to classify the prehistoric remains. Should any evidence of human activity emerge, adjustments will be made to the Loop 88 construction plan in accordance with federal law.

“Our job is to build roads,” said a TxDOT official, “and we ended up bringing giants from the past to lig

Earthquake Uncovers Ancient Roman Theater – A Remarkable Structure Beneath Sisak

One of the most important archaeological discoveries to emerge from Croatia’s post-earthquake restoration efforts is the unearthing of an ancient Roman theater—a find that has captivated experts and the public alike.

Photos: Ministry of Culture and Media of Croatia

Photos: Ministry of Culture and Media of Croatia

During the full renovation of the town hall in Sisak, a city in central Croatia, workers and archaeologists uncovered the remains of a Roman odeon, a type of small theater, in the building’s basement. The discovery came as a surprise—any memory or record of the structure had long been forgotten.

What Is an Odeon?

In ancient Greece and Rome, an odeon was a relatively small, enclosed theater built for musical performances, poetry readings, and oratory. The word itself derives from the Latin for "concert hall." The odeon's intimate size made it ideal for acoustic performances—particularly important in the era before modern amplification, when early musical instruments couldn’t fill the vast open spaces of larger amphitheaters.

Architectural Details of the Roman Odeon in Sisak

Photos: Ministry of Culture and Media of Croatia

The surviving structures of the Roman odeon discovered in Sisak include the podium, orchestra pit, and several semi-circular rows of stone seating. The theater spans about 20 meters in diameter, providing rare insight into the design of small-scale performance venues during the Roman period.

One of the most notable features is the thymele—a circular or semi-circular space in front of the stage traditionally used for choral and musical performances. This space was uncovered in the building’s basement.

According to Croatia’s Ministry of Culture and Media, the structure is arched in design and built using three parallel rows of stone blocks. With an internal diameter of 20 meters, the layout is consistent with the classic architectural style of Roman odeons.

Layers of History—and New Questions

At a later point in history, a monumental building supported by buttresses was constructed on top of the odeon. This discovery has prompted further archaeological investigation in the courtyard of the town hall to fully understand the site’s transformation over time.

Photos: Ministry of Culture and Media of Croatia

The Sisak Town Hall, originally built in 1914, suffered significant damage in the 2020 earthquake. It was during its renovation that the Roman thymele was revealed. Restoration efforts have now returned the building’s original color, reconstructed its wooden main entrance, and restored the pediment to its historic form.

Photos released by the Croatian Ministry show the odeon both during excavation and after partial renovation. The ruins have been preserved in situ and are now visible to visitors through a glass floor, seamlessly blending ancient history with modern design.

Officials have called the discovery “an extraordinarily valuable find,” offering new evidence about the scale of the ancient Roman city of Siscia.

“All decorative elements have been restored, and the original stone paving has been displayed in front of the town hall’s entrance,” the ministry announced.

A Glimpse Into Roman Urban Life

According to the Ministry of Culture, “this discovery provides new insights into the size of the ancient city and enhances our understanding of the urban development of ancient Siscia.” The presentation of the site within the fully restored town hall was funded by the Ministry of Culture and Media.

Part of a Wider Pattern of Discoveries

This find joins a wave of recent Roman-era discoveries across Europe. In Germany, archaeologists recently uncovered a mass grave of horse skeletons at a Roman military site near Stuttgart. Meanwhile, in March, Italian archaeologists revealed a series of ancient Roman burial mounds, including the tomb of a gladiator, in a necropolis excavation.

Ancient Siscia: A Forgotten Roman Capital

Founded around 35 BCE, Roman Siscia (modern-day Sisak) was established atop an earlier Celtic and Illyrian settlement. It began as a military camp but quickly developed into a major economic and administrative center, complete with its own mint. For a brief period, Siscia was even one of the four capitals of the Roman Empire, before its decline in the mid-5th century CE.

This stunning rediscovery not only highlights the richness of Croatia’s Roman heritage but also shows how moments of devastation—like a natural disaster—can inadvertently unlock the secrets of the past.

Ancient Roman Camp Discovered Beyond Empire’s Borders — How a Student’s Idea Led to This Rare Find

University students and archaeologists have uncovered an ancient Roman camp located beyond the northern boundaries of the Roman Empire.

A team of university students had been sifting through the chalky soil of a site they were exploring, searching for artifacts or any signs of activity dating back to the Roman era. Having studied the area’s history for years, they believed they would find something—and their latest excavation finally confirmed it.

They discovered a “rare” Roman camp situated beyond the empire’s northern frontier—in present-day Netherlands.

But the project didn’t start in the field. It began in an office, where Jens Goeree, a student from the Saxion University of Applied Sciences, developed a computational model to pinpoint where ancient Roman camps might be located. This was explained by Saskia Stevens, archaeologist and professor at Utrecht University, in an interview with McClatchy News.

A section of the defensive trench of the Roman military camp.
Photo: Constructing the Limes

Goeree’s model indicated a possible Roman camp near the settlement of Hoog Buurlo. Professors and students involved in the research program, titled “Constructing the Limes,” then decided to investigate further.

Led by Stevens, the team included students from Saxion University’s Applied Sciences Department and Utrecht University, according to a press release dated May 26.

Defensive Ditch from the Roman Camp

One of the excavation trenches at Hoog Buurlo.
Photo: Constructing the Limes

Initially, the students took aerial photographs of Hoog Buurlo and scanned the area using pulse laser technology—LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)—as Stevens explained.

These scans and images revealed traces of ancient Roman walls, a defensive ditch, and multiple entrances. The team then surveyed the site with metal detectors and conducted several trial excavations, according to Stevens.

Photos show the excavation process and a fragment of a military belt unearthed at the site.

Artifacts and Roman Military Equipment

“Some artifacts were uncovered,” Stevens reported, confirming that Hoog Buurlo once served as a temporary Roman military camp around 1,800 years ago.

“What makes this discovery particularly unique,” Stevens explained in the press release, “is that the camp lies beyond the Roman Empire’s northern border.” This northern frontier—the Roman border forts known as the Limes—was located roughly 22 kilometers from Hoog Buurlo.

Utrecht University described the newly found camp as “rare.” While dozens of temporary camps have been found in Germany and hundreds in the United Kingdom, “only four such temporary Roman camps are known in the Netherlands,” Stevens noted.

Roman Military Equipment Fragment and Diagram Showing Its Use

Typically, Roman soldiers stayed in temporary camps for only a few days or weeks before advancing further. The Hoog Buurlo camp may have served as a stopping point en route to another camp at Ermelo-Leuvenum, reachable after a day’s march, the academics explained.

“With the ‘Constructing the Limes’ project, we focus on these camps because they provide valuable insights into the presence and operations of the Roman army in border regions,” Stevens said.

A piece of military equipment found at the site, along with a diagram illustrating how it was used.
Photo: Constructing the Limes

“They help us understand the routes Roman troops took and demonstrate how extensively the Romans utilized lands beyond the official borders of their empire.”

Hoog Buurlo is located in central Netherlands, about 75 kilometers from Amsterdam.

Unique Discovery of 100 Archaeological Structures Unveils Secrets of a Culture That Resisted the Incas — “The People of the Cloud Forest”

The World Monuments Fund (WMF) has announced the discovery of over 100 previously unknown archaeological structures, enriching the 26 structures initially uncovered in 1980 in the Gran Pajatén area. This breakthrough is the result of an interdisciplinary research program conducted from 2022 to 2024.

The project combined exploration, excavation, preservation, and documentation activities, leveraging advanced technologies. The discovery took place at Gran Pajatén, one of the most significant and enigmatic complexes of the Chachapoya culture, located within the Río Abiseo National Park in the San Martín region of Peru.

A Discovery Without Environmental Disturbance

Among the techniques employed were ground and aerial scanning using LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), photogrammetry, topographic mapping, and techno-morphological analysis. These cutting-edge tools enabled the creation of an exceptionally detailed map of the entire complex—without causing any damage to the fragile ecosystem or the delicate archaeological remains.

The design of the complex proved far more intricate than previously thought. All findings were made without disturbing the ecosystem or the sensitive archaeological structures.

The Chachapoya Culture — “The People of the Cloud Forest”

The Chachapoya, known as “the people of the cloud forest,” thrived between the 7th and 16th centuries along the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes, at elevations ranging from 2,000 to 3,000 meters above sea level.

Their architectural heritage includes circular buildings, ritual terraces, geometric pinnacles, and decorated tombs clinging to cliff faces. Initially, the Chachapoya resisted the expansion of the Inca Empire but were eventually assimilated by the late 15th century, shortly before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors.

A Milestone for Indigenous Heritage

Discovered in 1960, Gran Pajatén has since been considered one of the most important finds related to the Chachapoya civilization. The complex features ritual buildings richly adorned with stone mosaics and human figures in high relief, alongside pinnacles that tower above the surrounding jungle.

However, due to dense foliage and the fragility of the ecosystem, many aspects—such as its function, chronology, and scale—have remained largely unknown.

For the first time, WMF researchers succeeded in uncovering and studying what lies beneath the vegetation without disturbing the ecosystem—an achievement that allowed them to reconstruct the spatial layout and its relationship to the natural environment and nearby settlements.

This discovery significantly expands our understanding of Gran Pajatén and raises new questions about its role within Chachapoya culture, said Juan Pablo de la Puente Brunke, CEO of WMF Peru.

A Connected Network

Evidence now confirms that Gran Pajatén is not an isolated site but part of a complex, interconnected network of pre-Spanish settlements from various time periods.

Recent archaeological studies suggest the site was inhabited by the Chachapoya at least since the 14th century, though soil stratigraphy indicates earlier usage.

Researchers have also documented pre-Hispanic routes linking Gran Pajatén to other centers such as Plaja, Papayas, and Los Pincundos—highlighting its role as part of a hierarchical and well-connected terrestrial network.

Stairs of Building 1 at Gran Pajatén
Photo: Heinz Plenge Pardo

Pioneering Preservation Techniques

The WMF team also carried out conservation work on one of the site’s most significant structures. These efforts focused on controlled vegetation removal, stabilization of walls, filling joints, supporting staircases and stone pinnacles, and partially reconstructing a perimeter wall.

A specially formulated clay mixture was used to stabilize these elements without compromising their authenticity. Dr. Ricardo Morales Gamarra, head of conservation, described the project as a pioneering intervention that will serve as a model for future preservation efforts in the region.

Located within a sensitive ecological zone, visitor access to Gran Pajatén and other parts of Río Abiseo National Park will be restricted to protect the site.

Technology Bringing History to Life

The project’s results were showcased in a public exhibition at Lima’s Museum of Art (MALI). Running until June 18, the exhibit allows visitors to explore Chachapoya culture and delve into the recent findings through striking visual and narrative media that highlight both the region’s cultural richness and the technical complexity of the ongoing work.

What makes this discovery especially remarkable, beyond the sheer number of new structures uncovered, is the method by which it was achieved, notes Bénédicte de Montlaur, WMF president and CEO.

Thanks to advanced technology, the team was able to create detailed visual and scientific documentation that brings Gran Pajatén vividly to life—without putting the environment at risk.