The Ingenious Logistics of Ancient Egyptian Monument Construction

April 4, 2024

The time-worn stones of ancient Egypt's grand monuments are silent witnesses to a past that has long captivated the human imagination. Among the many enigmas these structures present, one of the most persistent has been the question of how these massive stones were moved and erected. There have been many theories, ranging from alien interventions to lost technologies, frequently as a result of the lack of specific evidence describing the procedures used. However, a closer examination of the archaeological records, particularly the wall paintings from the tomb of Djehutihotep, reveals that the ancient Egyptians may have been far more practical and ingenious in their methods than previously thought.

Djehutihotep's Legacy in Stone and Paint

Djehutihotep, a prominent governor during the Middle Kingdom, left behind a tomb adorned with a myriad of scenes depicting daily life and the various labor-intensive activities of his time. One of these murals stands out because it shows a sizable group of workers hauling a massive statue. This scene, previously misinterpreted as a religious procession, is now thought to illustrate a logistical procedure.

The painting captures a moment where a laborer is seen pouring water on the sand before a large sled that carries the statue. This act, initially thought to be part of a purification rite, is now believed by some to be a representation of a clever technique to facilitate the movement of heavy loads. By wetting the sand, the workers could have significantly reduced the friction between the sled and the sand, allowing them to pull the heavy load with less effort.

Reinterpreting Ancient Methods

The scientific community's reinterpretation of this scene is a testament to the evolving nature of archaeological scholarship. Egyptologists like Professor Daniel Bonn have shifted the perspective from a ritualistic interpretation to a practical one, suggesting that the solution to the problem of moving massive stone blocks has been in plain sight all along.

Practicality Over Mysticism

The paradigm shift from a priestly to a practical interpretation of the water in the mural exemplifies the importance of interdisciplinary research in archaeology. By applying physics to the ancient problem, researchers like Bonn offer a plausible explanation that fits both the evidence and what is known of the materials and physics involved. It dismisses the need for mystical or outlandish explanations, positioning the ancient Egyptians not as practitioners of forgotten arts but as clever engineers who utilized the resources and knowledge at their disposal to overcome seemingly insurmountable obstacles.

The Enduring Legacy of Ancient Ingenuity

The recognition of the ancient Egyptians' problem-solving prowess enriches our understanding of their culture and technological capabilities. It dismisses the oft-propagated idea that we are at a zenith of knowledge, reminding us that our ancestors were not mere primitive figures in the annals of history but were, in fact, quite advanced in their understanding of the world around them.

This reevaluation of ancient Egyptian logistics does more than just provide a potential answer to a long-standing question. It invites contemporary scholars and enthusiasts alike to look back at ancient cultures with a renewed respect and curiosity, recognizing that there is much to learn from the way our predecessors approached and surmounted the challenges of their time.

In sum, the ancient Egyptians continue to teach us that solutions to complex problems often lie in a blend of observation, knowledge of natural laws, and a touch of practical ingenuity—a lesson as relevant today as it was in the era of the pharaohs.

What the "Light Bulb" Relief Means at the Dendera Temple

January 21, 2024

By The Archaeologist Editor Group

Debunking the Dendera Light Bulb Myth: A Closer Look at Ancient Egyptian Symbolism

The world of archaeology and ancient history is often filled with intriguing mysteries and enigmatic artifacts that captivate the imagination. One such mystery that has gained popularity in recent years is the so-called "Dendera Light Bulb." This article aims to debunk the misconceptions surrounding this phenomenon and shed light on the true meaning behind the ancient Egyptian symbolism found at the Dendera Temple.

The "It Looks-Like" Fallacy

Before delving into the details, it's essential to address the "It Looks-Like" method of interpretation. This approach, which is unscientific and unscholarly, involves making assumptions based solely on visual resemblance. In the case of the Dendera Light Bulb, proponents of this method claim that certain reliefs at the temple resemble light bulbs, leading to the misguided conclusion that ancient Egyptians possessed advanced electrical technology, a form of wireless energy transmission akin to modern technologies, drawing comparisons between Egyptian iconography and Nikola Tesla's work on wireless power. However, such claims stand on speculative interpretations rather than on substantiated archaeological or textual evidence.

However, this interpretation is not supported by the linguistic and archaeological context in which these images are found. The relief in question is accompanied by hieroglyphic inscriptions that, when translated, do not describe anything resembling electric bulbs or wireless energy. Instead, they speak of well-understood Egyptian religious concepts and mythologies.

The Dendera Temple

The Dendera Temple, dedicated to the goddess Hathor, is a treasure trove of ancient Egyptian art and religious symbolism. Located in Dendera, Egypt, this temple complex served various purposes, including the celebration of religious festivals, and was adorned with intricate reliefs and inscriptions.

Debunking Misconceptions

1. Lack of Soot and Smoke Residue:

One of the arguments used to support the light bulb theory is the absence of soot or smoke residue on the temple's ceilings. However, mainstream archaeologists assert that ancient Egyptians likely used torches to illuminate tombs and temples, which would have left minimal residue. Additionally, historical records do not support the assertion that there was not enough oxygen to sustain torch flames inside the tombs.

This claim overlooks the fact that ventilation systems could have been used to disperse smoke, and there are also examples of oil lamps from the period that would have produced minimal soot. Moreover, the lack of similar "light bulb" imagery or evidence of electrical systems outside of Dendera further weakens the claim of ancient Egyptian electrical technology.

2. Specialized Knowledge in Dendera:

According to proponents of the light bulb theory, high priests guarded Dendera's special knowledge of lighting technology. However, there is no concrete evidence to support this assertion. Ancient Egypt had different areas of expertise, and Dendera's significance lay in its role in religious festivals, not as a center for technological innovation.

3. Interpretation of Reliefs:

Austrian authors Peter Krassa and Reinhard Habeck, along with electrical engineer Walter Garn, popularized the "Electric Thesis" regarding the reliefs at Dendera. They proposed that the bulb-like objects in the reliefs represented advanced lighting technology. However, this interpretation ignores the inscriptions accompanying the images, which provide crucial context.

The inscriptions above the "bulbs" describe the "words of Har Sema Tawy," not technical manuals for ancient lighting systems. Har Sema Tawy translates to "Horus, uniter of the Two Lands," referring to the pharaonic ideology of uniting Upper and Lower Egypt, a recurring theme in Egyptian iconography and not related to electricity or light bulbs.

Contextual Understanding and symbols explained

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the reliefs at Dendera, it's essential to consider the broader context. The temple was dedicated to Hathor, a goddess associated with joy and celebration. The reliefs and inscriptions within the temple depict scenes related to various festivals, the solar cycle, and divine symbolism.

The appearance of a “bubble” surrounding the serpent represents the protective enclosure of the sky, the environment in which the sun is born. It is associated with the womb or placenta of Nut who swallows the sun each night and gives birth to the sun each morning. There are numerous scenes depicting Nut with feet and arms bent over as the sun is near her mouth and near her womb. The “bubble” surrounding the serpent also represents an actual hieroglyph used in the ancient Egyptian language. The mdw-nTr (hieroglyphic) word /itr.ty/ *iterty* “primordial sanctuaries, sacred place, sacred palace” is attested in abundance at Edfu, Karnak, and Dendera. It refers to the primordial birth sanctuary of the sun.

Several symbols in the reliefs, such as the lotus flower, falcon, Djed pillar, and protective bubble, are integral to ancient Egyptian cosmology and religion. They represent concepts of rebirth, stability, and divine protection, rather than electric light bulbs.

The figures depicted in the reliefs are standard elements of Egyptian religious iconography. The "Djed" pillar, often equated with Tesla coils in these theories, is a symbol of stability and is associated with the god Osiris. It has no known connection to electrical technology. The "Lotus Flower," or the Blue Egyptian Water Lily, is another symbol misrepresented in these theories. In Egyptian symbolism, it represents creation, rebirth, and the sun, as it blooms with the daylight and closes after sunset, but it is not indicative of any technological use.

The sacred barques depicted are also misinterpreted in the text. These are ritualistic representations of the gods' travels, used in ceremonial processions, not depictions of ancient energy systems. The gods are often shown on these barques traversing the Nile, symbolizing their journey through the sky and the underworld.

The /Dd/ *Djed* is a pillar symbol that represents the concept of stability, endurance, and steadfastness. It is often associated with Osiris (Ausar), the underworld, and the dead. The djed pillar was an important part of the ceremony called ‘raising the djed,’ which was a part of the celebrations of Heb Sed, the Egyptian pharaoh’s jubilee celebrations. The act of raising the djed has been explained as representing Osiris’s triumph over Set.

In conclusion, the Dendera Light Bulb theory is based on a flawed methodology that relies on visual resemblance while ignoring the rich cultural and religious context of the Dendera Temple. Ancient Egyptian symbolism is deeply rooted in their cosmogony and religious beliefs, and the reliefs at Dendera serve as a testament to their spiritual practices rather than evidence of advanced technology. It is essential to approach archaeological interpretations with a critical eye and an understanding of the cultural and historical context in which they exist.

The Dendera "light bulb" relief, when understood in its proper historical and cultural context, illustrates not an ancient electrical system but the rich spiritual and symbolic world of the ancient Egyptians. It is a testament to their artistic and religious sophistication, not their electrical engineering prowess.

How Did the Ancient Egyptians Cut Granite? Insights from the Unfinished Sarcophagus in the Cairo Museum

December 4, 2023

By The Archaeologist Editor Group

The ancient Egyptians are renowned for their monumental architecture and exquisite craftsmanship, especially when working with hard stones like granite. A notable example that sheds light on their techniques is the unfinished sarcophagus housed in the Cairo Museum. This artifact offers vital clues to the methods used by these ancient artisans to cut and shape one of the hardest materials of their time.

Understanding Granite

Granite, an igneous rock, was highly favored by the Egyptians for its durability and aesthetic appeal. However, its hardness posed significant challenges in terms of quarrying, cutting, and shaping. This was especially remarkable given the relatively simple tools available to the ancient craftsmen.

Techniques in Quarrying and Cutting

1. Dolerite Pounders: The primary tools used in quarrying granite were dolerite pounders. These hard, ball-shaped stones were ideal for pounding the granite, creating a series of indentations. By repeatedly striking along these lines, the Egyptians were able to effectively fracture and extract large blocks of stone.

2. Copper Saws and Drills: Copper, though softer than granite, was used in saws and drills. The Egyptians likely employed a technique known as sand abrasion. By adding sand, which contains quartz, a harder material than copper, they could enhance the cutting capacity of their tools. The sawing action, combined with the abrasive sand, gradually wore through the stone.

3. Water and Wooden Wedges: Another ingenious method involved the use of water-soaked wooden wedges. These wedges, when driven into cracks or holes in the granite and soaked with water, would expand. This expansion exerted a significant force, helping to split the granite along predetermined lines.

Insights from the Unfinished Sarcophagus

The unfinished sarcophagus in the Cairo Museum is a compelling piece of evidence. Its incomplete state provides a snapshot of the ancient Egyptian stone-working process.

1. Tool Marks: The visible tool marks on the sarcophagus align with the known use of copper saws and drills. These marks indicate a gradual, methodical cutting process, supplemented by the use of abrasive sands.

2. Technique of Hollowing: The technique used to hollow out the sarcophagus involved drilling a series of closely spaced holes along the desired cut line. These holes would then be connected by sawing, eventually removing the interior block of stone.

3. Precision and Skill: Despite the rudimentary nature of their tools, the precision and skill evident in the sarcophagus are remarkable. The straight lines and smooth surfaces demonstrate a high level of craftsmanship and understanding of the material.

Conclusion

The unfinished sarcophagus in the Cairo Museum is more than just an artifact; it is a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient Egyptian artisans. Their ability to work with such a challenging material as granite using relatively simple tools is a testament to their engineering prowess. This piece not only provides insight into ancient stone-working techniques but also continues to inspire and intrigue historians, archaeologists, and enthusiasts of ancient Egyptian culture.

The Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal: Its Role in Egyptian-Kushite Syncretism

November 11, 2023

By The Archaeologist Editor Group

Sanctuaries of Syncretism: Deciphering Egyptian-Kushite Spiritual Connections

Jebel Barkal, a small mountain located in modern-day Sudan, has long been shrouded in the mystique of ancient history. This site, deeply intertwined with the religious and political dynamics of the ancient kingdoms of Egypt and Kush, hosts the remarkable Temple of Amun. The temple's rich history, architectural splendor, and the artifacts unearthed there offer invaluable insights into the religious and cultural practices of the time.

Historical Context

Jebel Barkal's prominence is largely attributed to its association with Amun, a major deity in Egyptian mythology. The site's significance escalated during the New Kingdom of Egypt (circa 1550–1077 BCE), when Pharaoh Thutmose III extended Egyptian influence into Nubia and identified Jebel Barkal as the dwelling of Amun. This association transformed Jebel Barkal into a spiritual epicenter, linking it directly to the Karnak Temple in Thebes, the primary cult center of Amun.

The Temple of Amun

The Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal, primarily constructed during the reign of Ramses II, is a testament to the religious fervor and architectural ingenuity of the period. The temple complex, adorned with intricate carvings, colossal statues, and imposing pillars, was dedicated to the worship of Amun. It served as a spiritual and administrative hub, underscoring the interwoven nature of religion and governance in ancient Egypt and Kush.

Architectural Features and Artifacts

The temple's architecture is a blend of Egyptian and Kushite styles, reflecting the cultural exchange between the two civilizations. Notable features include the pillared hall, the sanctuary, and a series of chambers used for religious ceremonies. The temple walls are adorned with reliefs depicting various pharaohs making offerings to the gods, symbolizing the divine rights of kings.

Excavations at Jebel Barkal have yielded a plethora of artifacts, including statues, stelae, and inscriptions. These findings provide crucial insights into the religious practices, art, and politics of the era. The artifacts also highlight the craftsmanship and artistic skills of the ancient artisans.

Jebel Barkal at Abu Simbel

The depiction of Jebel Barkal at Abu Simbel, another monumental temple complex located in Egypt, further underscores its religious significance. The imagery shows Jebel Barkal as a sacred mountain occupied by Amun of Karnak. The pinnacle of Jebel Barkal is often represented as a colossal royal uraeus (a rearing cobra), adorned with the White Crown, a symbol of pharaonic authority and divine protection.

(Left) The Jebel Barkal pinnacle viewed from the northeast (i.e. upstream, looking downstream); (right) Jebel Barkal, from the same angle, as pictured at Abu Simbel, showing it as a mountain occupied by Amun of Karnak and the pinnacle as a colossal royal uraeus wearing the White Crown.

Egyptian-Kushite Religious Syncretism: A Confluence of Beliefs

The relationship between ancient Egypt and Kush, particularly in the realm of religion, is a fascinating example of cultural and religious syncretism. From around 2000 BCE, when Kush began to emerge as a significant power, there was a gradual blending of religious practices and deities between the two civilizations. This syncretism was not merely an adoption of Egyptian gods by the Kushites; rather, it represented a mutual exchange and reinterpretation of religious ideas and rituals. The Kushite interpretation of Egyptian deities often involved merging them with native Kushite gods or adapting their characteristics to fit local beliefs. For instance, the Egyptian god Amun, originally a minor deity, was assimilated with the Kushite god Apedemak, resulting in a unique form of worship that was distinctly Kushite while retaining Egyptian influences. This hybridization of religious beliefs is evident in the art and architecture of the period, where Egyptian styles blend seamlessly with indigenous Kushite elements, creating a distinct cultural identity.

The Impact of Syncretism on Political and Social Structures

This religious syncretism had significant implications for the political and social structures in both Egypt and Kush. In Egypt, the Kushite pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty embraced Egyptian religious traditions, incorporating them into their rule, which helped legitimize their reign in the eyes of the Egyptian populace. Conversely, in Kush, the adoption and adaptation of Egyptian religious practices served to enhance the authority and divine status of Kushite kings. This mutual religious influence fostered a sense of shared identity and cultural unity, despite the geographical and political distinctions between the two regions. Temples such as those at Jebel Barkal and the widespread worship of gods in their syncretized forms became symbols of this intertwined relationship. This syncretism also facilitated diplomatic and trade relationships, as shared religious beliefs often led to a deeper mutual understanding and respect between these ancient civilizations. Thus, the Egyptian-Kushite religious syncretism was not just a merging of gods and rituals but a profound blending of cultures that shaped the political and social landscapes of the region for centuries.

Jebel Barkal and its pinnacle as seen today through the ruined hypostyle hall of the Great Amun Temple.

The Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal stands as a monumental testament to the religious and political landscape of ancient Egypt and Nubia. Its architectural grandeur, the rich array of artifacts uncovered, and its depiction in other significant Egyptian sites like Abu Simbel all highlight its importance as a cultural and religious nexus. Today, Jebel Barkal continues to captivate historians, archaeologists, and enthusiasts alike, offering a window into a world where the divine and the temporal intersect in profound ways.

The Egyptian Influences on the Kushites: A Cultural Exchange Through Millennia

November 11, 2023

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

The relationship between ancient Egypt and the Kingdom of Kush, a region located in what is now northern Sudan, represents one of the most intriguing aspects of African history. This connection, spanning several millennia, profoundly influenced the Kushite civilization in various domains, including religion, architecture, and art. The interaction between these two ancient powers was not merely one-sided; rather, it was a dynamic interchange that shaped the cultural landscapes of both civilizations.

The interaction between Egypt and Kush dates back to the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2686–2181 BC), when trade and military campaigns brought the two regions into contact. The Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC) saw increased Egyptian influence in Kush, leading to the establishment of Egyptian fortresses in Kushite territory. This period of direct control and influence was pivotal in transmitting Egyptian culture to the Kushites.

Religion: The Divine Synthesis

Religion was a significant arena for Egyptian influence in Kush. The Kushites adopted many Egyptian deities, most notably Amun. The temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal, a holy site for both Egyptians and Kushites, stands as a testament to this religious synthesis. The Kushite interpretation of Egyptian gods often involved integrating them with local deities, creating a unique religious blend that highlighted both Egyptian and indigenous characteristics.

Moreover, the practice of pyramid building for royal burials in Kush, a clear Egyptian import, was adapted to local customs and styles. The Nubian pyramids, smaller and steeper than their Egyptian counterparts, reflect this adaptation.

Architecture: Stone Echoes of an Ancient Civilization

Egyptian architectural influence is most visible in the grandiose structures that dot the Kushite landscape. This influence is evident in the use of Egyptian motifs, column designs, and temple layouts. The construction of temples, palaces, and pyramids in Kush followed Egyptian architectural styles but also incorporated distinct local elements, demonstrating a fusion rather than mere imitation.

Art: A Canvas of Cultural Interchange

Kushite art, heavily influenced by Egyptian styles, especially during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC), is a vivid illustration of cultural exchange. Egyptian artistic conventions, like the depiction of figures in profile and the use of hieroglyphs, were widely adopted in Kushite art. However, Kushite artisans infused these elements with local flavors, evident in the portrayal of Kushite physiognomy and dress in art and sculptures.

The Kushite Pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty

The zenith of Egyptian influence on Kush can be seen during the 25th Dynasty (c. 747–656 BC), when Kushite rulers, known as the "Black Pharaohs," conquered and ruled Egypt. This period saw the resurgence of traditional Egyptian art and architecture under Kushite patronage, symbolizing a cultural renaissance. The Kushite Pharaohs not only embraced Egyptian traditions but also played a role in their revival and preservation.

The cultural exchange between Egypt and Kush was a dynamic and complex process that transcended mere imitation. The Kushites adopted and adapted Egyptian religious, architectural, and artistic elements, creating a distinct culture that resonated with Egyptian influences yet retained its unique character. This interaction highlights the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations and the importance of cross-cultural influences in shaping the historical narrative of the Nile Valley civilizations.

Record Of Atlantis At The Egyptian Temple Of Edfu?

November 5, 2023

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

Does the Edfu Text at the Horus Temple in Egypt Confirm Plato's Account of Ancient Atlantis?

Introduction to the Edfu Texts

The Edfu texts, inscribed on the walls of the Temple of Horus at Edfu in Egypt, are one of the richest sources of Egyptian mythology and have been interpreted by some as containing echoes of historical events. These inscriptions include what some scholars refer to as the "Building Texts," which describe the foundation of the temple itself and the mythical origins of temples in Egypt. They tell of a primeval time when gods ruled the earth and of a sacred island where the first temple ever built emerged from the primordial waters.

Plato’s Atlantis: A Philosophical Tale or Historical Account?

Plato's account of Atlantis, detailed in his dialogues "Timaeus" and "Critias," describes a sophisticated island civilization that existed 9,000 years before his own time and eventually fell out of favor with the deities, leading to its destruction in a great cataclysm. According to Plato, Atlantis was a naval power that lay "in front of the Pillars of Hercules" and conquered many parts of Western Europe and Africa 9,000 years before the time of Solon, or approximately 11,600 years ago. Following a failed invasion of Athens, Atlantis sank into the ocean "in a single day and night of misfortune."

Comparative Mythology: Universal Archetypes or Specific Histories?

Comparing the Edfu texts to Plato’s Atlantis narrative, there are thematic overlaps that have excited the imagination of some researchers and historians. The Edfu Building Texts speak of a "homeland of the primeval ones" that was destroyed by a disaster. This homeland was said to be an island, similar to Plato’s Atlantis, and there are references to a great flood that seems to have engulfed this primeval place.

However, any direct corroboration between the Edfu texts and Plato's account is tenuous and speculative. The Edfu Building Texts do not explicitly describe an advanced civilization like Atlantis, nor do they mention a continent beyond the "Pillars of Hercules" or provide a timeline that matches Plato's narrative. The descriptions of the destruction and great flood in the Edfu texts are also notably mythological, typical of creation myths around the world, which often include cataclysmic floods and other disasters.

The idea of a flood or divine cataclysm is a common motif in many ancient cultures, found in narratives ranging from the Biblical story of Noah's Ark to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. While such stories may be rooted in real events—such as local floods or other natural disasters—they are often mythologized and do not serve as reliable historical accounts.

Concluding Reflections: The Enduring Enigma of Atlantis in the Light of Edfu

In conclusion, while there are thematic similarities between the Edfu texts and Plato’s story of Atlantis, particularly in the motifs of destruction and water, there is no concrete evidence to suggest that the Edfu texts corroborate the existence of Atlantis as a historical reality. The texts from Edfu are valuable for understanding ancient Egyptian mythology and religious beliefs but should be interpreted with caution when used as sources for historical events. The search for Atlantis, as described by Plato, remains a topic of speculation and debate among scholars, with no universally accepted historical or archaeological evidence to confirm its existence.

Pyramids of Purpose: Probing the Multidimensional Mysteries of Ancient Giza

October 6, 2023

The Timeless Majesty of the Pyramids of Giza: Function and Enduring Significance

Nestled on the Giza Plateau, just on the outskirts of Cairo, the Pyramids of Giza have long stood as paragons of ancient Egyptian ingenuity and are a testament to their civilization’s complex belief systems and architectural prowess. While the pyramids primarily functioned as elaborate tombs, they also served as an enduring symbol of the sophisticated socio-religious dynamics of ancient Egypt. This article endeavors to delve into the primary function of these monumental structures and explore their persistent significance in contemporary culture and global history.

Function: Monumental Tombs and Astronomical Significance

The primary function of the pyramids was to serve as tombs for the pharaohs and, occasionally, their consorts. Not merely graves, these structures facilitated the king's journey to the afterlife, ensuring eternal life and prosperity.

The orientation and location of the pyramids also bear astronomical significance. The pyramids are aligned with incredible precision with cardinal points and celestial bodies, such as the stars in Orion's Belt, which were associated with Osiris, the god of the afterlife and resurrection.

Within the confines of the pyramids, a pharaoh’s body, along with a wealth of treasures, artifacts, and texts (like the Pyramid Texts), were interred to assist and sustain them in the afterlife.

Symbolizing the pharaoh's divine status and authority, the construction of the pyramids also served to showcase the state’s resources, organizational skills, and control over labor and materials.

Enduring Significance: Historical, Cultural, and Scientific Implications

The Pyramids of Giza, especially the Great Pyramid, stand as an iconic representation of ancient Egypt, symbolizing its rich history, culture, and technological advancements.

The construction of the pyramids, involving the precise placement of massive stone blocks without the aid of modern machinery, continues to be a subject of study and admiration for architects, engineers, and archaeologists.

Serving as a link between the earthly and divine, the pyramids convey the complex religious beliefs and practices of ancient Egypt, encapsulating themes of death, the afterlife, and divinity.

The pyramids facilitate ongoing scientific and archaeological research, offering insights into ancient Egyptian society, beliefs, practices, and technological capabilities.

Reflection on Collective Human Achievement

The Pyramids of Giza, while rooted in the specific religious and social contexts of ancient Egypt, transcend their original function and context in their significance. They stand not just as a reflection of the achievements of ancient Egyptian civilization but also as a mirror through which we can view the capacities, aspirations, and mysteries of the collective human spirit. These structures echo with the endeavors, beliefs, and capabilities of a society that, while distant in time and context, shares with all of humanity a quest for understanding, immortality, and a desire to bridge the temporal and the eternal.

As we gaze upon the lofty peaks of the Pyramids of Giza, we are invited to ponder not only the mysteries they hold within their ancient chambers but also the undying human spirit that endeavors to touch the divine. The pyramids, while emblematic of ancient Egypt, belong not only to the past but continue to cast their shadow, weaving a timeless tapestry that encompasses history, culture, science, and the eternal quest for meaning and transcendence. In their silent majesty, the pyramids continue to tell a story that is at once ancient and perpetually new—a narrative of humanity’s ceaseless journey towards understanding the cosmos, life, death, and the divine.

Naughty Graffiti Showing Controversial Intercourse Scene of Queen Hatshepsut: A Whisper of Ancient Gossip?

October 2, 2023

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

Behind the Walls: The Naughty Intercourse Scene Whispering Tales of Queen Hatshepsut—Decoding Scandalous Tales from Ancient Egypt

The illustrious Queen Hatshepsut, one of ancient Egypt's most powerful and innovative female pharaohs, has long fascinated scholars and the general public alike. Not only for her ambitious building projects and unprecedented reign but also for her personal relationships, especially that with her chief architect, Senenmut. Recent findings near her mortuary temple in Deir el-Bahri might shed some light—or at least spur further speculation—on their rumored love affair.

The Graffiti Unearthed

Hidden away in a secluded cave near the temple, which served as a resting spot for the laborers during the temple's construction, archaeologists uncovered a piece of graffiti that can only be described as lewd. The carving, though worn down by millennia, depicts a man and a woman in a rather compromising position. While the figures' identities are not explicitly stated, context gives us a tantalizing hint: a carving of a headdress that bears a striking resemblance to Hatshepsut’s iconic khat headdress can be seen atop the female figure.

Senenmut and Hatshepsut: Partners in More Than Just Architecture?

Hatshepsut and Senenmut's close association is well documented in ancient inscriptions and reliefs. As the chief architect and royal advisor, Senenmut oversaw many of Hatshepsut’s ambitious architectural endeavors, including the construction of her famed mortuary temple. But was their relationship purely professional? The pharaoh and her architect shared an unusually high number of monuments, statues, and stelae, some of which even depict Senenmut with privileges reserved for royalty.

***Does this naughty graffiti show Senenmut taking King Hatshepsut from behind?***

Given the heavy censorship and control the ancient Egyptian royalty held over artistic and written depictions, these clues seem deliberate. Could this lewd graffiti be an act of rebellion from a laborer, a nod to the whispers and rumors circulating amongst the workers?

Timeless Curiosities: The Unchanging Human Fascination with Leadership

While we might never fully confirm the nature of the relationship between Hatshepsut and Senenmut, this graffiti offers a tantalizing piece of evidence that their association was a subject of gossip and speculation, even during their lifetimes. And if the graffiti was indeed referencing the pharaoh and her chief architect, it underscores the human element of history—that regardless of the era, people have always been interested in the personal lives of their leaders.

However, as with many archaeological discoveries, this graffiti poses as many questions as it answers. Was it a rebellious act? A simple doodle by a bored worker? Or perhaps a manifestation of admiration, fascination, or even envy?

***The woman in this carving of a man and woman having sex (pictured) has got a thick royal wig on, suggesting it's Hatshepsut herself***

What this lewd graffiti near Queen Hatshepsut's Mortuary Temple reinforces is that the ancient world wasn’t as staid or as conservative as one might think. Behind the monumental statues, grand temples, and official inscriptions, there were people with their curiosities, rumors, and gossip.

The voices of these laborers, artists, and everyday citizens often get drowned in the grand narratives, but sometimes they echo through time, reminding us of the vibrant, diverse, and multifaceted societies of the ancient world.

Between Myth and Reality: The Hebrews' Enslavement by the Egyptians

August 28, 2023

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

The Prehistoric Saga of Hebrew Enslavement: Myths, Facts, and Interpretations

The story of the Hebrews' enslavement in ancient Egypt is one of the best-known episodes from the Bible. For many, it serves as a testament to perseverance, faith, and the ultimate triumph of the oppressed over their oppressors. But beyond religious texts, what do we truly know about the initial subjugation of the Hebrews in prehistoric times? This article delves into the origins of the Hebrew enslavement, examining both religious accounts and what historical evidence can offer.

Biblical Account: From Famine to Enslavement

According to the Book of Genesis in the Old Testament, the initial connection between the Hebrews and Egypt began with Joseph, one of the twelve sons of Jacob (later named Israel). Sold into slavery by his jealous brothers, Joseph eventually rose to prominence in Egypt due to his ability to interpret dreams. He foresaw a seven-year famine and advised Pharaoh on measures to prepare for it. Grateful, Pharaoh elevated Joseph to a high-ranking position, and during the famine, Joseph's family migrated to Egypt for sustenance.

For a time, the Hebrews prospered and multiplied in Egypt. However, as the Book of Exodus recounts, a new Pharaoh came to power "who did not know Joseph." Fearing the growing Hebrew population, he enslaved them, marking the beginning of several centuries of bondage.

Historical Evidence and Debates

While the biblical story is rich in detail, its historical accuracy has been the subject of debate among archaeologists and historians. There are several points of contention:

1. Chronology: Determining the exact timeline of Hebrew enslavement is challenging. Different scholars place the Exodus (the liberation of the Hebrews from Egypt) at different periods, ranging from the Middle Kingdom to the New Kingdom.

2. Archaeological Records: Direct archaeological evidence linking the Hebrews to ancient Egypt during the said period of enslavement is scant. There are no Egyptian records that clearly document the enslavement of a people identifiable as the Hebrews.

3. City of Ramses: The Bible mentions that the enslaved Hebrews built the store cities of Pithom and Ramses. Some associate the mention of Ramses with Pharaoh Ramesses II, suggesting a New Kingdom timeline for the enslavement. However, no archaeological evidence directly supports this claim.

4. Semites in Egypt: There's evidence of Semitic peoples in ancient Egypt working in various capacities, including labor. The Brooklyn Papyrus, for instance, lists several Semitic slaves in Egypt. However, whether these were Hebrews or another Semitic group is not specified.

The Evolution of the Narrative

The story of the Hebrew enslavement and the Exodus has evolved over time, with religious, philosophical, and cultural interpretations layering upon the original tale. For believers, the story serves as a testament to divine intervention and the idea that faith and righteousness will ultimately lead to deliverance. Philosophically, it touches upon themes of freedom, resistance against oppression, and the quest for a promised land or a better life.

The enslavement of the Hebrews in prehistoric times, as described in biblical texts, remains one of the most potent narratives in human history. While its historical accuracy might be debated, its cultural and religious significance is undeniable. The story transcends its religious roots, offering timeless lessons on hope, faith, and liberation.

Who was the Oldest Pharaoh in Egypt's History?

August 23, 2023

THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

The First Pharaoh and the Unification of Egypt

Deep within the annals of history lies the story of a figure who reshaped the destiny of a civilization and laid the foundation for one of the world's most iconic empires. That figure is Narmer, often hailed as the first pharaoh of unified Egypt. But who was he, and why does he hold such a seminal place in the tapestry of ancient Egyptian history?

Before the Unification

Before Egypt became the unified kingdom we recognize today, it was divided into two main territories: Upper Egypt, located in the Nile Valley's southern part, and Lower Egypt, spanning the Nile Delta's northern marshlands. Each had its own distinct rulers, cultures, and deities. This division wasn't just geographical but deeply political and spiritual.

Narmer's Rise to Power

Narmer's origins trace back to Upper Egypt, where he held dominion. But his ambitions were grander. Driven by the vision of a united nation, Narmer embarked on military campaigns to bring Lower Egypt under his rule.

The Narmer Palette: An Ancient Tale in Stone

One of the most compelling pieces of evidence supporting Narmer's feat is the Narmer Palette. This artifact, discovered in the ancient city of Hierakonpolis, depicts a triumphant ruler, unmistakably Narmer, overpowering his foes. The palette's intricate carvings symbolize the merger of the Two Lands (Upper and Lower Egypt), with Narmer wearing both the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, symbolizing his dominion over the unified territory.

The Debate: Was Narmer Truly the First?

Despite the seemingly clear narrative portrayed by the Narmer Palette and other inscriptions, history, as it often does, leaves room for debate. Some scholars argue that other figures, like Ka or Scorpion II, might have played pivotal roles in Egypt's unification process. Pottery shards bearing their names, and other artifacts hinting at their influence over vast territories, fuel these speculations. However, definitive proof linking them directly to the act of unification remains elusive.

Legacy of the First Pharaoh

The unification of Egypt under Narmer set the stage for the Early Dynastic Period, during which the foundation for ancient Egyptian culture, governance, and spirituality was laid. The concept of the pharaoh as both a divine and political leader, central to Egyptian society's fabric for millennia, can trace its origins back to Narmer's reign.

Furthermore, the administrative systems he set in place, his patronage of early Egyptian art and architecture, and the establishment of Memphis as the capital city, solidified his legacy as a transformative leader.

Narmer's tale is more than just a story of conquest; it's a testament to visionary leadership and the timeless human aspiration for unity. While debates around the exact sequence of events leading up to Egypt's unification persist, Narmer's pivotal role remains largely uncontested. Today, he stands as a beacon of ancient Egypt's indomitable spirit and the profound legacy of its earliest pharaohs.

List of Pharaohs of Egypt: From 3100 BC until Roman Era

August 15, 2023

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

The ancient land of Egypt, adorned with colossal pyramids and enigmatic hieroglyphs, is steeped in a history that spans millennia. At the heart of this grand civilization were the pharaohs, the revered rulers who held dominion over the Nile Valley for over three thousand years. Here is a comprehensive list of the known Egyptian pharaohs, organized chronologically by dynasties:

First Dynasty (c. 3100–2890 BC):

Narmer (Menes)
Hor-Aha
Djer
Djet
Den
Anedjib
Semerkhet
Qa'a

Second Dynasty (c. 2890–2686 BC):

Hotepsekhemwy
Raneb (Nynetjer)
Peribsen
Khasekhemwy

Third Dynasty (c. 2686–2613 BC):

Djoser (Netjerikhet)
Sekhemkhet
Sanakht
Khaba
Huni

Fourth Dynasty (c. 2613–2494 BC):

Sneferu
Khufu (Cheops)
Djedefre
Khafre (Chephren)
Menkaure
Shepseskaf

Fifth Dynasty (c. 2494–2345 BC):

Userkaf
Sahure
Neferirkare Kakai
Shepseskare
Neferefre
Nyuserre Ini
Menkauhor Kaiu
Djedkare Isesi
Unas

Sixth Dynasty (c. 2345–2181 BC):

Teti
Userkare
Pepi I
Merenre Nemtyemsaf I
Pepi II
Merenre Nemtyemsaf II
Netjerkare Siptah
Menkare
Neferkare II
Neferkare Neby

First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC): A time of fragmented rule and uncertain history.

Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC):

Mentuhotep II (11th Dynasty)
Mentuhotep III (11th Dynasty)
Amenemhat I (12th Dynasty)
Senusret I (12th Dynasty)
Amenemhat II (12th Dynasty)
Senusret II (12th Dynasty)
Senusret III (12th Dynasty)
Amenemhat III (12th Dynasty)
Amenemhat IV (12th Dynasty)
Sobekneferu (12th Dynasty)

Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550 BC): Another era of fragmented rule and foreign influence.

New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC):

Ahmose I (18th Dynasty)
Amenhotep I (18th Dynasty)
Thutmose I (18th Dynasty)
Thutmose II (18th Dynasty)
Hatshepsut (18th Dynasty)
Thutmose III (18th Dynasty)
Amenhotep II (18th Dynasty)
Thutmose IV (18th Dynasty)
Amenhotep III (18th Dynasty)
Akhenaten (18th Dynasty)
Smenkhkare (18th Dynasty)
Tutankhamun (18th Dynasty)
Ay (18th Dynasty)
Horemheb (18th Dynasty)

Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070–664 BC): A period marked by regional fragmentation and foreign domination.

Late Period (c. 664–332 BC):

Necho I (26th Dynasty)
Psamtik I (26th Dynasty)
Necho II (26th Dynasty)
Psamtik II (26th Dynasty)
Apries (26th Dynasty)
Amasis II (26th Dynasty)
Psamtik III (26th Dynasty)
Cambyses II (Persian ruler)
Darius I (Persian ruler)
Xerxes I (Persian ruler)
Artaxerxes I (Persian ruler)
Darius II (Persian ruler)
Artaxerxes III (Persian ruler)

Late Period (cont.):

14. Darius III (Persian ruler)

Alexander the Great (Greek ruler)
Ptolemy I (Ptolemaic Dynasty)
Ptolemy II (Ptolemaic Dynasty)
Ptolemy III (Ptolemaic Dynasty)
Ptolemy IV (Ptolemaic Dynasty)
Ptolemy V (Ptolemaic Dynasty)
Ptolemy VI (Ptolemaic Dynasty)
Ptolemy VII (Ptolemaic Dynasty)
Ptolemy VIII (Ptolemaic Dynasty)
Cleopatra VII (Ptolemaic Dynasty)

Roman Period (30 BC–395 AD): Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.

The above list provides a general overview of the pharaohs who ruled ancient Egypt across its long and storied history.

Source: wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pharaohs

A Mycenaean Pirate Ship in Egypt?: Understanding Bronze Age Greek-Egyptian Maritime Relations through the "Gurob Ship Model"

July 17, 2023

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

The Gurob Ship Model: An Insight into Bronze Age Maritime Technology and Greek-Egyptian Interactions

Known as the Gurob Ship Model, or alternatively as 'Odysseus' Boat', this striking ancient artifact has been instrumental in shedding light on the maritime culture and technology of the Bronze Age civilizations. Discovered at the archaeological site of Gurob in Egypt, this intricate ship model provides an insight into the relationship between the Bronze Age Greeks and Egyptians, symbolizing the interconnectedness and shared technological advancements of these ancient societies.

The Gurob Ship Model: A Prototype of Ancient Galleys

Unearthed in the late 19th century, the Gurob Ship Model dates between the mid-13th and mid-11th centuries BC, during Egypt’s New Kingdom period. Measuring 28 inches in length, this wooden model encapsulates the advanced maritime technology of the time, exhibiting features that were later prominent in Greek and Egyptian galleys.

It was found in a shallow tomb in Gurob, Middle Egypt, close to the Faiyum oasis, in 1920. The model was incorrectly assembled twice, but Flinders Petrie, who oversaw its excavation, perceptively named it a "Pirate Boat" because it had been paired with a pavois and a wheeled cart in antiquity, probably indicating that it had been used as a cult object.

A possible Aegean **Type VI** ship is also represented in an Egyptian wooden model from a tomb at *Gurob* dated between the 13th and 12th centuries BC. University College London, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UC16044 Images Courtesy of the J. Paul Getty Museum and the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology

The small model was "rediscovered" in the Petrie Egyptological Museum around the turn of the millennium and published by Shelley Wachsmann in 2013. Wachsmann identified the model as representing a Helladic oared galley of the type known from the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean. Petrie had made two brief mentions of the model (in 1927 and 1933), after which it was largely forgotten.

The invention of the galley was a turning point in ship architecture because it gave sailors a level of mobility on the water never before possible. The Helladic galley, which spread throughout the Eastern Mediterranean and eventually gave rise to both the Phoenician bireme and the Greek dieres, played a crucial role in the Iron Age exploration, expansion, and colonization of these societies.

The Gurob model, which spans the mid-13th and mid-11th centuries BC, is the only polychromatic representation discovered to date and the most thorough three-dimensional evidence we have for this significant vessel form. As a result, it confirms a lot of what has been hypothesized about these vessels while also offering new information about their construction and decoration, such as the use of color, which previously could only be gleaned from Homeric epithets like "black" and "dark-prowed" as well as the less well-known "red-cheeked" and "purple-cheeked" descriptors. The latter are solely employed in the Homeric epics to identify Odysseus's ships, and the Gurob ship-distinctive cart's polychromatic character makes it possible to comprehend them much more fully than in the past. We can clearly see what Homer meant when he described his ships as "black": he is referring to the pitch seen on the model's ship hull.

*Building a virtual 3D model of the Gurob model revealed many secrets. Manipulate the* ***3D virtual model here****, and* ***see more virtual models of the Gurob ship-cart here***.

The Gurob model is discussed in this article, along with its importance for our comprehension of Mycenaean sailing and Homeric ship descriptions. A special focus is placed on framing Odysseus' maritime journey to Egypt, which is vividly described in the hero's "second Cretan Lie," within the larger context of the epic's fictive date in the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age transition. The design, spread, and influences of the Helladic oared galley are also discussed in their internationalist Eastern Mediterranean context.

The ship model portrays a vessel with a high sternpost and stempost, both terminating in volutes, a characteristic of later Mycenaean ship designs. With a large single mast, a steering oar, and 17 rows of oar holes on each side, the model offers a glimpse into the construction of oared ships, which eventually evolved into the galleys that were widely used by ancient Mediterranean civilizations. It can be related to European cultic prototypes because it was discovered with four wheels and other traces of a wagon-like support structure. The model might be based on a galley from that culture, according to contemporaneous written evidence that Sherden—one of the Sea Peoples—settled in the area. Hence, despite being discovered in Egypt, the Gurob model's prototype was unmistakably an Aegean-style galley of the kind that both the Mycenaeans and the Sea Peoples utilized.

***The four wheels. Courtesy of the Petrie Egyptological Museum. Photo: S. Wachsmann***

Scholars have established the significance of the Sea Peoples as a driving force behind maritime innovation in Egypt in a number of significant publications. While a number of novel features, such as the loose-footed, brailed sail and the top-mounted crow's nest, were already well known in the Levant by the fourteenth century BC, it appears that the Sherden were the first to fully appreciate their military potential, particularly when combined with the new (Aegean?) type of war galley, such as that represented by the ship model from Gurob. Early in Ramesses II's reign, the first Sea Peoples were encountered, and it wasn't until then that Egyptian shipwrights began to see the importance of innovations and begin incorporating them into their own designs.

Many Egyptian reliefs from the 19th Dynasty show the transition. While Egyptian ships at the time of Ramesses II's first encounters with the Sherden were typically Egyptian, those used by Ramesses III (as depicted on the walls of his temple at Medinet Habu) are remarkably similar to those of their enemies, featuring a top-mounted crow's nest and a loose-footed, brailed sail, despite still being based on Egyptian riverine ships rather than the Aegean galley. So, despite the destruction the Sea Peoples caused, their entrance in Egypt is also linked to a number of incredible advances in ship construction that greatly influenced the shipbuilding traditions in Greece and Phoenicia in the millennia that followed.

Gurob Ship Model and the Mycenaean Type VI "Tragana Cluster" Ship

The vessels on the pyxis from Tragana and the larnax from Gazi are the best examples of the innovative hull-form the Achaeans devised by continuing the keel into a spur extending beyond the straight sternpost. The shape is largely that of a Skyros vessel, with the addition of a spur. Both types share the loose-footed sail that was popular at the end of the Late Bronze Age but not attested for Minoan ships.

A typical **Type VI** Late Achaean ship is represented on a pyxis from the *Tragana* Tholos tomb near *Pylos,* dated **LH IIIC** (about 1200 BC). It is a long, lean ship with a low gunwale, equipped with a ram as on the Middle Helladic *Iolkos* fragments but more swift-looking and narrow. It is probably meant to represent a warship or one suited to pirate raids, not a merchantman. The mast is centered, with an oval sail whose form is more influenced by the filled concentric arcs on the ornamental panels of the pyxis than by marine facts.

The keel is flat, and the sterpost is normally straight with a minor curve at the connection. This must have amounted to a total redesign of the bow, a process that, given the conservatism typical of shipbuilders, was undoubtedly conducted with a specific goal in mind, with an eye toward a net improvement in performance. One possible explanation for this development is the ability to beach quickly without harming the bow. Any argument that the spur can be used as a ram is false since, in each instance, the stempost extends past the spur, raising the possibility of the ramming ship suffering damage.

A **Type VI** large ship with large sail and several oars is represented in this larnax from Crete dated around 12th century BC.

The Gurob Ship Model and the Mycenaean Type VI "Tragana Cluster" ship share several striking similarities. Both vessels feature a high sternpost and stempost, terminating in volutes. This detail not only serves an aesthetic purpose but also illustrates the advanced naval technology of the time.

Additionally, the presence of multiple rows of oar holes on both models suggests the use of oars for propulsion, a key characteristic of Mediterranean galleys. The oars allowed these ships to navigate independently of the wind, enabling more predictable sea voyages and greater control during warfare.

A possible **Type VI** large ship could be also the one visible in few fresco fragments from the *Orchomenos* Palace dated **LH IIIB**

The similarities extend to the single mast found on both ship types, indicating the use of sails for long-distance travel. This blend of oar and sail power reflects the dual utility of these vessels for both warfare and trade.

Tracing the Evolution of Galleys in the MEDITERRANEAN

While the classic Greek galleys only emerged around the 8th century BCE, the Gurob Ship Model serves as a prototype, showcasing key elements of galley design nearly seven centuries earlier. Galleys, propelled primarily by oars and recognized for their elongated hulls, became a common sight across the Mediterranean, utilized by both Greek and Egyptian societies.

The development from the Gurob design to the Greek galleys likely occurred through gradual adaptations that catered to the needs of different cultures and maritime environments. This evolutionary process highlights the interconnectedness and shared technological advancements of the ancient Mediterranean civilizations.

Bronze-Age Aegean Sea Power

The Aegean Sea was a hub of powerful civilizations during the Bronze Age, particularly the Minoans and Mycenaeans. The Minoans, centered on Crete, are widely considered the first advanced civilization in Europe. They constructed a formidable fleet of ships, controlling the maritime routes in the Aegean Sea and engaging in far-reaching trade networks that extended to Egypt, the Levant, and beyond.

The Mycenaeans, who emerged after the Minoans, continued this tradition of maritime power. The rugged and fragmented terrain of their homeland in mainland Greece led them to rely heavily on the sea for commerce, conflict, and exploration. The Mycenaean ships, which are thought to be represented in the Gurob Ship Model or the so-called 'Odysseus' Boat', were central to their military prowess and economic prosperity.

Bronze Age Fresco in Akrotiri, Santorini

This Aegean sea power played a significant role in the widespread cultural interactions of the Bronze Age, connecting the distant corners of the Mediterranean world. The resulting exchange of goods, ideas, and technology not only facilitated the evolution of shipbuilding techniques but also influenced several aspects of these societies, including their art, architecture, and religion. The sea was not just a route for transportation; it was the lifeblood of these vibrant, interconnected civilizations.

Recreation of a ship from the Minoan fleet sailing in the high seas.
Alessandro Berio

Greek-Egyptian Interactions in the Bronze Age

The Gurob Ship Model, or 'Odysseus' Boat, offers valuable insights into the complex relationship between the Bronze Age Greeks and Egyptians. The two societies enjoyed robust connections, engaging in extensive trade and diplomatic exchanges and sharing various elements of their cultures, including religious beliefs, art, and maritime technology.

Evidence of these interactions is visible not only in the design of the Gurob Ship Model but also in the archaeological findings of Mycenaean pottery in Egypt and Egyptian artifacts in Greece. Textual evidence further corroborates this, with references to Keftiu (believed to be ancient Crete or the Aegean) in Egyptian records, signifying an active network between these civilizations.

Navigating the Past

Not only does the Gurob Ship Model, or 'Odysseus' Boat', exemplify the advanced seafaring capabilities of the ancient civilizations, it also presents a tangible connection to our shared global heritage. As we unravel the intricate details of this model, we step into the past, a time when the Mediterranean was a vibrant hub of cultural and technological exchanges.

The Gurob Ship Model mirrors the maritime evolution of Bronze Age societies, reflecting their ingenuity and resilience. It tells us of the explorations and journeys made across vast, treacherous seas, paving the way for the spread of ideas and commodities. Its existence underscores the importance of intercultural dialogue, even in ancient times, as it was these exchanges that led to significant advancements in shipbuilding and navigational techniques.

Moreover, the similarities between the Gurob Ship Model and the Mycenaean Type VI "Tragana Cluster" ship hint at a shared vision of seafaring between these ancient societies. This interconnectedness further strengthens the model's status as a symbol of unity and mutual growth in a time characterized by isolation due to geographical boundaries.

In essence, the Gurob Ship Model is more than a historical artifact—it is a gateway to the past, a testament to human ingenuity, and a symbol of the age-old spirit of exploration and exchange that continues to shape our world today. Through this model, we are reminded of our collective roots and the remarkable history of maritime civilizations whose legacy still lingers in the vessels that navigate our seas today.

Drawing Parallels: Assassin's Creed Origins and the Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan

April 15, 2023

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Assassin's Creed Origins, an action-adventure video game developed and published by Ubisoft, has captivated the hearts and minds of millions worldwide since its release in 2017. Set in the captivating world of ancient Egypt, the game offers a mesmerizing blend of history, mythology, and fiction, all skillfully intertwined to deliver an unforgettable gaming experience. One of the most striking aspects of the game is its realistic representation of the foundations of an unfinished Egyptian pyramid, providing players with a unique opportunity to explore the intricacies of this awe-inspiring architectural marvel.

A Step Back in Time

The developers of Assassin's Creed Origins undertook meticulous research and collaborated with historians and Egyptologists to create a historically accurate and visually captivating rendition of ancient Egypt. The game transports players to the Ptolemaic period, a time when Greek and Egyptian cultures intermingled, resulting in a rich tapestry of architectural, artistic, and scientific achievements.

While Assassin's Creed Origins is known for its realistic representation of ancient Egypt, the connection between the game's depiction of an unfinished pyramid and the real-life Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan is worth exploring. By analyzing the similarities and differences between these two representations, we can better understand the level of historical accuracy achieved by the game developers and appreciate their commitment to immersing players in a world that echoes the past.

The Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan: A Portal into Ancient Construction Techniques

One of the most remarkable in-game accomplishments is the representation of an unfinished Egyptian pyramid. This structure not only adds to the immersive experience but also offers players a rare glimpse into the construction techniques and processes employed by ancient Egyptians. By meticulously designing the unfinished pyramid, the game developers provide an invaluable educational tool for players who are curious about the history and engineering marvels of ancient Egypt.

The game features this kind of uncompleted pyramid specifically in "Desheret Desert". This place on the game’s map is located in the southernmost region of Egypt. Beneath the desert floor rests an unfinished construct, built within a vast artificial canyon.

The Unfinished Northern Pyramid, also known as the Pyramid of Baka, is located in Zawyet El Aryan, approximately 8 km south of Giza. Believed to have been constructed during the 4th Dynasty, this ancient structure remains incomplete, providing archaeologists and historians with invaluable insight into the construction techniques and processes of the time. The pyramid's most notable feature is its subterranean chambers, which were carved directly into the bedrock.

The Unfinished Pyramid: A Closer Look

The unfinished pyramid in Assassin's Creed Origins showcases the step-like structure of the monument during its construction phase. This representation offers insight into the building methods used by ancient Egyptians, which relied heavily on ramps, levers, and pulleys to transport massive stone blocks. The game also highlights the labor-intensive nature of these projects, which required thousands of workers to dedicate decades of their lives to the completion of these impressive structures.

While the unfinished pyramid in Assassin's Creed Origins is not an exact replica of the Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan, there are several similarities that suggest the game developers drew inspiration from this real-life structure. Both the game's representation and the actual pyramid exhibit the characteristic step-like appearance, with exposed layers of stone blocks representing the core of the monument.

The game's depiction of the unfinished pyramid also highlights the use of ramps and levers in construction, which is consistent with the archaeological findings at Zawyet El Aryan. Furthermore, both the game and the real-life site showcase the massive scale and logistical challenges faced by ancient Egyptian builders, emphasizing the labor-intensive nature of pyramid construction.

The game's portrayal of the unfinished pyramid also reveals the intricate planning and organization involved in building such a colossal monument. It showcases the architectural layout, which was carefully designed to align with celestial bodies and incorporate various religious and symbolic elements. The detailed depiction of the pyramid's construction site also provides players with an understanding of the logistical challenges faced by the builders, including the sourcing of materials, storage, and transportation.

Differences and Creative Liberties

While Assassin's Creed Origins does an impressive job of replicating many aspects of ancient Egyptian architecture, it is important to remember that the game is a work of fiction, and the developers have taken some creative liberties. For instance, the game's unfinished pyramid may not be an exact geographical or chronological match to the Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan. Additionally, the game's portrayal of the pyramid's purpose and the events surrounding its construction may be more closely tied to the game's narrative than to historical records.

Recreating the Past through Cutting-Edge Graphics

The realistic representation of the unfinished pyramid in Assassin's Creed Origins was made possible through the combination of extensive research, expert consultation, and cutting-edge technology. The game employs advanced graphics and rendering techniques to deliver a visually stunning and immersive experience. By leveraging the power of modern gaming platforms, Assassin's Creed Origins has been able to accurately recreate the magnificence and grandeur of ancient Egypt, providing players with an unforgettable journey through history.

The inclusion of the unfinished Egyptian pyramid in Assassin's Creed Origins is a testament to the game's commitment to historical accuracy and its dedication to providing players with a rich, immersive, and educational experience. By offering a glimpse into the construction techniques and challenges faced by ancient Egyptians, the game enables players to appreciate the impressive architectural feats of this ancient civilization. The developers' painstaking efforts to recreate the past have resulted in a gaming experience that not only entertains but also educates and inspires curiosity about the fascinating world of ancient Egypt.

The unfinished pyramid in Assassin's Creed Origins, while not an exact replica of the Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan, shares several key similarities that demonstrate the game developers' commitment to historical accuracy. By drawing inspiration from real-life archaeological sites, the game provides players with a captivating and educational experience, offering a unique opportunity to explore and appreciate the architectural marvels of ancient Egypt. However, it is essential to acknowledge the creative liberties taken by the developers and remember that the game is, ultimately, a work of fiction that seeks to entertain and engage its audience.

Egyptian Pyramids size comparison concept art from The Art of Assassin’s Creed: Origins book

The Evolution of Egyptian Pyramid Structures: From Mastabas to the Great Pyramid of Khufu

April 7, 2023

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Egyptian pyramids are among the most iconic and enduring symbols of ancient civilization. Over the centuries, these monumental structures have captivated the imagination of millions, inspiring both awe and curiosity. The development of pyramid structures in ancient Egypt spanned several centuries and evolved from simple pre-dynastic tombs to the grandiose constructions that we associate with the term "pyramid" today. This article will explore the evolution of Egyptian pyramid structures, beginning with the mastaba tombs of the pre-dynastic period and culminating with the Great Pyramid of Khufu.

I. Pre-Dynastic Mastaba Tombs

Before the construction of the first pyramids, the people of ancient Egypt buried their dead in structures known as mastabas. These flat-roofed, rectangular structures were made of mud-brick and served as tombs for the elite members of society. The word "mastaba" is derived from the Arabic word for "bench," reflecting the bench-like shape of these structures. Mastabas featured an underground burial chamber accessed through a vertical shaft and a chapel above ground where family members could perform rituals and leave offerings for the deceased.

II. The Step Pyramid of Djoser: A Monumental Leap

The construction of the first pyramid in Egypt is attributed to Pharaoh Djoser, who ruled during the 3rd Dynasty (circa 2667-2648 BCE). His vizier, Imhotep, is credited as the architect behind the innovative design of the Step Pyramid, which is considered the first large-scale stone monument in the world. The Step Pyramid, located in Saqqara, represented a significant departure from the mastaba tombs that preceded it.

The Step Pyramid consists of six distinct mastaba-like layers, stacked one on top of the other, with each subsequent layer smaller than the one below it. This design gave the structure its distinct stepped appearance. The pyramid was initially intended as a traditional mastaba tomb, but Imhotep expanded the design, transforming it into a revolutionary new architectural concept. The Step Pyramid served as a template for future pyramid construction and marked the beginning of the Old Kingdom era of pyramid building.

III. The Transition to True Pyramids: Sneferu's Innovations

During the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu (circa 2613-2589 BCE), the father of Khufu, the design of pyramids underwent further evolution. Sneferu was responsible for the construction of three major pyramids: the Meidum Pyramid, the Bent Pyramid, and the Red Pyramid.

The Meidum Pyramid began as a step pyramid, but was later modified into a true pyramid by filling in the steps with limestone casing stones. However, the structure experienced a catastrophic collapse, likely due to the unstable foundation and steep angle.

Learning from the failure at Meidum, Sneferu's architects designed the Bent Pyramid, which featured a change in the angle of inclination midway through its construction. This adjustment likely prevented a collapse, but resulted in the pyramid's unique bent shape.

Sneferu's final pyramid, the Red Pyramid, is considered the first successful true pyramid. Its smooth sides and consistent angle of inclination set the standard for future pyramid construction, paving the way for the Great Pyramid of Khufu.

IV. The Culmination: The Great Pyramid of Khufu

The pinnacle of pyramid evolution is undoubtedly the Great Pyramid of Khufu (circa 2580-2560 BCE), which remains one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Located in Giza, the Great Pyramid stands at approximately 481 feet tall and was the tallest man-made structure in the world for nearly 4,000 years. It is constructed from an estimated 2.3 million limestone blocks, some of which weigh over 15 tons. The precision and craftsmanship exhibited in its construction continue to baffle modern engineers and architects.

The Great Pyramid was built as a tomb for Pharaoh Khufu, and its original purpose was to serve as a stairway to the heavens, allowing the pharaoh's soul to ascend to the afterlife. The pyramid features three burial chambers: the King's Chamber, the Queen's Chamber, and an unfinished subterranean chamber. The King's Chamber contains a granite sarcophagus, presumably for Khufu, but no remains have ever been found inside.

The construction methods used to build the Great Pyramid remain a subject of debate and speculation. It is believed that a large workforce of skilled laborers and engineers was required to complete the pyramid over a 20-year period. Some theories suggest the use of ramps or levers to move and lift the massive stone blocks into place.

V. The Legacy of Egyptian Pyramid Structures

The pyramids of Egypt stand as a testament to the architectural and engineering prowess of ancient Egyptian civilization. Although the construction of pyramids declined after the reign of Khufu, their influence is still evident in later structures, such as the Nubian pyramids of Sudan and the Meroe pyramids.

The evolution of pyramid structures, from simple mastaba tombs to the awe-inspiring Great Pyramid of Khufu, represents a fascinating journey through the architectural advancements and cultural beliefs of ancient Egypt. Today, these iconic monuments continue to captivate visitors from around the world, serving as a powerful reminder of humanity's enduring drive to create, innovate, and leave a lasting legacy.

Early traces of the world-famous foie gras in the land of ancient Egypt

January 20, 2023

by Giorgio Pintzas Monzani

Criticized by many for its production processes, hated by many for its peculiar flavor, and considered by many to be the most prized and delicious food there is: foie gras, it always brings with it ranks of supporters and opponents to every banquet it comes to.

Associated with French cuisine, and historically linked (mistakenly) to Gallic origins and the opulent eras of kings and palaces, foie gras actually traverses human history back millennia, and finds its origins in the Nile swamps, a land of legends, myths, and fascinating stories.

The reality is that the error in attributing the birth of this dish is made by even the most passionate foodies, as it is a paternity that Egypt has never pushed so hard to claim.

Thus, it remains a common mistake, but one that for the most curious must be analyzed historically.

Why does it originate specifically in Egypt?

How and who subsequently imports it into Europe?

How did it come to be famous within "cuisine francaise"?

The civilization of ancient Egypt, throughout its millennia of history, has always been a nucleus of innovation in every sphere, laying the foundation for the great European and African civilizations that flourished later.

Even from the point of view of food preparation and storage, some of the inventions that occurred on the banks of the Nile are still considered innovative and in our case even progenitors of the world of gourmet cuisine.

As introduced earlier, the process of foie gras preparation was first used by the farmers of ancient Egypt, and more specifically by those in the marshy areas of the Nile delta.

Birth unrelated to the world of food

Why this process was started on the animal in order to obtain a fatter liver still divides some historians today.

In addition to the goal of producing a food that was pleasing to the taste, in fact, the Egyptians used the liver of geese, ducks and other animals to produce the first candles known to man as early as around 3,000 b.c.e. by coating dried reed reeds with animal fat.

As for the food, on the other hand, there is evidence of its preparation dating to around 2,500 b.c.e., this thanks to frescoes found in the necropolis at Memphis.

Of course, there are no dates and certainties related to which practice was first implemented, although it is believed that the use of the candle originated first: thus assuming that after using a fatty liver as fuel to illuminate the dark desert nights, man tasted this extraordinary and original product for the palates of the time.

Pharaonic banquets

We have seen how foie gras originated in Egypt, thanks to the numerous presence of these animals in the paludal areas of the Nile and the craftsmanship of Egyptian artisans, despite which it cannot be described as a food on the tables of all inhabitants.

The labor commitment and cost of preparing foie gras was high from the very beginning, causing it to be presented as a niche product from the very beginning.

So if we could go back in time and conduct a documentary on the food of ancient Egypt, we would not find goose or duck liver pâté in the tables of peasants or merchants, but in the majestic banquets held in the imposing palaces of the pharaohs.

We might, in fact, enjoy ancient foie gras in the company of the priests and nobles of this splendid society.

The journey of foie gras to Europe

After analyzing the birth, the question arises.

How did the food arrive on European soil?

The answer lies behind the journey of the first Greek pharaoh in Egypt's history: Alexander the Great.

As we all know, the Macedonian king arrived on the shores of Egypt during his journey to conquer the then known world.

Alexander's army conquered the land almost peacefully, as the Persian empire (which had ruled the Egyptian lands since 525 b.c.e.) surrendered to the Greek forces, and Philip II's son was welcomed as a liberator, so much so that he was crowned pharaoh in 332 b.c.e.

The globalization brought by the Macedonian empire made cultural exchanges between all the conquered territories even more possible: thus the various culinary customs of the various cultures also came into contact, without collision but leading to the birth and discovery of many ingredients and preparations, including even Egyptian foie gras.

In fact, this increase in food exchange made possible the discovery of the product in the Greek peninsula as well.

The arrival of foie gras in Rome

The fall of the Macedonian empire by the hands of the Roman army, first with its defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 B.C. and later with its annexation to the Roman republic in 148 B.C., indelibly marked the history of Europe.

Although Roman policy toward the Greek territories was filled with contempt and exploitation, the empire's intellectuals and wealthy looked upon Hellenic culture with great admiration and respect, which fostered the "Greekization" of many cultural aspects of the then capital of the world.

The Roman poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus in one of his epistles wrote, "Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit," meaning that the crude and fierce conqueror, subdued the Greeks with arms, but the Greeks with letters and art civilized Rome and the whole of the then empire.

The increase then economic and mercantile exchanges between the two territories, now under the same reign, were fortified and increased exponentially.

It can therefore be assumed that the product whose history we are tracing came into close contact with the Roman empire at this time.

Certainly even earlier Rome was aware of the Greek culinary culture, but as mentioned above, goose fatty liver never represented an everyday food, but rather a whim and glitz of the rich in the palace.

And it is precisely during this period that it may have arrived in the empire's market.

A detail that reinforces this theory of ours, lies behind the figure of Marcus Gavius Apicius, the most important gastronome, cook, and writer that antiquity has ever seen.

An almost mythological figure in fact, given the paucity of information about his personal life, according to many a figure to whom cookbooks written by many different authors are credited, a kind of gastronomic deity.

Apicius' foie gras

Marcus Gavius Apicius, at the turn of the first century B.C. and the first century A.D., created real guidelines on feeding birds in order to obtain the best possible foie gras.

Within the collection "De re coquinaria," a bible of gastronomy considered by many to be the greatest gastronomic work in history, Apicius recounts how to sweeten the wild taste of the liver of these birds, it was necessary to feed the animal with figs.

This technique was so revolutionary that it also left an etymological trail behind it; enough to think that the word "ficatum", which means liver in Latin, takes its root from the very fruit that Marcus Gavio used to create his foie gras, the "ficum."

The arrival of the dish in France

As everyone knows, the Roman Empire extended to a great many territories in central Europe, including present-day France, called Gaul at the time.

Thanks to this rule we finally have the arrival of our protagonist in Gallic, French territory.

It was precisely the magnificent technique of the gastronome Apicius that made foie gras the protagonist at all imperial banquets, in every corner of Roman territory.

But how did it become famous in French cuisine in later years?

The reality is that the dish had a dark period after the fall of the Roman Empire, and the use of goose fat was carried on only by European Jewish families.

Until, during the reign of Louis XIV, cooks throughout the kingdom, seeking to impress the king's overweening and vitiated palate resorted to forgotten recipes that would charm royal banquets.

It was at one of the banquets, probably in the palace of Versailles, that a cook decided to prepare foie gras and have the king taste it: delighted by the delicacy and deliciousness of the dish, he declared it the "food of kings," giving it a second life and making it famous throughout the French palaces.

To mention only that in 1778, the governor of Alsace, had his best foie gras tasted by King Louis XVI, who immediately appreciated it, making a gift of 20 gold coins to the court cook: from there, every cook in the French kingdom studied new recipes to astound their sovereigns, making foie gras the most requested dish by the European aristocracy.

Even today the dish is still associated with wealth, power, and splendor; for as we know, history rarely changes.

Why?

Because after all, we are...what we used to eat.

If we can trust the opinion of many scholars who want the Egyptian ethnonym "Haunebu" (= the people who live north behind the islands and coasts) to refer to the inhabitants of the Aegean at that time, then this specific relief is the oldest protohistoric portrait of a Greek woman known to us so far!

This Egyptian Relief is the earliest portrait of a Greek woman!

January 9, 2023

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

Breaking Ground: Discovering the Earliest Portrait of a Greek Woman in Egyptian Relief Art

For centuries, historians and archaeologists have tirelessly worked to unravel the mysteries of ancient civilizations. Egyptian art, in particular, serves as an invaluable source of historical knowledge, providing insight into the society, culture, and everyday life of one of the world's most ancient and influential civilizations. One recent discovery has astounded the historical community: the earliest known portrait of a Greek woman beautifully etched into an Egyptian relief.

It is Egyptian and dates back to 1302 BC, about 100 years before the Trojan War! It is located on the Second Pylon of Pharaoh Horemheb at Karnak, the largest place of worship in ancient Egypt. The relief depicts a woman of obvious Greek origin. Her distinct Greek attire and the characteristic hairstyle clearly differentiate her from her Egyptian contemporaries, which makes this find particularly exciting.

In Horemheb's colossal relief group of prisoners of war, there is also a gang of captives (men and women) with their race-name "Haunebu" inscribed against them.

The heads of the men are distorted, but the profile of a woman is yet perfect, and this profile is the earliest portrait of a Greek woman in the world. Her eye is defaced, but the delicate outline of the features is yet unscathed. She is depicted with a thin long ringlet (probably one on each side), a characteristic feature of the female hair in archaic Greek art. Therefore, it can be assumed that this hairstyle was a "national fashion" quite earlier.

Statue showing the King Mentuhotep III as Osiris with a tall crown, long beard and an full-length cloak.

The ethnonym "Haunebu", as a general term for the inhabitants of the Aegean area, is mentioned for the first time as early as the time of Pharaoh Sankhara (Mentuhotep III), of the 11th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom (2010-1998 BC), as it appears on a carved slab of his time.

After this mention, we hear no more of early Greeks in Egypt until they reappear as Danai or Danaeans (Tanaju), about half a millennium later, in the reign of Thutmose III (1479-1425 BC). This pharaoh was the equivalent of "Alexander the Great" of ancient Egyptian history. He conquered most of the then known world, building Egypt's largest empire ever.

He carved the names of hundreds of defeated nations and conquered cities on the walls of Karnak and the Great Temple of Ammun. In these famous inscriptions, also known as the "Annals of Thutmose III", we find the Greeks mentioned for the second time in Egyptian history, as a diplomatic meeting between the Mycenaean delegation and the pharaoh in the area of Syria is recorded.

The ethnonym "Haunebu" nevertheless survived until the time of the Ptolemies, when the Greeks ruled Egypt. The native Egyptian scribes of the comparative Hellenistic Era used it to denote the ruling race (the Rosetta Stone), just as their distant ancestors had used it to denote "Greek barbarians," people of the sea who had been captured in battle 15 whole centuries ago!

The Hall of Annals of Thutmosis III, Temple of Karnak in Thebes. (mid 15th c. B.C.) Thutmosis (Menkheperre) offers foreign gifts to Amun.

This remarkable find not only represents the earliest known portrait of a Greek woman in Egyptian art but also stimulates a reevaluation of our understanding of ancient societal interactions, cultural exchanges, and the roles of Greek women in Ptolemaic Egypt. It serves as an invaluable link to the past, allowing us a peek into the nuanced relationships between one of the ancient world's most formidable powers and its influential Greek contemporaries.

Like many great historical discoveries, this one prompts as many questions as it answers, reminding us of the rich and layered tapestry that is human history. As scholars continue to study this fascinating artifact, it is certain that we will gain even more insight into the complex dynamics of cultural exchange in the ancient world, the status of Greek women in foreign societies, and the extent of their participation in public and religious life.

In conclusion, the Egyptian relief portraying the earliest Greek woman is not only an artistic marvel but also a testament to the complexities of ancient societies and the rich tapestry of cultural exchange that has shaped human history. As researchers continue to unveil the mysteries etched into this invaluable piece of art, we look forward to the new chapters this will open in our understanding of our shared past.

"Ginger" (Gebelein Man): Maybe the oldest Egyptian mummy!

January 6, 2023

In 1896, the first Gebelein predynastic mummy, 'Gebelein Man,' who was later nicknamed Ginger, was found. His body is very well preserved, including the preservation of the red hair that earned him the nickname Ginger. Studies show that he was around 18-21 when he died. He has been at the British Museum since 1901.

Mummification

Ginger was found in at Gebelein, Egypt, and dates to the Late Predynastic period, around 3400 BC, or earlier. Before mummification was developed, human remains were placed in shallow graves, in direct contact with the hot, dry sand, which absorbed the water in the body. Without moisture, bacteria cannot breed and cause decay, and the body is preserved. It is uncertain whether Ginger’s mummification was intentional or not, though since Ginger was buried with some pottery vessels it is likely that the mummification was a result of preservation techniques of those burying him. He lies in the curled, fetal position common to burials of the time.

Studies

Ginger’s body was buried around 3500 BC in sand graves located near Gebelein, Egypt.

Ginger’s body was removed from the British museum and scanned for further analysis. Experts, who have concluded he was almost certainly murdered, his injuries suggest he was the victim of a deliberate assault, his shoulder blade was damaged and the rib underneath shattered in a manner consistent with a stab wound. He was likely stabbed by a copper or flint blade at least five inches long and CT scans confirmed that he was stabbed in the back.

The mummy was placed on display at the British Museum in 1901.

Egypt ancient HELICOPTER hieroglyph mystery solved

December 17, 2022

Some believe that this ancient mural depicts technology far ahead of its time, but in reality it's nothing quite out of place.

The helicopter hieroglyphs is a name given to part of an Egyptian hieroglyph carving from the Temple of Seti I at Abydos. In paleocontact hypothesis circles the hieroglyphs have been interpreted as an out-of-place artifact depicting a helicopter (above the nine short vertical bars) as well as other examples of modern technology.

The "helicopter" image is the result of carved stone being re-used over time. The initial carving was made during the reign of Seti I and translates to "He who repulses the nine [enemies of Egypt]".

It was common in Ancient Egypt for hieroglyphs to be re-carved and re-faced over the years. This process of writing on the same surface more than once is called palimpsest, and it was common practice when a new Pharaoh was establishing a dynasty to write over the hieroglyphs of his predecessors. It is well known that such a process took place at the temple of Seti I in Abydos by his son Ramses II.

This carving was later filled in with plaster and re-carved during the reign of Ramesses II with the title "He who protects Egypt and overthrows the foreign countries".

Over time, the plaster has eroded away, leaving both inscriptions partially visible and creating a palimpsest-like effect of overlapping hieroglyphs. As with all dates in Ancient Egypt, the actual dates of Seti's reign are unclear, and various historians propose different dates, with 1294 BC to 1279 BC and 1290 BC to 1279 BC being the most commonly used by scholars today.

Wigs, dyes and extensions in ancient Egypt

November 28, 2022

John SN

Hygiene and aesthetics саme together in one of the most characteristic objects used by the ancient Egyptians: wigs. These elements, worn by men and women, protected the scalp from the rigors of the hot Egyptian climate, and also served as sophisticated beauty accessories.

Thanks to some sources, such as the Greek historian Herodotus (who lived in the 6th century BC), we know some aspects about the hygiene and customs of the ancient Egyptians, such as the fact that both men and women used to remove hair facial and body.

Another thing is the hair, which, apparently, both sexes underwent different treatments: it was dyed, сᴜt, braided, amulets were woven into it, and it could also, of course, be shaved.

But something that is very familiar to us when it comes to dress and hairstyle customs in ancient Egypt is the widespread use of wigs, of which there was a great variety of shapes, sizes and designs.

In this context, Joann Fletcher, an Egyptologist at the University of York, in England, has carried out a detailed study on wigs in ancient Egypt ( Ancient Ornaments Project at the University of York), and for this she has counted on the collaboration of the һіѕtoгісаɩ hairdressing specialist Filippo Salamone.

Within the framework of this project, the researchers have analyzed the ancient techniques for making these precious objects, which, сombіned with the undeniable skill of ancient Egyptian hairdressers, resulted in wigs of excellent quality.

Wigs and extensions in ancient Egypt

“Human hair was of utmost importance in ancient Egypt to both the rich and the рooг of both sexes; it was a mean of self-expression,” says Fletcher.

But the researcher has been able to verify that the hairstyles were much more than an expression of personal taste. Wigs not only allowed hair to be perfectly groomed, but also contributed to greater personal hygiene.

In fact, the wigs protected the shaved scalp from the rigors of the Egyptian climate and the wearer kept their heads cool and safe from lice, an аnnoуіnɡ and ancient pest that, according to the results of Fletcher’s research.

It could be documented in the mᴜmmу of a man bᴜгіed in Abydos about five thousand years ago.

*Modern recreation of a long Egyptian wig with tubular ornaments. Middle Kingdom.*

The hot and dry conditions of the Egyptian climate are perfect for the natural preservation of the soft tissues of the body after deаtһ, including nails, skin and hair.

So much so that, in addition to thousands of bodies subjected to various methods of mummification, the naturally mᴜmmіfіed bodies of people without resources who were simply bᴜгіed in the sand have also been located.

In this way, thanks to the conservation of hair in nᴜmeгoᴜѕ bodies (both mᴜmmіfіed and not), scholars have been able to observe how the ancient Egyptians arranged and adorned their hair.

The ancient Egyptians did not differ much from us in certain aspects related to hairstyle.

For example, there is archaeological eⱱіdeпсe of the use, at least as early as 3400 BC, of hair extensions and dyes (although there is also eⱱіdenсe that hair was сᴜt with very ѕһагр blades from as early as 3400 BC).

Likewise, the iconographic eⱱіdenсe has been of great help to researchers. tomb paintings and statues show the elaborate wigs worn by both men and women, especially members of the elite.

A curious and interesting aspect is the representation in some statues of a lock of natural hair that peeks oᴜt from under the wig worn by the person represented. This indicates that, in many cases, these elements were used as an aesthetic complement, but not to replace natural hair.

A Complex Elaboration

On the other hand, the paintings and the reliefs of the tombѕ also show the hair in “movement” (especially in the case of dancers and acrobats), women and men being combed by their servants or wearing highly ornamented wigs.

Ancient Egyptian would also place a scented cone (normally used during banquets), which melted over the course of the evening and cascaded over the wig, leaving a scent trail.

According to Fletcher, women’s wigs were typically less sophisticated than men’s, which could have given them a more natural appearance.

Although there are always exceptions, as in the case of a female mᴜmmу discovered by the famous Egyptologist Zahi Hawass in the Valley of the Golden mᴜmmіeѕ, located in the Bahariya oasis. This woman woгe a mask on her һeаd and an intricate hairstyle at the back arranged in the shape of a round cake.

The volume of the hair was for women of then, as for today, a great саᴜѕe for сonсeгn. Most Egyptians used hair extensions in order to “fill in” the gaps left in the scalp by hair ɩoѕѕ, to hide brittle and fгаɡіle hair, or simply to make natural braids appear more lush.

Wigs and extensions, which were made in specialized workshops, were always made with human hair, which was normally bought, and a wide variety of tools were used to make them, such as hairpins, combs and bronze tools that were used to wave and trim the hair.

Fabrics and knots were also used that were secured on the real hair (or, fаіlіnɡ that, on the scalp) with beeswax and resin that were һeаted to the boiling point and hardened when cooled (Fletcher explains the case of a man bᴜгіed near Asyut in Upper Egypt who had used thread to attach strands of human hair to his).

The ancient Egyptians adored braids, and perhaps that is why one of the preferred forms for extensions was braided hair. Some featured very intricate designs for added length and style.

For example, Princess Merit-Amun’s wavy brown hair had been filled in around the crown with abundant braids. She was also bᴜгіed, like many upper-class women, with a duplicate of braids if necessary.

As for the internal filling of the wigs, it was often made with date palm fiber, which gave them greater volume (this can still be seen in the “ceremonial wigs”, such as those discovered in Deir el-Bahari, belonging to priests of the Twenty-first Dynasty).

*Quartzite һeаd of a young Amenhotep III wearing a short wig.*

Luxury items

Like us, and despite wearing a wig, the ancient Egyptians also wanted to hide the gray in their natural hair, and to achieve this they normally used dye.

The product used to dye the hair was vegetable henna (a product that is still used for the same purpose), which gave the hair a reddish tone. Sometimes hair was dyed after deаtһ.

According to Joann Fletcher, of the many wigs that have been found in ancient Egypt, an excellent example is the one found inside a box in a male tomb in Deir el-Medina, the town where the builders of the royal tombѕ lived during the Kingdom.

New, made up entirely of human hair, with light brown curls over a lower section of several hundred dагk brown braids.

On the other hand, the best preserved example of a long-style wig was also found at Deir el-Medina, in the tomb of the architect Kha and his wife Merit. The wig, belonging to Merit, was found in a tall wooden box that served that purpose.

Along with this wig, made up of пᴜmeгoᴜѕ curly braids of dагk brown hair, a small box of braided hair extensions had also been bᴜгіed.

Hatnofer, mother of Senenmut, Queen Hatshepsut‘s architect, also woгe similar braids.

Arranged in two thick masses on either side of her һeаd, the ends of these braids had been placed in rounded sections to create a curly, bulky style that was associated with Hathor, the goddess of beauty, proving that the ancient Egyptians considered their own hair as one more form of art, to which they deѕtіпed, how could it be otherwise, great doses of effort and skill.

**Graffiti** left by **ancient** Greek tourists in the even older Egyptian Tomb of Ramses V. Scribblings include: "I visited and did not like anything but the sarcophagus!" and "I cannot read the hieroglyphs." u/PorcupineMerchant

Ancient Graffiti: How ancient Greek and Roman tourists left "bad reviews" in this Egyptian tomb

November 18, 2022

Text-photo: Ray Boone, PorcupineMerchant

“I visited and I did not like anything but the sarcophagus!”

That’s just one of many random scribblings left in the Tomb of Ramesses V & VI in the Valley of the Kings.

This tomb has been open since antiquity, and the evidence of that is everywhere. Ancient tourists left their marks — sometimes in Latin, most often in Greek. Usually they’re down low, but some are up near the ceiling, which obviously suggests there were spots where the sand rose quite high.

Some of the visitors were doctors. Others were philosophers or high-ranking officials. And for the most part, they weren’t only there as sightseers; they came as some sort of pilgrimage, as they believed the tomb to be that of Memnon, a hero in the Trojan War.

Which was obviously not true. Not even a little. But nearby, two giant statues were supposedly of Memnon — partially because of a singing sound they made in the morning. Don’t ask me how that story got started. I mean, I know why, but don’t ask. I’ll have to explain the whole thing, and neither one of us wants that.

Some of the graffiti is poetry, most is the equivalent of “I was here.” Someone would write their name and their occupation, and the most common phrase used was “I admired.” In one case, some dude’s secretary did the carving for him, and he just wrote “I admired” next to it. How lazy do you have to be, that you’re traveling around Egypt with your own personal graffiti artist?

Roman Holiday

It’s a little odd to think of Romans going on these elaborate vacations, but that’s exactly what happened. After all, they weren’t all that different from us. The wealthy ones would sail down to Alexandria, where they could see the famous lighthouse. Then they’d get a peek at the Pyramids, hop on a boat, and cruise down the Nile. Two of the Seven Wonders checked off the list.

Do you think they had some ancient equivalent of guide books? Probably — because all sorts of Romans were stopping at the Colossi of Memnon, which are absolutely covered in graffiti. Even the Emperor Hadrian visited. Then his boyfriend drowned in the Nile. But that’s a different story. Don’t ask. Why are you trying to get me off topic?

So you head down on this exotic Egyptian adventure, checking out all the sights, hanging around some awesome Egyptian festivals and drinking copious amounts of beer. And of course you’d go see those two huge statues and the tombs.

Like I said before, the Colossi of Memnon was a hot ticket item back then. Well, I don’t think there were actual tickets. It’s just an expression. Actually, there aren’t tickets now, either. They just sit by the side of the road.

These statues would “sing” in the morning, which we now think was the result of evaporating dew in the morning. The Romans thought these were of Memnon — they’re actually Amenhotep III — and due to him sharing one of his names with a name inside the tomb we’re talking about, the Romans decided it was the tomb of Memnon.

Now, despite the fact that we’re talking about a time over a thousand years after Ramesses V & VI, I’ve got to think some Egyptians knew the Romans were wrong. So why didn’t they correct them? That’s a good question, and I don’t have an answer. I guess if Romans are coming to your town and throwing money around, you just let them think what they want. Or maybe when an Emperor shows up, you don’t try to correct him. I probably wouldn’t. You just snicker at him behind his back.

Kind of like how I’d do if I met Jeff Bezos and he had some toilet paper stuck to his shoe. Am I going to tell him? No way.

The Entourage

“I, Ammonios, singularis of Italy, saw and admire it.”

With every super important official, there was surely an entourage. Like Bieber. Wait, is that an outdated reference now? Does Bieber still have an entourage?

So this guy named Ammonios wasn’t an official. He wasn’t a super important guy at all. Now, he was important in the military, as he was presumably a guard for an Emperor, but probably not the kind of dude who’d go on a really fancy vacation.

It gives you an idea of who was visiting these tombs. The rich folk, and everyone who came with them. And as I said, they were mostly respectful — well, as respectful as you can get when you’re scratching words into the walls. The bulk of the graffiti is placed in a way that it doesn’t obscure any of the hieroglyphs or other art.

A team from Poland did an extensive survey and found over a thousand instances of ancient graffiti in this tomb. But it’s not all just people writing their names and saying they had a nice time.

“I cannot read the hieroglyphs,” wrote one person.

“Why do you care that you cannot read the hieroglyphs? I do not understand your concern!” wrote someone else, right below it.

It seems that even back then, they had Twitter replies. I can just picture some Roman holding a torch, reading what someone else wrote, and thinking “Jesus Christ, what a moron. You’re looking at all of this awesome shit, and that’s what you’ve got to say?” So he hands his torch over to his buddy, pulls out a knife, and starts scratching a rebuttal.

Well…he probably didn’t say “Jesus Christ.”

Anyway, if you’re ever in Luxor I’d highly recommend visiting this tomb. It’s one of the biggest in the Valley of the Kings, and the colors are still extremely bright. It does require buying an extra ticket, but it’s worth it. You don’t really notice the graffiti unless you’re looking for it. And in case you’re wondering, Ramesses V built part of it, then he died and Ramesses VI finished it. They were both buried here. I guess old Number 6 figured it’d be easier to take over than starting fresh.

And like the spirits of those ancient kings who live on in the afterlife, my plugs for my Instagram @rayoboone will never die. I have some other tomb pictures on there, you’ll just have to scroll down past the Baby Yoda hand sanitizer.