The Evolution of Human Skin Color

Migration and Genetic Mutations from Africa to the rest of the world

Human skin color is a result of evolutionary processes that have unfolded over tens of thousands of years. Early humans in Africa had dark skin, which provided them with protection against harmful UV radiation in sunny savannah grasslands. However, as human migration out of Africa began around 60–70,000 years ago, diverse skin colors emerged due to genetic mutations and natural selection.

The migration of humans out of Africa was not a simple one-way flow; rather, it involved multiple migration events and movements back and forth between different regions. Notably, significant migrations started around 60–70,000 years ago, leading to the spread of humans across the Eurasian landmass. Evidence suggests that humans began leaving Africa as early as 120,000 years ago, but the most significant migrations related to skin color diversity occurred around 60–70,000 years ago.

Around 70,000 years ago, humans underwent a stable expansion into the Northwest Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East. It was during this period that a mutation occurred in the kit ligand gene, impacting melanocyte production and the skin pigment molecule melanin. As different populations migrated from the Northwest Arabian Peninsula, they carried this mutation with them.

The genetic mutation affecting human skin color is present in modern humans of Middle Eastern, Asian, North Central, South American, or European ancestry. Conversely, this mutation is absent in people with sub-Saharan African ancestry. Additionally, genetic mutations in European populations led to selective advantages for lighter skin in regions with long, dark winters.

Several key genetic mutations have been identified as crucial factors in the development of diverse skin colors. These include mutations in the slc24a5 and slc45a2 transporter proteins, which played significant roles in melanin production in European populations. Similarly, the population migrating out of the Arabian Peninsula experienced a genetic change in the mfsd12 gene, leading to a shift in skin pigment production towards feo-melanin.

As these mutations continued to unfold, genetic changes occurred independently in both European and Asian ancestral human populations, such as mutations to the Oca2 and mc1r genes. These genetic mutations and natural selection eventually led to a linear pattern between human skin color and latitude. Lighter skin became beneficial in northern latitudes with less sun exposure, while modern humans at low latitudes tended to have darker skin to protect against intense sunlight.

The evolution of human skin color is deeply meaningful and serves as a basic biological trait for the human species. It is intricately tied to cultural richness and the weight of historical atrocities, yet it remains a fundamental biological trait that has been constant throughout the existence of humans. These evolutionary processes in response to environmental factors have given rise to the diverse array of skin colors that we see in the world today, underscoring the dynamic relationship between genetics, environment, and human adaptation.

Why did Christianity Fail in Asia while Succeeding in Europe?

Christianity is the largest religion in the world, with over 2 billion followers, but it has struggled to gain a foothold in certain parts of the world, particularly in Asia.

The religion originated in Judea and spread through the Levant, eventually reaching Antioch and spreading to Armenia, Georgia, Mesopotamia, Parthia, and India. Nestorian Christians are believed to have made their way from modern-day Iraq to China during the Tang Dynasty, with the earliest evidence of contact dating back to the 7th to 10th centuries.

The Christian mission in China was established by Alopen, a priest, in 635 AD and was initially welcomed by the Emperor despite resistance from local Buddhists and Daoists. Christianity surged in China during the Mongol period, as its leaders were more religiously tolerant, but it hit a stall under the Ming Dynasty.

Today, an estimated 20 million Christian adults live in China, comprising around 2% of the population. Taiwan and Japan also have Christian populations, with around 3% of Taiwanese and 1% of Japanese identifying as Christian. North Korea also has undercover Christians, thanks to evangelism by American Protestants in the 1800s.

15 INCREDIBLE ARCTIC Discoveries

While the Arctic is known for being cold, icy, and inhospitable, there are countless mysterious discoveries from this icy world that not many people know about. From ancient artifacts frozen in time to unique wildlife adaptations in the extreme cold, join us, as we countdown the top 15 most amazing arctic discoveries!

8 Prehistoric Animals That Have Been Found Trapped In Ice

The discovery of mummified animals, specifically those frozen in ice, can provide valuable information about extinct species and their way of life. Permafrost, areas of permanently frozen ground, have preserved Ice Age creatures, but they are melting due to global warming, releasing methane into the atmosphere. Unfortunately, pirates are taking advantage of melting permafrost and stealing valuable animal parts. However, this video focuses on specimens that have been discovered ethically. The woolly rhinoceros, cave lion, woolly mammoth, step bison, and Lena horse are some of the animals discussed in the video.

The woolly rhinoceros was found preserved in ice twice, with the 2020 discovery being one of the best-preserved animals ever found in the region. The cave lion, highly distinct and genetically isolated from the modern lion, was discovered in eastern Siberia in 2017 as a well-preserved cub. The woolly mammoth, famously discovered multiple times, had two calves discovered in 2007 and one of the best-preserved examples found in 2022. The step bison, with a complete heart, brain, and digestive system, was discovered in Northern Siberia in 2011, and its well-preserved blood vessels make it a potential candidate for cloning. The Lena horse, an extinct species of horse, was also discovered in Siberia.

Overall, mummified animals provide a glimpse into the past, but their discovery and preservation are at risk due to global warming and illegal activities.

Rare Photos Show How Medieval Women Really Looked

The video explores the beauty standards and appearance of women in different regions and periods of the Middle Ages. The video features rare images, scientific discoveries, art, reconstructions, and historical sources that shed light on how medieval women really looked like.

The Windsor Beauties, a set of portraits painted by Sir Peter Lely depicting some of King Charles II's mistresses and noble relatives and friends, show the beauty standards of the time, with fair skin, long hair, plucked eyebrows, and small teeth, among other features. Tora, a woman who lived 800 years ago in Trondheim, Norway, was not a noble or courtesan but an ordinary citizen.

Researchers used her skeletal remains to create a realistic-looking 3D model of what she may have looked like when she was alive. The model shows Tora smiling and holding a walking stick and is now on display at the NTNU University Museum as part of an exhibition called "Medieval Trondheim." The video highlights the importance of understanding how medieval women really looked like and how they influenced history with their beauty and power.

Mysterious Origins of Patagonia's Native People (Yahgan)

Tierra del Fuego, an archipelago at the foot of Argentina and Chile, is home to one of the most distinct indigenous people in terms of culture and customs.

The history and ancestry of these people, who lived only 600 miles from the nearest point on Antarctica, may be even more mysterious and significant in the history of humanity. The Yagen tribe, who were famous for their complete disregard for the cold weather, lived in the region completely naked despite having fires and small doed shelters. Recently, a researcher claimed that their average body temperature was at least 1 degree higher than that of a European, providing them with cold resistance.

Patagonia, the southern tip of South America, is a vast region that encompasses over 400,000 square miles of Chile and Argentina. Scholars believe that people have lived in Patagonia since the end of the last ice age approximately 12,000 years ago.

The Eastern side of Patagonia is mostly within Argentina's borders and is made up of deciduous forests and open grassland steps bordered by the Atlantic Ocean whereas the Far Western side is made up of dense Evergreen forests including stands of the endangered monkey puzzle.

Archaeologists are now uncovering an intriguing story about the skills, adaptations, and resources required for people to survive there, as the Patagonia region is known for its harsh landscapes, strong winds, and extreme weather.

5 Unexplained Ancient Coincidences

The enigmatic handbag motif appears in ancient carvings across vastly separated civilizations and bears a striking resemblance to modern handbags, yet its true meaning and purpose continue to elude us.

The motif is prevalent in ruins of ancient Mesopotamia, particularly among the Assyrian and Sumerian civilizations, and similar motifs have been found in the ancient alch civilization of meso America, the mai of New Zealand, and megalithic monuments across the globe.

Scholars and historians have given various theories to explain the widespread occurrence of this motif, including the representation of a container of sacred knowledge or a cosmic symbol signifying the transfer of divine wisdom from gods to humans, or the idea of an ancient shared global culture or the influence of a lost advanced civilization.

Megalithic monuments, such as Stonehenge in England and the carak stones in France, are some of the earliest large-scale constructions that bear striking resemblances to one another despite being located on different continents and having been created by different cultures. These ancient builders may have shared a set of underlying construction principles and cultural motivations, with an occurring theme of architectural alignment with celestial bodies.

Explore the secret rooms of the Pantheon

The video features archaeologist Darius Arya taking viewers on a tour of the secret rooms of the Pantheon in Rome. The Pantheon is one of the best-preserved ancient Roman temples, known for its famous front porch and impressive Rotunda with the largest unreinforced concrete dome weighing about 5,000 tons.

However, there are also hidden spaces within the Pantheon, including the Graton, which is a structure constructed to sustain the Rotunda. The Graton consists of radial walls that buttress up the southern side of the Rotunda and is encased in a brick structure.

Arya takes viewers inside the Graton and shows the 7th Century icon dedicated by Pope Bonfice IV to the mother of God, Panaga Hria. Additionally, he shows the Basilica of Neptune, which is a massive structure with a Monumental app that was rebuilt after a fire in 110 AD.

The structure was attributed ultimately to Hadrian, but originally there was the Stow of Neptune in the time of Augustus built by Agria. Arya highlights the architectural features of the Pantheon, including relieving arches that are inserted in the fabric of the walls. The video offers an opportunity to explore the lesser-known aspects of the Pantheon and the history of ancient Rome.

Top 5 Greatest Samurai Last Stands

The video discusses the concept of The Last Stand within the storied history of premodern Japan, and examines several examples of legendary stories of truly heroic Samurai who lived up to the loyalty and Valiant nature that they represent. The video ranks the top five greatest examples of Samurai last stands, discussing who fought, what they were fighting for, and the impact of their actions both in the immediate aftermath and many years to come. The rules followed for choosing these particular stories include: there needs to be a numerically superior enemy attacking a smaller force, at least one key recognizable leader on the defending side, and this key leading figure did not attempt to flee and instead has to have either died in combat or through seppuku.

The top five greatest examples of Samurai last stands are:

1. Minamoto Yorimasa at the first battle of Uji

2. The Taira Clan at Dan no Ura

3. The 47 Ronin at Ako

4. Kusunoki Masashige at Shijonawate

5. Saigo Takamori at Shiroyama

The video also provides historical context for each of these last stands and their significance in the larger context of Samurai history. Enjoy!

12 Most Amazing And Unexpected Underwater Finds

Despite thousands of years of human existence on Earth, much of the ocean remains unexplored, leaving the possibility for new and exciting discoveries.

Archaeologists recently found the remains of a medieval soldier at the bottom of Lake Avea in Lithuania, complete with personal possessions, including knives, a sword, uniform, and leather boots. The discovery provides insight into the military forces of the past, with the sword allowing archaeologists to estimate the discovery dates back to the 16th century.

In November 2020, scientists discovered an ancient lake bed more than a mile below the ice in Greenland, which could contain bacteria and other information about the world's past. However, drilling through the ice is currently nearly impossible and expensive.

In 2018, scientists announced the discovery of the world's largest underwater cave in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula, measuring 215 miles and containing over 100 artifacts. The cave system may have been familiar to the Maya, who lived in the area.

The US Navy sunk German uboat 166 in the Gulf of Mexico during WWII, and the well-preserved wreck was discovered during a pipeline survey in 2001. However, the Deepwater Horizon oil rig disaster in 2010 accelerated the disintegration process of the wreck.

The wreck of the Japanese cargo ship Fuji Maru, built in 1938, is also a popular dive site at Chuuk Lagoon in the Central Pacific Ocean.

What This Man Discovered Inside A Cave Shocked The World!

The world's most intriguing natural formations, caves, offer a glimpse into our planet's rich past. This video highlights three recent discoveries that have shocked the world in terms of their historical significance and mysterious nature.

- Witch marks: The largest cluster of witch marks in British caves were discovered at Creswell Craigs in Nottinghamshire. Initially thought to be graffiti, these apotropaic marks are now recognized as important artifacts that shed light on historical beliefs and practices aimed at warding off evil spirits.

- Mysterious figures: Alabama's 19th unnamed cave has revealed a treasure trove of cave art that includes unique anthropomorphs depicting supernatural beings linked to Native American beliefs in a tiered universe of unseen spirit realms. The absence of direct links to known characters raises intriguing questions about the cultural narrative embedded in these glyphs.

- Neanderthal remains: Nine Neanderthal remains were unearthed in the Guari Cave located southeast of Rome, shedding light on a grizzly fate for these ancient human relatives who fell victim to hyena attacks. The discovery of traces of vegetables alongside human and animal remains showcased the diverse diet of these Neanderthals.

These cave discoveries provide significant insights into the historical and cultural beliefs of our ancestors and offer a glimpse into the mysteries of our planet's past.

Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun: I entered 30,000-year-old Tunnels under the Oldest Pyramid

The Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun has been the subject of internet rumors since 2005, with claims that it is 30,000 years old and twice the size of the iconic Egyptian pyramids. These claims have stirred up controversy, with some experts defending the discovery as a real pyramid, while others remain skeptical.

Mainstream historians often underestimate human capabilities of the past, leading to dismissals of structures that we cannot replicate today. The Bosnian pyramid has been disputed since its discovery, with some arguing that it is a natural formation, while others insist it is a man-made structure.

Over 50 archaeologists and professors have defended the discovery, while others have tried to stop excavations. To be recognized as a legitimate man-made pyramid, the Bosnian Pyramid must meet four criteria: geometry, science of construction, material analysis, and age.

The Bosnian Pyramid meets all of these criteria, as it is a square pyramid with equilateral triangular sides, has evidence of artificially made concrete blocks that date back 32,000 years, and has compressive strength that ranges from two to four times harder than normal concrete used in residential buildings. The pyramid's buried state is likely due to cataclysmic floods that occur in cycles at the end of ice ages.

6 Neanderthal DNA physical traits in modern humans

Most modern humans outside of Africa have between 1 and 4% Neanderthal DNA, with this DNA having considerable effects on physical and psychological traits today. Physical signs of carrying Neanderthal DNA include light skin and hair, baldness, lack of back hair, obesity, elongated skull shape, and height.

Neanderthal DNA affects the composition of fat throughout the body and how much of it is stored, and may help break down fat to use as energy faster. While being bald and easily sunburnt may be negative traits inherited from Neanderthals, the same gene that causes this also makes it more likely for skin and hair to be lighter in color, which helped absorb vitamin D in cloudy regions.

The shape of one's skull is a good physical marker for Neanderthal DNA, with less globular and more elongated skulls being a sign of Neanderthal ancestry. Height may also be influenced by a gene that decreases the risk of schizophrenia and is highly influenced by Neanderthal heritage. DNA tests can also show the amount of Neanderthal DNA one has and provide information about one's genetic code, paternal and maternal haplogroups, health, pharmacological, and nutritional information unique to one's DNA.

The Impossible Architecture of Étienne-Louis Boullée

Etienne Louis Boullée was an 18th-century French architect who became famous for his designs that were never built, but were of such a vast scale that they would have been impossible to build in real life. Boullée developed a distinctive style of abstract geometric forms and produced a series of designs illustrating his ideas, making up an almost encyclopedic representation of the necessary institutions for an ideal State. While only one of his designs, the Hotel Alexandre, still exists, his visionary nature has earned him his place in history and still inspires architects today.

Boullée was a reluctant architect who originally dreamed of becoming a painter but turned to architecture at his father's insistence. It was rather as a theorist and a teacher that he achieved lasting influence, and he worked as a professor for over 50 years of his life. Boullée's call was to create buildings that would instinctively make us feel in a way that corresponded to their nature or purpose and that would shape moral values in the public. His designs often had little or no precedent in the past, and he sought to discover the properties of volumes and their precise emotional effects on humans. Boullée wrote down his theories in a book called "Essay on the Art of Architecture," in which he explained his various designs.

7 STOIC THINGS YOU MUST DO EVERY NIGHT (MUST WATCH) | STOICISM

The ancient philosophy of stoicism is a practical way of living that can help people overcome challenges, cope with stress, and achieve their goals.

One effective way to apply stoicism in daily life is to develop nightly habits that help reflect on actions, learn from mistakes, and prepare for the next day. Seven simple but powerful nightly habits of a stoic can make individuals more resilient, calm, and focused.

The first habit is to review the day by asking simple questions such as what was done well, what was done poorly, what was learned, and how to improve tomorrow. Writing down the answers creates a record of progress, challenges, and growth.

The second habit is to meditate on mortality by imagining it as the last night on earth and asking powerful questions such as how would life be remembered, what would be regretted, and what would be proud of or grateful for.

The third habit is to practice gratitude by writing down three things that were good about the day.

The fourth habit is to plan for the next day by prioritizing the most important tasks.

The fifth habit is to read or listen to something inspiring or educational.

The sixth habit is to disconnect from technology and engage in calming activities.

The seventh habit is to get enough sleep by setting a bedtime routine and sticking to it.

Applying these nightly habits can help individuals become more aware of themselves, aligned with their values, and resilient in the face of uncertainty.

12 Most Mysterious Ancient Technologies Scientists Still Can't Explain

Our ancient ancestors were highly inventive, and some of their inventions were so advanced that we still don't fully understand them today. Examples of these inventions include Inuit storytelling maps, snow goggles, the Syum Tunnel, and forced draft shaft furnaces.

The Inuit maps were used by hunters to tell stories of their fishing and hunting experiences, while snow goggles were used to protect against the glare of the sun and snow. The Syum Tunnel was an artificial water tunnel carved in the city of David in the 8th century BCE, and it was most likely built during a time when Jerusalem was anticipating an attack from the Assyrians.

Finally, the forced draft shaft furnaces were wind-powered iron smelting facilities that might have made a significant contribution to South Asia's early mastery of steel production. These inventions demonstrate the ingenuity of our ancient ancestors and their ability to create advanced technologies with limited resources.

Top 3 Neanderthal Mysteries Solved in 2023 - And One that Was Not

New research on the Roche-Cotard cave in France has revealed evidence of Neanderthal artistic expression. French archaeologist Jean Claude Marque first discovered fine lines on the cave walls in 1974, which he suspected were of human origin. Recent analysis using modern methods has confirmed that the marks were made with human fingers and are not tool marks. The cave also yielded other intriguing artifacts, including an object resembling a human or animal face and a potential oil lamp. These findings challenge the traditional view of Neanderthals as mentally inferior and suggest a closer cognitive resemblance to modern humans. The study was led by Dr. Gabrielle Russo and provides groundbreaking insights into the hunting practices and cultural significance of apex predators to Neanderthals.

Another study examined Neanderthal hunting practices and found that they hunted apex predators such as cave lions. The discovery of bones with cut marks and spear thrusts provided evidence of Neanderthal hunting practices. This study contributes to the understanding of behavioral similarities between Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens, indicating complex Neanderthal behaviors and possibly the basis for later cultural developments in Homo sapiens.

A study on Neanderthal diet and use of marine resources revealed significant aspects of their dietary habits in central Germany and Coastal Portugal. Researchers found strategic repetitive cut marks on elephant bones suggesting that Neanderthals carefully butchered these large mammals for consumption. Additionally, the study found evidence of the regular consumption of marine resources, indicating a varied diet.

In this video we look at how the scientific community was able to solve some mysteries surrounding Neanderthals, these relate to their cognitive and hunting skills and also abstract thoughts. One mystery remain elusive and continues to challenge the scientific world.

Top 5 Prehistoric Discoveries of 2023

Archaeology is a constantly evolving field with new discoveries, methods, and studies emerging every year. In 2020, several groundbreaking prehistoric discoveries were made, including a lavish burial of a woman known as the "Ivory Prince" at the Monumental Iberian Megasite of Valencina, suggesting that women held powerful positions in Iberian society.

Studies also challenged the Clovis first hypothesis and provided evidence of early human presence in the Americas, with the discovery of modified giant sloth bones and fossilized footprints dating back 21,500 years in White Sands, New Mexico.

In France, the oldest evidence of European archery was uncovered with the discovery of small flint arrowheads dating back 54,000 years ago. In China, the discovery of the HLD 6 skull proposed the existence of a new human lineage.

Finally, in Zambia, a wooden structure dating back 476,000 years was found, providing the oldest example of structural engineering. These discoveries offer new insights into prehistoric societies and the evolution of humans.

When History Repeats: A Tale of Two Mothers

The video explores the lives of two noblewomen, Julia Agripina and Irene of Athens, who married emperors and found themselves in positions of power. Agripina, the great-granddaughter of Emperor Augustus, married her uncle Claudius and was seen as a threat to his rule due to her son's potential claim to the throne.

She may have even killed Claudius to ensure her son's succession, although the truth is unknown. Irene, a Greek noblewoman, married Emperor Leo IV, who was opposed to religious iconography, while Irene and her family were in favor of it. Their marriage was strained, but Irene became Empress Regent after Leo's death and ruled on behalf of her young son. However, she faced plots and chaos and was eventually overthrown by her own son.

While the video presents alternate histories of these women's lives, it also promotes Keeps, a hair loss prevention medication that delivers affordable FDA-approved hair loss treatments to men.

Scientifically Dating the Giza Pyramids

The Giza Pyramids are the most studied ancient structures in the world, and their age is not debated by scholars. However, their origins remain mysterious and have been challenged by independent researchers. To date the pyramids, archaeology, historical writings, and scientific methods have been used.

The rich archaeology of the Giza Plateau is enough to place the construction of the pyramids in the fourth dynasty of the Old Kingdom. The Great Pyramid belongs to Khufu, the second pyramid belongs to Khafra, and the third pyramid belongs to Menkaure.

However, some say the evidence is circumstantial and not proof that they built them. Written historical sources attribute the monuments of Giza to Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaure, but they were written hundreds of years later, making them less credible sources. Scientific methods, such as surface luminescence dating and radiocarbon dating, have also been used to date the pyramids.

Surface luminescence dating was used on the Menkaure pyramid, and the results were published in 2014. The method works by erasing geological luminescence on stone surfaces through solar radiation. The contact between the stones and the mortar also provides a date range. Despite using multiple methods, not everyone agrees on who built the pyramids.