Ochre: The First Sunscreen That May Have Saved Humanity from Extinction, Study Suggests

A groundbreaking study published in Science Advances suggests that ochre, a naturally occurring red pigment, may have helped early humans survive a massive spike in ultraviolet radiation roughly 41,000 years ago—a period that may also mark the extinction of the Neanderthals.

Earth's Magnetic Field in Turmoil

Researchers from the University of Michigan analyzed samples from the last Ice Age and found that during this period, Earth’s magnetic field weakened by up to 90%. This drastic change, coupled with a shift in the magnetic poles by about 75 degrees from their usual alignment, allowed charged solar particles to bombard the atmosphere.

The magnetic south pole drifted from Antarctica to somewhere between Australia and New Zealand, while the north pole shifted toward western Eurasia and North Africa. These changes devastated the ozone layer—the atmospheric shield that protects life on Earth from harmful UV rays—leaving both early modern humans and Neanderthals dangerously exposed.

In some parts of the world, scientists believe solar particles may have reached all the way to the ground, creating lethal levels of radiation that could have had dire consequences for survival.

Ochre: A Life-Saving Adaptation?

Intriguingly, the regions most affected by increased UV radiation coincide with archaeological sites where ochre was widely used. According to ScienceAlert, this widespread use of ochre—applied to cave walls, tools, and even human skin—may not have been purely symbolic. In this harsh environment, ochre could have functioned as an early form of sunscreen.

This theory gains further credibility from modern practices. The Himba people of northern Namibia and some Indigenous Australian communities still use ochre for sun protection today. In addition, recent research confirms that ochre does have UV-blocking properties.

The researchers note a compelling timeline overlap between the magnetic field disruption and the disappearance of the Neanderthals. If this connection holds, it raises a fascinating possibility: the use of ochre may have given Homo sapiens a survival edge that Neanderthals lacked—or failed to use as effectively.

Rethinking the Neanderthal Story

However, not all scientists are convinced. Some caution that this explanation may oversimplify the complex reality of human evolution. There's growing evidence that Neanderthals also used ochre, decorated their caves, and had tools for making clothing. These clues suggest that their behavior was more sophisticated than previously thought.

Ultimately, while the study opens a fascinating window into prehistoric survival strategies, experts agree that the disappearance of the Neanderthals was likely the result of multiple interwoven factors—with ochre being just one piece of the puzzle.

3,500-Year-Old Egyptian Settlement Discovered Beneath Greek City from the Time of Alexander the Great

Recent excavations at Kom el-Nugus, west of Alexandria, Egypt, are reshaping what we know about the origins of ancient Alexandria. Beneath the remains of a Hellenistic city dating to the time of Alexander the Great, archaeologists have uncovered a much older Egyptian settlement—one that predates the arrival of the Macedonian conqueror by over a millennium.

A City Hidden Beneath the Figs

Kom el-Nugus, nestled between the Mediterranean Sea and Lake Mariout, has long been known for its fig trees rather than its archaeological treasures. That has now changed.

In a surprising turn of events, excavators unearthed a 3,500-year-old Egyptian settlement, dating back to the New Kingdom—the golden age of ancient Egypt, which saw the reigns of legendary pharaohs such as Tutankhamun, Seti I, and Ramses II. It appears the later Greek city was built directly atop the ruins of this earlier settlement, likely after the Egyptians regained independence from Persian rule.

A Royal Name in a Wine Jar

Among the most significant finds was an amphora bearing the name Meritaten, daughter of the infamous Pharaoh Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti. Dated to the 18th Dynasty (1550–1292 BC), this amphora not only ties the site to Egypt's royal lineage but also sheds light on the settlement's main industry: winemaking. Nearby, archaeologists uncovered grape presses—further proof that the wine produced here may have been intended for royal consumption.

The discovery also revives interest in Akhenaten, the radical pharaoh who introduced monotheism and disrupted Egypt’s traditional polytheistic beliefs. After his death, his reign was so controversial that his statues and inscriptions were destroyed in an effort to erase his memory. Even his mummy remains unaccounted for. His son, Tutankhamun, later restored the traditional pantheon.

A Street Through Time

Other artifacts point to continued activity at the site well beyond the 18th Dynasty. Fragments of small shrines from the 19th and 20th Dynasties—the era of the Ramesside pharaohs—were found, including a stela inscribed with the cartouches of Seti II. In one pit, archaeologists uncovered five tiny ceramic bowls, while the ruins of buildings—made from sun-dried mudbrick—lined both sides of a street equipped with a water drainage system, designed to prevent structural collapse from moisture.

That street had even been rebuilt, indicating the settlement was in use for an extended period. According to researchers, the phased reconstruction of the site suggests it may have been a seasonal or temporary settlement, possibly functioning as a military outpost.

This groundbreaking discovery adds a rich new layer to the story of Alexandria, revealing how ancient Egyptian life persisted and evolved even as foreign empires rose and fell above its ruins.

Mystery at Vergina: New Identity Emerges Behind the Male Skeleton in the Great Tumulus

The skeleton discovered in the Great Tumulus of Vergina does not belong to Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great, according to new research that is turning long-held assumptions on their head.

A study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science reveals that the male skeleton found in the royal tomb is actually that of an unknown Macedonian official who died at least 20 years before Philip II’s assassination. Archaeologists believe this individual was likely a relative of the famed king, which could explain his burial in such a prestigious location.

The Occupants of Tomb I

Discovered in 1977, the Great Tumulus at Vergina is home to the royal tombs of the Argead dynasty—the family that established the Kingdom of Macedon and ultimately dominated ancient Greece. Until recently, most scholars agreed that Tomb I contained the remains of Philip II, his wife Cleopatra, and their infant child. All three were reportedly murdered in 336 BC on the orders of Olympias, Alexander the Great’s mother, to secure her son’s succession to the throne.

However, the latest dating and analysis of the remains now suggest that the man in the tomb died between 388 and 356 BC, decades before that infamous triple assassination. Scientists used cutting-edge methods involving genetic, osteological, and biological data to determine that the man was between 25 and 35 years old, and the woman buried alongside him was 18 to 25 years old. Researchers are now certain: these are not the remains of Philip II and Cleopatra.

The Mystery of the Roman-Era Infants

Adding another layer to the puzzle, archaeologists uncovered the skeletal remains of at least six infants buried in the same tomb—centuries later, between 150 and 130 AD during the Roman era. These babies are believed to have been the children of high-ranking Roman officials.

It’s likely that the tomb was looted in the 3rd century BC, which may have allowed Roman-era families to reuse the site for their own burials.

Given all these findings, archaeologists now suggest the original male occupant was a prominent Macedonian official or court member—possibly even a young king who died decades before Philip II ever rose to power.

This latest research not only reshapes our understanding of Vergina’s royal tombs but also highlights the enduring mysteries still buried beneath Macedonia’s ancient soil.

UK on Parthenon Marbles: A “Temporary” Deal Is the Best We Can Offer

The debate over the return of the Parthenon Marbles to Greece continues to make headlines, with a recent discussion in the British Parliament shedding new light on the UK’s official stance.

During a parliamentary committee session, Conservative MP Alberto Costa proposed the return of the Parthenon Marbles to Greece through an open-ended loan agreement. “This proposal is not about emptying the British Museum,” he said. “It’s about restoring a uniquely significant collection to its original context.”

As part of such an arrangement, Greece could offer major archaeological treasures for display in British museums, creating a mutually beneficial cultural exchange.

Costa even suggested to The Telegraph that an agreement could come closer to fruition if Greece were willing to lift the entrance fee to the Acropolis Museum for British visitors—a symbolic gesture of goodwill.

However, in his first public intervention on the matter, UK Culture Minister Sir Chris Bryant made it clear that a permanent return of the Marbles is not on the table. He stated that British law provides legal protection for the artifacts, making any notion of a permanent repatriation legally impossible.

“The best the UK could offer,” Bryant noted, “is a temporary agreement.”

This latest development highlights the ongoing diplomatic tightrope between cultural heritage, national legislation, and international goodwill. For now, the fate of the Parthenon Marbles remains uncertain—but the conversation is far from over.

The Terrifying Reason Archaeologists Refuse to Open the Tomb of China's First Emperor

The tomb of Qin Shi Huang, China's first Emperor, remains untouched to this day—and the reason why is as fascinating as it is unsettling.

While archaeologists have made countless remarkable discoveries over the years, few are as iconic as the burial site of the first ruler to unify China. Constructed over a span of 38 years—from 246 to 208 BC—the massive mausoleum was designed to mirror the ancient capital of the Qin Dynasty, Xianyang, and lies near the modern city of Xi’an.

The site first came to light in 1974, when a group of farmers digging a well stumbled upon what would become one of the most significant archaeological finds of the 20th century. Their discovery led to the unearthing of hundreds of life-sized statues—now known worldwide as the Terracotta Army.

The Terracotta Army was first discovered in 1974 (Luis Martinez/Design Pics Editorial/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)

These clay figures, believed to represent soldiers, court officials, strongmen, and even musicians, were buried with the emperor to serve as guardians and companions in the afterlife. Despite decades of excavation revealing thousands of these figures in separate chambers, the emperor's actual tomb—at the heart of the complex—remains sealed.

But why, with all our modern tools and technology, has the tomb never been opened?

Surprisingly, it’s not because of legends or curses—although tales of traps and deadly mechanisms inside the tomb still linger. The real reason is scientific.

When the Terracotta Warriors were first uncovered, many were found painted in vivid colors. However, once exposed to air, the pigments began to deteriorate almost immediately. Today, the once-colorful statues appear entirely bare, their original hues lost due to a sudden change in environmental conditions.

This loss has made archaeologists extremely cautious. They fear that opening the emperor’s tomb without the proper technology could irreversibly damage any delicate artifacts within—artifacts that have remained sealed off from air, light, and moisture for over two millennia.

There's a few reasons why archeologists don't want to open the Emperor's tomb (Pictures From History/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)

Because of this, experts are holding off, hoping that future advancements in preservation and excavation will allow them to explore the tomb without compromising its contents.

Kristin Romey, a curatorial consultant for the Terracotta Warrior exhibition at New York’s Discovery Times Square, explained the dilemma in an interview with Live Science:

“The big hill, where the emperor is buried—nobody’s been in there. Partly it’s out of respect for the elders, but they also realise that nobody in the world right now has the technology to properly go in and excavate it.”

Until that technology exists, the tomb of Qin Shi Huang will remain undisturbed—a silent guardian of secrets that may forever reshape our understanding of ancient China.

Date Set for the Return of the Parthenon Marbles

The long-awaited return of the Parthenon Marbles is now expected to take place within 2025.

According to powergame.gr, the news has been confirmed by international media outlets, including Italy’s La Repubblica, which mentioned the agreement in an article highlighting Greece’s positive economic trajectory. The Italian newspaper referred to a “symbolic gesture that would finally recognize modern Greece as the rightful heir of ancient Greece—the very cradle of Western civilization.”

The Economist had also reported last November that a final agreement was imminent, indicating that the only thing remaining was the official announcement detailing the terms.

The proposed framework is based on a long-term loan arrangement, as British law currently prohibits any permanent change in ownership of items held by national museums. However, Greece is reportedly open to contributing important archaeological artifacts on a rotating basis for temporary exhibitions in the UK. This cultural exchange would strengthen both diplomatic ties and mutual understanding between the two countries.

Public opinion in the UK has also shifted significantly in recent years, with a growing majority now supporting the return of the Marbles to Greece. Adding fuel to the speculation, the British Museum has closed the gallery where the Marbles are displayed—an indication that preparations for their transfer may already be underway.

Should the return take place in 2025, it will mark a historic milestone not just for Greece, but for global cultural heritage—a powerful act of recognition, restitution, and respect for the legacy of ancient civilizations.

How Much Would It Cost to Build a New Parthenon Today? Spoiler: A Mind-Boggling Amount

Imagine this: rebuilding the Parthenon from scratch, using the same materials and techniques as the ancient Athenians. What would it take—financially and logistically—to recreate one of the greatest architectural feats of classical antiquity? The answer might surprise you.

The original Parthenon was constructed between 447 and 438 BC, at a time when Athens was a flourishing center of art, philosophy, and democracy. The project was a massive undertaking, financed largely through the treasury of the Delian League. Historians estimate the cost at around 470 silver talents—a fortune at the time, consuming a significant portion of the city's annual income.

When translated into today’s economic terms, the numbers are staggering. Just sourcing high-quality, pure white Pentelic marble in such quantities would cost tens of millions of euros. Add to that the expense of extraction, transportation, and precision stoneworking using techniques and tools no longer in widespread use, and the figure skyrockets.

According to modern engineers and architectural historians, faithfully reconstructing the Parthenon—not a concrete replica, but a true-to-form rebuild using authentic ancient methods—would likely cost between €500 million and €1 billion. And if we aimed to recreate the entire Acropolis complex—complete with temples, stairways, the Propylaea, the Erechtheion, and the Temple of Athena Nike—the total bill could run into the multiple billions.

The cost factors go far beyond materials and labor. They include the immense technical demands of replicating precise architectural proportions, the need for highly specialized craftsmen, a construction timeline that could span decades, and strict adherence to archaeological and structural standards.

For context, the ongoing restoration work on the actual Parthenon—which involves stabilizing and partially rebuilding damaged sections—has already exceeded €120 million, and it's still underway after several decades.

And here's the deeper truth: even if the money and expertise were available, such a project would raise serious ethical and cultural questions. The Parthenon is irreplaceable—not just for its architecture, but for its historical, symbolic, and spiritual significance. No replica, no matter how precise, could ever capture the essence of the original.

Denmark: Viking-Era Coins and Jewelry Unearthed Near Ancient Fortress

A rare trove of Viking treasures—consisting of more than 300 silver coins and various pieces of jewelry—has been discovered in northwestern Denmark, near the site of a historic Viking fortress. The announcement was made by the museum set to exhibit the artifacts.

The remarkable find was made in the autumn of 2022 by a young woman who had been exploring a cornfield with a metal detector. Her casual search led to a discovery that is now being hailed as a significant contribution to Viking-era archaeology.

Knossos: How Arthur Evans “Stole” the Glory from Schliemann — The Untold Story

In the year 1900, British archaeologist Arthur Evans began excavations at Knossos. Today, 125 years later, the site stands as one of the most important archaeological landmarks in Europe. But behind the celebrated story lies a lesser-known rivalry and a twist of fate that allowed Evans to claim a legacy that might have belonged to someone else.

Schliemann’s Missed Opportunity

Heinrich Schliemann—renowned for uncovering the secrets of ancient Troy—was well aware of Crete’s archaeological potential. Fascinated by the island, he suspected that the legendary palace of King Minos might lie somewhere near Heraklion. However, Schliemann ultimately chose to continue his work in the Hellespont region (modern-day northwestern Turkey), rather than commit to a major excavation in Crete.

That decision left the door open for another explorer. Local antiquarian Minos Kalokairinos had already conducted small-scale excavations at Knossos, unearthing two palace storerooms. He held the excavation rights and asked for 100,000 gold francs to relinquish them—a price that Schliemann found too steep, even after tough negotiations brought the asking price down to 40,000 francs. And so, it was not Schliemann but Arthur Evans who seized the opportunity.

Evans Takes the Lead

A museum director from Oxford and an admirer of Schliemann’s work, Evans saw potential in the scattered finds from Kalokairinos’s digs. Beginning in 1895, he gradually acquired portions of the land and, on March 23, 1900, launched full-scale excavations with a team of 30 workers—soon expanded to 100.

What Evans uncovered was astonishing: the sprawling ruins of a palace complex over 3,500 years old. He believed he had found the ancient city-state of Knossos and the home of the mythical King Minos described by Homer. The excavation revealed interconnected buildings, residential quarters, storerooms, staircases, corridors, royal apartments, and a vast central courtyard.

Imagination Meets Archaeology

But Evans’s interpretations were often driven more by imagination than hard evidence. In many cases, he made bold assumptions based on fragmentary findings. Discovering an alabaster chair in one room, for example, led him to designate it the “Throne Room”—a claim still debated today.

He went even further, reconstructing large portions of the palace with considerable artistic license. Early reconstructions were built in wood, later replaced by reinforced concrete. These interventions transformed the ruins into a kind of Minoan “Disneyland” — a visually stunning but heavily interpreted site. While impressive for visitors, these reconstructions have posed serious challenges for modern archaeologists, making it difficult—if not impossible—to draw unbiased conclusions about the original function and design of the buildings.

What We Do Know

Despite the controversy, some facts are clear. Two distinct palaces were built at Knossos. The first was likely constructed after 2100 BCE and destroyed around 1700 BCE by an earthquake. A second, rebuilt palace arose around 1450 BCE, only to be destroyed by fire roughly a century later. That destruction coincides with the end of the Minoan civilization on Crete and the broader collapse of the Bronze Age in the region.

Another drawback for visitors today is the disconnect between the site and its artifacts. Apart from a few replicas, the palace itself is largely empty. The vast majority of original finds—including many stunning artifacts—are housed in the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion. While impressive, this arrangement prevents visitors from experiencing these objects in their original architectural context.

Legacy and Recognition

In 1911, Arthur Evans was knighted for his contributions to archaeology. He passed away on July 11, 1941, at the age of 90. His legacy endures, though not without controversy. While he brought Knossos to global attention, the path he took—and the liberties he exercised—continue to spark debate among historians and archaeologists.

Hikers Stumble Upon Hidden Treasure Trove of Gold Coins in Czech Forest — Some Minted for Former Yugoslavia

What began as a casual hike through a forest in Eastern Bohemia turned into a once-in-a-lifetime discovery: a hidden stash of gold coins and precious objects worth hundreds of thousands of euros.

The remarkable find was made in early February near the southeastern Czech town of Trutnov, on the wooded slopes of Zvičina hill, at the foot of the Krkonoše Mountains. Two hikers spotted an aluminum container poking out of the earth at the edge of a field, now overgrown with trees. Inside, they found nearly 600 gold coins arranged in 11 rolls, each wrapped in black cloth.

Just a meter away, they uncovered an iron box containing 16 snuffboxes, 10 bracelets, a wire-mesh purse, a comb, a gold chain, and a powder compact—all made of gold. In total, the treasure weighs seven kilograms, with nearly four kilograms made up of solid gold coins. Experts estimate the hoard’s value at over 7.5 million Czech korunas (more than €300,000).

A Treasure Hidden with Care—and Intention

Archaeologists believe this was no random hiding spot. Miroslav Novák, head of the archaeological department at the East Bohemia Museum, suggests the person who buried the hoard intended to return for it.

Miroslav Novák (Photo: Milan Baják, Czech Radio)

“The list of possible reasons is fairly clear,” Novák explains. “It could have been buried at the start of a conflict, during the expulsion of Czech or Jewish citizens, or later, after the war, during the expulsion of Germans. Currency reform is another possibility.”

Though the identity of the person who buried the treasure—and why it was never reclaimed—remains a mystery, the meticulous packaging and secure location suggest they meant to retrieve it eventually.

Gold Over Face Value

According to museum numismatist Vojtěch Brádle, the coins’ real value lies not in their face denominations—whether they were worth 5, 10, or 100 korunas—but in their material.

“The motivation wasn’t what the coins could buy—it was the precious metal they were made of,” says Brádle. The total weight of the gold coins was measured at 3.75 kilograms.

Clues Point to Former Yugoslavia

An international mix, the coins include French, Turkish, Belgian, and Austro-Hungarian pieces, with others from Romania, Italy, and Russia. Upon closer inspection, numismatists found that some Austro-Hungarian coins were not intended for Bohemia at all, but rather for parts of the former Yugoslavia—likely Serbia or Bosnia and Herzegovina.

“After 1921, minting resumed in local mints, and some of these coins, under unclear circumstances, made their way from the Balkans to what is now the Czech Republic,” Brádle explains. “What’s certain is that, at that time, some of these coins could not have been in our territory—they were still circulating in the Balkans.”

The Mystery Remains

A portion of the gold coins from the treasure (Photo: Museum of Eastern Bohemia in Hradec Králové).

The rest of the golden artifacts found with the coins have yet to be thoroughly analyzed. Archaeologists hope that with further study—and perhaps the help of historical archives—they’ll be able to piece together the story behind this incredible discovery beneath the forests of Zvičina hill.

The Great Pyramid of Giza: Tourists Disappointed by the Reality of an Ancient Wonder

Tourists riding camels and snapping photos at the famed Giza Pyramids are a common sight—but for many visitors, the reality of seeing one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World up close is proving underwhelming.

Despite the majesty of the Great Pyramid, Egypt's most iconic monument, growing tourist traffic is taking its toll. In 2024, the country welcomed nearly 17.5 million tourists. With a target of 30 million annual visitors by 2030, the government has launched a comprehensive effort to manage the crowds and restore the visitor experience.

A National Treasure Under Pressure

The Giza Necropolis is Egypt’s crown jewel and a global symbol of ancient civilization. However, the modern-day experience can be chaotic. The area around the pyramids is frequently overwhelmed by a mix of tour buses, private cars, persistent vendors, and unofficial guides. This congestion has led many tourists to describe their visit as more stressful than awe-inspiring.

In response, the Egyptian government is implementing a major reorganization plan. It includes a new access point from the Cairo–Faiyum road, restoration of surrounding tombs, improved digital ticketing systems, and the introduction of eco-friendly transport options within the site. The goal is to reduce environmental impact while improving visitor comfort.

Tourist Complaints Going Viral

Fireworks light up the sky above the historic site of the Giza Pyramids, marking the New Year just outside Cairo, Egypt, on Wednesday, January 1, 2025.

Social media has amplified discontent. Visitors frequently report aggressive street vendors, tourist scams, and an overall sense of disorder in places like Cairo. These posts are beginning to damage Egypt’s reputation as a travel destination—something the country cannot afford during a global tourism recovery.

Animal Welfare Takes the Spotlight

Another longstanding concern is the treatment of animals used for tourist rides. Horses, donkeys, and camels have long been offered for rides around the pyramids, but advocacy groups like PETA have documented severe neglect, injuries, and mistreatment.

Change, however, is on the horizon. Last autumn, Egypt introduced a national animal welfare program targeting major tourist sites, including Giza. As part of this shift, the government is phasing in electric shuttle buses within the necropolis, offering a sustainable and humane alternative to animal rides.

A Makeover with High Stakes

The facelift of the Giza Plateau is more than cosmetic. In today’s world of online reviews and viral posts, a single negative experience can resonate with millions. Egypt has recognized that preserving its ancient treasures goes hand in hand with maintaining its tourism economy.

Modernizing infrastructure, cracking down on unethical practices, and protecting animal welfare are no longer optional—they’re essential for the country to survive and thrive as a leading global destination.

Strange Iron Keys Discovered in the Judean Desert – Their Symbolism and Unique Shapes

Deep in the heart of the Judean Desert, archaeologists have unearthed a set of curious iron keys unlike anything found elsewhere in the Roman Empire. These keys, discovered in the Cave of Letters—an archaeological site near the Dead Sea—carry not only a distinctive design but also a deep cultural and symbolic significance.

The Cave of Letters was first explored in 1960 by the renowned Israeli archaeologist Yigael Yadin. It was named after the cache of ancient scrolls and documents found within, which date back to the time of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE), a major Jewish uprising against Roman rule. Alongside these historical texts, Yadin’s team uncovered a wealth of personal belongings thought to have been left behind by Jewish refugees fleeing the revolt.

Among these items were ten iron keys, carried by people who hoped one day to return home. Since then, similar keys have been found throughout the region—but until recently, no comprehensive study had been conducted on their forms and meanings.

What Makes These Keys So Unusual?

The most striking feature of the keys is their distinct shape. Many of them include a sharp right-angled bend—resembling an elbow—which sets them apart from typical Roman keys of the same era. Archaeologists refer to them as “elbow keys”, and believe this angular design was unique to the Jewish population in the Roman province of Judea.

These elbow keys first appeared in the 1st century BCE and disappeared after the Bar Kokhba Revolt, when the Romans reorganized the region and renamed it Palestina. Their disappearance coincides with the introduction of a more standardized key design used across the Roman Empire, suggesting a shift in both technology and culture following Roman suppression.

A Closer Look at the Design

A typical Jewish key from this period consisted of three main parts:

• A pointed handle at the top,

• A shaft that connects to an angled axle,

• And a toothed end extending from the axle at another right angle.

This double right-angle construction created a staggered, three-dimensional form. The teeth were positioned perpendicular to the axle and parallel to the shaft, allowing the key to interact with its matching lock mechanism.

More Than a Lock and Key

The parts of a Jewish key. At the top is the handle, which in this case is pointed. Extending from the handle is the shank, which connects at a right angle to the stem. Another right angle links the stem to the bit, placing the long axis of these three components on different planes. The teeth stand upright on the bit, parallel to the stem and perpendicular to the shank.
Photo: Y. Pagelson et al.

These keys weren’t just functional—they were symbolic. In ancient cultures, keys often represented authority and protection. In the Bible, for instance, the Keys to the House of David symbolize power and divine responsibility.

Keys were sometimes placed in tombs, perhaps to help the deceased “unlock” the gates of the afterlife—a burial practice believed to have been influenced by Persian traditions. This spiritual symbolism deepens our understanding of why these objects were carried by fleeing refugees: they weren’t just tools—they were tokens of hope and identity.

The elbow key’s cultural importance is further supported by its depiction on Darom oil lamps, a type of Jewish lamp from the same era. These depictions suggest the elbow key was a recognizable and meaningful item in Judean society.

Craftsmanship and Function

Researchers used microscopy and radiographic imaging to study the internal structure of the keys. Most were forged from soft iron, which made them easier to shape and more durable—important qualities in a time when neither locksmiths nor spare parts were readily available. A few had components made from steel, but these were the exception.

The forging process was relatively simple but effective. Keys were shaped by hammering the heated metal into the desired form, then custom-fitted to specific locks by carving the teeth. Their size and style varied significantly, suggesting they served different purposes:

• Large keys were likely used for gates or public buildings,

• Smaller ones for homes and personal storage.

Some keys had loops or handles designed to hang from belts, while others were fitted with wooden handles for carrying over the shoulder, as described in ancient texts.

Unlocking the Past

The study of these unique keys goes far beyond metallurgy. It offers a rare window into the daily life, hopes, and cultural identity of a community under siege. These artifacts, once carried by exiles dreaming of return, now help us understand a vanished world—one where even a key could speak volumes.

AI Imagines What Hell Looks Like — And the Results Are Absolutely Chilling

It might sound a bit morbid, but let’s face it — at some point, most of us have wondered: What would hell actually look like? A fiery abyss? Demonic figures with horns and pitchforks? Whatever your imagination conjures, it probably doesn’t come close to what artificial intelligence has envisioned.

A viral video posted by Historic Vids (@historyinmemes) on X (formerly Twitter) has sparked a wave of reactions online. Captioned simply “Asked AI to show ‘Hell’”, the AI-generated video offers a disturbingly surreal glimpse into a digital version of the underworld — and viewers are calling it terrifying.

The eerie black-and-white clip begins with countless hands reaching upward, grabbing at a human figure being dragged down. As the 18-second video unfolds, it cuts to a haunting, screaming face, which then morphs into a distorted, hand-covered visage. At one point, it even looks like a hand is emerging from the figure’s mouth — enough to send chills down your spine.

Naturally, users on X had plenty to say about the unsettling video.
One viewer quipped, “Many already experience this ‘hell’ every morning on public transit.”

This isn’t the first time AI-generated content has given us a disturbing taste of the apocalypse. Renowned AI researcher Eliezer Yudkowsky recently warned of the dangers of unchecked AI development. In an interview with The Guardian, he said:

Asked Al to show "Hell' pic.twitter.com/XxoHVE9HKu

— Historic Vids (@historyinmemes) April 3, 2024

“If you put me against a wall and forced me to guess, I’d say our timeline is closer to five years than fifty. Maybe two years, maybe ten.”

Known for his controversial views, Yudkowsky has long sounded the alarm about the potential risks of advanced AI.

Meanwhile, in Denmark, researchers have developed an AI system with a different — but equally chilling — application. Named life2vec, the model was trained on the life data of over one million Danes and claims to predict an individual’s time of death with surprising accuracy.

And the dark AI content doesn’t stop there.

Over on TikTok, user @robotoverloards went viral for asking AI to generate images of the “last selfies ever taken” — snapshots imagined to be captured just seconds before a global catastrophe. The results were nothing short of terrifying.

One image shows a bleak, grey sky swirling above a vast body of water. A figure stands in the foreground, holding up a phone to their blood-covered face. Other frames depict blazing infernos amid flooded landscapes, with skeletal figures staring eerily into the lens.

One particularly astute viewer noticed something strange:
“Y’all saw how Earth was in the sky like the moon?” they wrote, adding to the unnerving atmosphere.

@robotoverloards/TikTok

As AI continues to push the limits of creativity — and human fear — one thing is clear: the lines between imagination and digital reality are becoming increasingly blurred.

How the Sumerians Revolutionized Timekeeping

Around 5,000 years ago, the Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia—what is now modern-day Iraq—transformed the way humans perceive and measure time. These early innovators developed an advanced numerical system based on the number 60, known as the sexagesimal system. This ingenious method gave rise to the division of an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds—units of time that still govern our daily lives today.

The Sumerians’ need for precise timekeeping was driven by the demands of their agricultural society. Accurate calendars were essential for planting and harvesting crops at the right time. In addition, the coordination of complex religious ceremonies and administrative functions also required a reliable system for tracking time. To meet these needs, the Sumerians made remarkable strides in astronomy.

By carefully observing the movements of celestial bodies, they created a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months—closely aligned with the cycles of the natural world and agricultural seasons. Their division of the day into 24 hours, each hour into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds was nothing short of revolutionary.

These divisions were far from arbitrary. They were designed for practical use and ease of calculation, reflecting the Sumerians’ sophisticated understanding of mathematics. The number 60, for example, is highly divisible, which made it ideal for constructing a system that could be used efficiently in everyday life.

This innovative approach to time had a profound impact on later civilizations. The Babylonians, Greeks, and Romans all adopted and further developed the Sumerian timekeeping system, building on its solid mathematical foundation.

Today, the legacy of Sumerian ingenuity lives on in our clocks and calendars, a testament to their enduring influence. Their pioneering work in time measurement continues to shape how we organize and experience the world, thousands of years later.

The Most Comprehensive Digital Map of the Ancient World

From Ireland to India—With Just One Click

Who wouldn’t want to embark on a virtual voyage to the lands once explored by ancient geographers? To not only discover the cities and their stories, but also to visualize the landscape of each region just as it was in antiquity?

This is exactly what PERIPLUS, a freely accessible digital historical geography platform, offers. Launched in May 2024 by the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA), PERIPLUS aims to be the most complete digital map of the known ancient world—stretching from Ireland to India and spanning from the historical period to Late Antiquity.

But it’s more than just a map. Users can explore ancient settlements, mountains, rivers, lakes, islands, and regions as they were known in antiquity (for example, Lake Copais is shown as a lake, as it was in ancient times). By clicking on each place, users can access historical data and additional resources through embedded links. A specialized software tool also allows users to extract and identify geographical and other terms from texts—regardless of their date or language.

One of PERIPLUS’s most ambitious goals is to gradually index and translate all works of ancient Greek literature, both in their original language and in translation. In doing so, it aims to become an invaluable, user-friendly resource for researchers, students, educators, and anyone with an interest in antiquity. The platform is bilingual (Greek-English), making it widely accessible to an international audience.

“This project is a collective effort. Around 140 undergraduate and postgraduate students have contributed so far,” explains Professor Konstantinos Kopanias of NKUA, the program’s creator and coordinator. “We deliberately developed it on a volunteer basis and with a zero budget. As a public university, we wanted to offer a free service with open data accessible to all—which we consider vital. This also ensures the project’s continuity, since it doesn’t rely on short-term funding programs.”

PERIPLUS is part of ArchaeoCosmos, a collaborative platform hosted by NKUA’s Department of History and Archaeology. ArchaeoCosmos focuses on the historical geography of the Mediterranean and the Near East from Prehistory through Late Antiquity and is supported by the university’s Digital Humanities Research Center, directed by Professor Dimitrios Plantzos.

“It all started during the pandemic,” recalls Professor Kopanias. “Since fieldwork and excavations were suspended, I began collecting data on the Eastern Mediterranean and the Near East for use in my publications and lectures. Once I had mapped those areas, I realized much of the world was still blank. It felt like leaving a puzzle half-finished—so I kept going.”

The result is a fully developed map covering everything from Ireland to India and from Scandinavia to Africa, reflecting how the ancient world was perceived. “The geographic knowledge of the ancients is truly remarkable,” he adds.

PERIPLUS stands out as a unique resource in its field. While another major project, Pleiades (https://pleiades.stoa.org/), is also highly valuable, PERIPLUS addresses key limitations:

1. Pleiades only shows individual ancient sites without surrounding context—no neighboring towns, rivers, or mountains.

2. It lists names in Latinized form only, which can obscure their original spelling and pronunciation.

PERIPLUS, by contrast, includes many names in ancient polytonic Greek, while also offering Latinized and modern versions. Importantly, it records all known name variants for each place—helping users identify locations mentioned under different names in ancient texts.

A central ambition of PERIPLUS is to gradually annotate and translate around 1,200 ancient Greek texts into English and Modern Greek—openly and freely accessible. The first such work is the “Periplus of the Erythraean Sea”, a 1st-century CE geographical treatise translated into Modern Greek by Professor Plantzos.

“It’s a relatively obscure and difficult text, rich in geographic references that are hard to follow without a map. Yet it offers a wealth of information,” says Professor Kopanias.

This text is included in the first full version of PERIPLUS, covering the known world from the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE to the 5th century CE. The next steps involve expanding into prehistoric periods by including relevant sites—highlighting patterns of habitation—and incorporating archaeological monuments.

Next in line for integration are the “Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax” and Strabo’s “Geographica”—a brilliant but notoriously complex work. “Our aim is to make these texts more accessible to the public, especially when paired with an interactive map. As we annotate each text, we also enrich the map,” explains Kopanias. Later additions will include works by well-known authors like Herodotus, Homer, Thucydides, and Xenophon—bridging literature, history, and geography for students, educators, and antiquity enthusiasts.

“Ultimately, we want to create a digital tool that connects ancient texts with archaeological sites—some of which are little-known. That’s our real goal: not just to present texts, but to help users discover the physical remains of the past,” he concludes.

PERIPLUS is divided into three main components:

1. Periplus Atlas
   The most comprehensive digital map (https://periplus.arch.uoa.gr/map_gr.html) of the ancient world to date, covering the period from historical times to Late Antiquity and the geographical expanse from Ireland to India. Users can explore ancient cities, mountains, rivers, islands, lakes, and regions. Each site includes detailed information, alternative ancient names in Greek and Latin, chronological data, and links to related resources like Wikipedia. The map also features a powerful search tool for exploring specific regions.

2. Periplus Logos
   This module includes texts from ancient Greek literature, with geographic terms gradually annotated. Every geographic term is a clickable hyperlink that directs the user to the corresponding location on the digital map.

3. Periplus App
   A Python and JavaScript-based tool (coming soon) that allows users to extract geographic (and other) terms from any text, in any language and from any period. It automatically creates web pages for these terms, enabling users to publish annotated texts online.

PERIPLUS is an open-access repository.
Users are free to use the Periplus App to annotate their own texts and generate custom digital maps (Web Maps) that can be embedded in educational, research, or even recreational websites—completely free of charge.

Eight Ancient Greek Inventions Still in Use Today

Many of the things we use in our daily lives have origins far older than we might expect. You may be surprised to learn that several modern conveniences actually trace back to ancient Greek ingenuity. While these early inventions were far from perfect, they laid the groundwork for the technologies and comforts we enjoy today.

Who would have thought that the alarm clock was first conceived in antiquity, or that the first robot served wine to ancient Greeks? Below are eight remarkable ancient Greek inventions that are still used in some form today—and that helped shape the modern world.

1. The Alarm Clock

An invention essential to modern society, the alarm clock first appeared in ancient Greece during the 3rd century BCE. While today we rely on phones and digital devices, the basic concept dates back over two millennia. The engineer and inventor Ctesibius (285–222 BCE) designed a water clock with a dial and pointer to display time and added a sophisticated alarm system that used pebbles dropping onto a gong.

Even the philosopher Plato (428–348 BCE) reportedly owned a large water clock that emitted a sound similar to a water organ as a wake-up signal.

2. Automatic Doors

What we consider a modern convenience—automatic doors—was first developed in ancient Greece by Heron of Alexandria, a brilliant engineer. In his design, a fire lit on an altar would heat water in a hidden vessel. The expanding steam would push water into a connected tank, causing it to tip a system of weights that opened temple doors.

Heron didn’t stop there—he also invented a coin-operated vending machine and an early syringe!

3. The Odometer

Used widely today to measure travel distances, the odometer was first employed in ancient Greece around 27 BCE. Though the Roman engineer Vitruvius attributed the invention to Heron, evidence suggests that Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 BCE) was the true pioneer. A mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor, Archimedes created a device that revolutionized road-building by allowing for accurate distance measurements.

4. The Lighthouse

While no longer as vital as a century ago, lighthouses were crucial navigational aids for millennia. The first known lighthouse was built in Piraeus, Athens’ port, during the 5th century BCE, likely commissioned by Themistocles. It was a simple stone tower with a fire lit at the top.

Later, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, constructed under Ptolemy II (280–247 BCE), became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It stood over 100 meters tall and used a furnace at its summit to project light. Though primarily built from limestone, the towering height raises questions about its structural stability.

5. Philon’s Automatic Servant (The First Robot)

The first known robot in human history was created by the Greeks in the 3rd century BCE: a mechanical servant designed by Philon of Byzantium. This robot held a wine jug and could pour drinks with remarkable precision.

Here’s how it worked: the user placed a cup in the servant's hand, triggering a mechanism that allowed air to enter a hidden compartment, letting wine flow into the cup. As the cup filled and became heavier, the airflow was redirected to a water container, mixing wine with water—just as drinkers preferred it.

6. Plumbing and Showers

The Minoans of ancient Crete were pioneers in plumbing, using underground clay pipes for drainage and water supply. Excavations in Olympia and Athens have revealed complex systems for baths, fountains, and even personal hygiene.

Lead piping fed water to showers, which were used in gymnasiums and public baths. A particularly striking depiction appears on a vase showing an athlete using a shower, and remains of a multi-nozzle shower complex were found in a 2nd-century BCE gymnasium in Pergamon.

7. The First Analog Computer – The Antikythera Mechanism

In 1901, sponge divers off the coast of Antikythera discovered an ancient shipwreck containing statues, coins, glassware—and a mysterious device later known as the Antikythera Mechanism.

Originally dismissed as a curiosity, it wasn't until 1951 that British historian Derek de Solla Price recognized its significance. Using X-ray and gamma imaging, he and later researchers uncovered its complexity: the mechanism had 82 components and could model celestial movements.

About the size of a mantel clock, the device had a circular face with rotating dials. A side knob wound the mechanism, activating interlocking gears that moved at least seven hands—each representing celestial bodies like the Sun, Moon, and the five visible planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn). A black-and-silver rotating sphere showed lunar phases, and internal inscriptions explained which stars would rise or set on given dates.

Roman writer Cicero claimed similar devices were built by Archimedes, though some believe Hipparchus, an astronomer from Rhodes, may have been behind it—merging Babylonian and Greek astronomical knowledge.

On the back, spiral-shaped dials with pins (much like a record player needle) displayed a calendar and predicted lunar and solar eclipses.

Conclusion
These ancient Greek inventions were not just technological marvels of their time—they were foundational. From automation to astronomy, the Greeks laid the intellectual and mechanical groundwork for many modern systems. Their legacy continues to shape our world in subtle and profound ways.

Fish on the Ancient Greek Table: A Timeless Love for the Sea

The sea has always been a generous provider for the people of mainland and island Greece, offering a rich and diverse bounty. With the country’s extensive coastline, shallow and crystal-clear waters, and the abundance of fish, mollusks, and shellfish—especially in ancient times—it’s no wonder that seafood held a special place in the hearts (and diets) of the ancient Greeks.

A Sea of Sources

Ancient texts offer a wealth of information on the varieties of seafood consumed, as well as fishing techniques and cooking methods. Specialized treatises on the topic existed, such as On Fish by Aristotle, Fish by Archippus, On Fish by Dorian, Fishing by Numenius, On Salted Foods by Euthydemus, and Fishing Expedition by Antiphanes.

Both literary sources and visual representations—especially on pottery—along with archaeological finds, show that many ancient fishing methods and tools have remained virtually unchanged through the centuries. Bronze hooks were tied with lines made of animal hair or plant fibers, and lead sinkers were used to submerge the hooks. Net fishing was common, with nets tailored to the type of fish and fitted with floats and weights. Spears (kamax or trident) and fish traps made of woven twigs were also employed. The best times for fishing were believed to be dawn and dusk, though nighttime fishing using torchlight was also practiced.

Fishing: An Economic Pillar

Fishing played a vital economic role in coastal cities. Some, like Cyzicus on the Propontis (Sea of Marmara), owed much of their wealth to the plentiful local catch. This is reflected in the city's coinage, which often depicted tuna—one of its most famous fish—as well as octopus, which appeared on coins from Eretria.

Salted and Savored

The trade in salted fish, known as tarichē, flourished particularly during the Classical period. Salted sardines (aphyae) were imported to Athens from the Black Sea and elsewhere, though the fresh sardines from Phaleron and Rhodes were especially prized. Other popular preserved fish included temachē—salted cuts of large fish like mackerel (skombros) and tuna (thynnos). Salted fish, being cheap and widely available, was a staple for the average Athenian. The wealthy, however, often dismissed it as food for the poor—a view not shared by inland populations, who valued it highly due to limited access to fresh fish.

Athens also imported the famous avgotaracho (roe) from the Danube Delta, known as tarichos antakaion, made from the eggs of the large local fish called antakaios. The ancient Greeks had detailed knowledge of marine life, including habitats, breeding seasons, and hundreds of fish and seafood names, demonstrating their deep connection with the sea.

A Language of the Sea

Fish names preserved in ancient texts reveal the extent of Greek familiarity with sea life: atherina (sand smelt), galeos (dogfish), thynnos (tuna), kephalos (mullet), kolios (mackerel), karcharías (shark), labrax (sea bass), melanouros (black seabream), mormyros (striped seabream), xiphias (swordfish), orkynos (young tuna), orfos (grouper), pilamys (bonito), perke, rine (stingray), skaros (parrotfish), sparos, skorpios (scorpionfish), sargos, salpa, synagrís, trigle (red mullet), phagros (red porgy), and channē (a wide-mouthed fish), to name just a few. Fishing tools were also described in detail, and the terminology remains remarkably consistent to this day—so much so that an ancient and a modern Greek fisherman could likely still understand each other.

Insatiable Appetites

Notable figures in antiquity, including Aristotle, were known fish lovers. Aristippus, a student of Socrates, was once scolded by Plato for buying too many fish. He retorted that they had cost him just two obols. “Well,” said Plato, “for that price, I would’ve bought them too.” Aristippus replied, “Then it’s not I who am a glutton, Plato, but you who are stingy.”

Sometimes, this passion bordered on obsession. The 1st-century BCE writer Dorian once beat his servant for failing to bring fish home and, in his anger, forced him to list fish names aloud—only to scold him when he mentioned ones like grouper or sea bream, exclaiming, “I asked for fish, not gods!” At a symposium, a man named Demylos spat on a large fish to keep others from eating it. Another man, Diocles, reportedly sold his land just to indulge in seafood. Some parents even named their children after marine life: Ichthyas, Ichthyōn, Karavos (crayfish), and Kōbios.

In Athens, the word opsón, which once referred broadly to anything eaten with bread, came to mean specifically fish. Its diminutive, opsárion, evolved into psári, the modern Greek word for “fish.”

Freshwater Fare and Sacred Cephalopods

Although freshwater fishing also took place, its catch was generally less appreciated—except for the eels of Lake Copais, a delicacy in Athens, and the famously plump eels from the Strymon River. In Arcadia, fish from the Aroanius River were said to chirp like thrushes!

Cephalopods and shellfish were also treasured. Octopus (polypous), cuttlefish (sepia), squid (teuthis), crayfish, shrimp, crabs, lobsters, sea urchins, scallops, mussels, limpets, oysters, and various clams were commonly consumed. Their reputed aphrodisiac properties were already noted in antiquity.

Thasos and Corfu were famed for their large octopuses. In Troezen, octopuses were considered sacred and fishing them was forbidden. Legends claimed they sometimes came ashore to wrap themselves around olive and fig trees, even feeding on figs. Fishermen used olive branches underwater to attract and trap them.

Philoxenus of Cythera was so obsessed with seafood that he once consumed nearly an entire two-cubit-long octopus (almost a meter), leading to a serious case of indigestion. When a doctor warned him he was dying and should settle his affairs, Philoxenus reportedly replied, “Then bring me what’s left of the octopus!” The Cynic philosopher Diogenes, however, wasn’t so lucky—he is said to have died from eating raw octopus.

Female cuttlefish were said to be defended by males when attacked, while the reverse was not true. Smyrna was known for its large shrimp and Alexandria for its massive lobsters—delicacies fit for the elite. One Spartan, unfamiliar with sea urchins, once bit into one whole—spines and all—so as not to seem cowardly by spitting it out.

Simplicity, Skill, and Sea Flavors

Seafood was usually grilled over coals on special fish grills (eschárai ichthyoptídes), boiled, or fried. While the cooking methods were simple, true culinary skill was shown in the sauces—often flavored with herbs, spices, and cheese.

Even Homer described the availability of fish as a sign of a land’s prosperity. For the ancient Greeks, seafood was not only abundant, delicious, and healthy—it was also an essential part of their culinary identity. Their refined palate and deep knowledge of nutrition made them discerning seafood lovers. That bond with the sea has remained strong over the centuries.

Today, in the face of food safety concerns, this ancient tradition of ichthyophagy (fish-eating) gives us even more reason to cherish and protect our marine life from overfishing and pollution—and to continue enjoying the timeless pleasures of the sea.

The Perfection of the Number 7: Why the Ancient Greeks Considered It “Magical”

The number 7 has held a special place in human history for millennia—and nowhere more so than in Ancient Greece. Revered as a symbol of mystery and perfection, it appears time and again in mythology, science, philosophy, and religion. Let’s explore why the number 7 captivated the minds of the ancient Greeks and continues to fascinate us today.

7 in the Ancient World

• The Seven Wonders of the World: Of the original seven wonders, four were located in ancient Greek territories, while the remaining three stood beyond. The choice wasn’t random—the numbers 3 and 4 also held deep symbolic meaning, representing harmony and balance. Together, they form 7, a number seen as complete and powerful.

• The Seven Seas: According to the Greeks, the world’s waters were divided into seven seas: the Aegean, Mediterranean, Adriatic, Black, Red, Caspian, and the Persian Gulf.

• A Perfect Number: For the Pythagoreans, 7 was perfect—a sum of 3 (the triangle, symbol of spirit) and 4 (the square, symbol of matter). They believed it united heaven and earth.

• Geometric Mystery: Geometrically, 7 was fascinating. For instance, placing 7 points in a circle doesn’t produce a symmetrical shape—highlighting its inherent enigma.

Symbolism in Myth and Literature

• Seven Against Thebes: Aeschylus’s famous tragedy tells of seven Greek kings who marched against the city of Thebes, itself said to have seven gates.

• Mythological References:

  • Apollo’s lyre had 7 strings.

  • Odysseus was stranded on Calypso’s island for 7 years.

  • The Pleiades—7 daughters of Atlas—were immortalized in the star cluster of the same name.

• Homer’s Apollo: The god was said to have herded 7 flocks of cattle.

The Number 7 in Ancient Life

• Education in Sparta: Spartan boys began their rigorous training at age 7.

• Metals of Civilization: The ancient world recognized 7 key metals: gold, copper, lead, tin, mercury, silver, and iron—foundations of early technological progress.

• Known Planets: The 7 celestial bodies known to ancient astronomers were Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Sun, and the Moon.

• Anatomy: Greeks divided the human body into 7 major parts—head, chest, abdomen, two arms, and two legs.

7 Across Cultures and Religions

• Christianity: The number appears frequently—7 virtues (compassion, humility, purity, brotherly love, gentleness, kindness, diligence), and 7 pairs of birds saved by Noah.

• Islam: According to some interpretations, men are permitted to have up to 7 wives.

• The Bible: The number 7 is mentioned over 70 times in the Old Testament. The 7th day of creation is the day of rest—symbolizing completion.

• Vatican City: It became an independent state on 7/7/1929.

• Buddhism and Eastern Beliefs:

  • Traditional Chinese philosophy identifies 7 fundamental elements: air, water, metal, ether, fire, wood, and earth.

  • In Chinese folklore, the 7th day of the lunar new year is celebrated as the "birthday of humanity."

• Body and Energy: Many spiritual systems, including yoga, recognize 7 chakras or energy centers aligned along the spine.

• Jewelry and Adornment: Across many cultures, 7 parts of the body are traditionally adorned: head, neck, hands, feet, ears, nose, and waist.

In Nature and Beyond

• The Moon: Each lunar phase lasts approximately 7 days.

• The Rainbow: It consists of 7 colors—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

• Music and Language:

  • Byzantine music features 7 distinct notes: PA, VOU, GA, DE, KE, ZO, NI.

  • The mind can instantly recognize and count up to 7 items at a glance—an idea supported by modern psychology.

• Geography:

  • The Ionian Islands are traditionally counted as 7: Corfu, Kefalonia, Zakynthos, Ithaca, Lefkada, Kythira, and Paxos.

  • Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) has been known by 7 different names, including Byzantium, New Rome, and Istanbul.

In Modern Times

The enduring symbolism of the number 7 even finds its place in modern culture, from the 7-book Harry Potter series to spiritual practices and scientific theories. Its presence from ancient civilization through to the present day reflects its powerful, mysterious, and universal appeal.

So, what makes the number 7 so special?
Whether in myth, science, religion, or culture, 7 continues to represent perfection, mystery, and completeness—a truly timeless number woven into the fabric of human understanding.

Coming Soon: The World’s First Handbag Made from T-Rex Leather

A new era of luxury fashion is on the horizon—one that dates back millions of years. A groundbreaking collaboration between creative agency VML, biotech pioneers The Organoid Company, and sustainable materials firm Lab-Grown Leather is set to produce the world’s first handbag made from Tyrannosaurus rex leather, created using reconstructed DNA from the extinct predator.

The T-Rex, a towering apex predator of the prehistoric world, is now at the heart of a futuristic material revolution. This ambitious project aims to produce a high-end, cruelty-free, and environmentally responsible alternative to traditional leather, with the first product expected to launch by the end of the year.

“This is a powerful example of what’s possible at the intersection of genome science and material innovation,” said Thomas Mitchell, CEO of The Organoid Company. “By reconstructing ancient protein sequences, we’re able to design and grow a biofabricated leather inspired by the T-Rex.”

How It Works: Turning Ancient DNA into Leather

At the core of the project is collagen—a protein found in bones, skin, and connective tissue. While scientists once believed DNA couldn’t survive for millions of years, recent discoveries have unearthed preserved collagen in dinosaur fossils, including one from an 80-million-year-old T-Rex.

Using this preserved collagen as a blueprint, researchers have recreated the complete collagen sequence of the T-Rex. This sequence is encoded into DNA and inserted into lab-grown cells developed by Lab-Grown Leather. These cells then grow into a collagen-rich tissue mimicking animal skin—without the need for an actual animal.

What makes this method stand out is its “scaffold-free” approach. Unlike other biotech firms that rely on support structures to shape their materials, Lab-Grown Leather’s cells are encouraged to grow and organize independently, resulting in a more natural leather-like texture.

Sustainable, Luxurious, and Biodegradable

If successful, this bioengineered leather could change the way we think about luxury materials. T-Rex leather is expected to be strong, self-repairing, biodegradable, and possess the rich texture and durability associated with premium leather goods.

Its environmental credentials are equally compelling. Traditional leather production is often linked to deforestation, excessive water use, and toxic chemicals. In contrast, lab-grown T-Rex leather eliminates animal cruelty and dramatically reduces the environmental footprint.

VML plans to debut the T-Rex leather in a flagship accessory item, set to launch in late 2025. Future applications could include furniture, fashion, and even automotive interiors.

This isn’t the first time VML has dabbled in ancient biotech. In 2023, the agency made headlines with its Mammoth Meatball project, using DNA from the extinct woolly mammoth to create lab-grown meat.

“With T-Rex leather, we’re blending ancient biology with modern innovation,” said Bas Korsten, VML’s Global Chief Creative Officer. “It’s about reimagining the materials of the future using the wonders of the past.”

2,000-Year-Old Ancient Computer That “Shouldn’t Exist” Once Deemed Impossible

A device so advanced it was once considered impossible for its era has puzzled scientists for more than a century.

The Antikythera Mechanism, often described as the world’s first computer, is a 2,000-year-old astronomical calculator that has reshaped our understanding of ancient technology. Discovered in 1901 among the wreckage of a ship off the coast of Greece, this intricate mechanism was centuries ahead of its time, prompting serious questions about the capabilities of ancient Greek engineers.

Crafted from bronze and containing a complex system of interlocking gears, the Antikythera Mechanism was built to track celestial movements and predict astronomical events such as eclipses and planetary alignments.

The sheer precision of its design reveals an advanced knowledge of mathematics and mechanics—levels of sophistication once thought to be far beyond the reach of early civilizations.

As described in a video by Fern (around the 10:35 mark), the mechanism is a “complex simulation of the cosmos.” It could, for any given day, show “where the world stood, which constellation was rising, or when the next eclipse would occur”—all contained within a wooden case no larger than a book.

For decades, experts struggled to decipher how the device worked. With only about one-third of the original mechanism surviving, much of its inner workings remained a mystery. Earlier studies managed to interpret the back panel, which included inscriptions explaining the device’s purpose, but the elaborate front gear system continued to baffle scientists.

That changed in 2021, when researchers at University College London (UCL) made a major breakthrough. Using advanced 3D modeling techniques, they successfully reconstructed the front panel of the mechanism. Their model revealed a sophisticated display capable of mapping the movements of the Sun, Moon, and the five known planets of the time.

Published in Scientific Reports, the study showed the most accurate reconstruction of the device to date, closely aligning with inscriptions found on the original artifact.

Lead researcher Professor Tony Freeth described the mechanism as a “tour de force of ancient Greek brilliance,” noting that the model is the first to fully match the surviving physical evidence. The team now plans to build a full-scale replica using modern materials to further explore how it operated.

Today, the remains of the Antikythera Mechanism are housed at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, where it continues to fascinate visitors and scholars alike.

What makes the device so extraordinary is how far ahead of its time it appears. Nothing approaching its mechanical complexity would appear again until the invention of clockwork mechanisms in the Middle Ages—more than a thousand years later. This has led to speculation that the knowledge behind its creation may have been lost, or that other similarly advanced devices are still waiting to be discovered.

Ultimately, the Antikythera Mechanism has changed how we view ancient civilizations. It offers striking evidence that some individuals in the ancient world were far more technologically advanced than previously assumed. As researchers continue to uncover its secrets, this astonishing artifact serves as a powerful reminder: history still holds many surprises.