Last Days of Alexander - Two Versions

In today’s video we will talk about Alexander's last days, as there are two versions of the events leading to Alexander's death from two different sources. Enjoy!

Monsters of Bomarzo from the 16th century in the Italian garden

The Park of the Monsters, or “Parco dei Mostri,” in the Garden of Bomarzo was not meant to be pretty. Commissioned in 1552 by Prince Pier Francesco Orsini, it was an expression of grief designed to shock.

The Prince, also known as Vicino, had just been through a brutal war, had his friend killed, been held for ransom for years, and come home only to have his beloved wife die. Racked with grief, the Prince wanted to create a shocking “Villa of Wonders” and hired architect Pirro Ligorio to help him do so. Ligorio was a widely respected architect and artist and had previously completed the Cathedral of Saint Peter in Rome after the death of Michelangelo, as well as the Villa d’Este in Tivoli. This was to be an unusual, but interesting job for him.

The park is filed with bizarre and fascinating sculptures for which only the accompanying inscriptions provide any explanation. Among the pieces are a war elephant, a monstrous fish-head, a giant tearing another giant in half, and a house built on a tilt to disorient the viewer. Perhaps the most frightening piece in the garden is an enormous head, mouth opened wide in a scream. The accompanying inscription reads “all reason departs.”

Julius Caesar: The Original Bad Boy of Rome

Gaius Julius Caesar was born in Rome in 100 BC into the prestigious Gens Julia family. His childhood was spent in the shadow of Italy’s Social War and then a civil conflict between Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Caesar’s uncle, Gaius Marius, while the Senate floundered and struggled to respond to the crises facing the Republic. Sulla emerged victorious, forcing a young Caesar to ship out to the military early to avoid facing punishment for his uncle’s actions.

Young Caesar served with distinction in the legions in Greece and Asia. He earned special honors for his bravery at the Siege of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos in 81 BC. Caesar also rubbed shoulders with foreign rulers, most notably King Nicomedes IV of Bithynia with whom he allegedly had a close relationship. Already, Caesar was proving to be charismatic and capable.

He also proved to be uncompromising and fearless. While sailing off the coast of Asia Minor, Caesar was captured by pirates. According to Plutarch, Caesar was outraged that the pirates were ransoming him for twenty talents - he insisted he was worth fifty. Caesar spent several weeks with the pirates, where he joined games with his captors and entertained them with speeches and poetry. They got on so well that Caesar would joke with them and promised that he would crucify them when he was freed. Eventually, the ransom was paid and Caesar was not one to break his promises. He immediately gathered his forces and set out in pursuit of the pirates, captured them, and, true to his word, had them crucified.

Caesar only returned to Rome after Sulla’s death in 78 BC where he became renowned as a legal advocate. He had a respectable political career in a succession of offices, but his ambition was not satisfied. When he was 32, Suetonius tells us that Caesar fell to his knees before a statue of Alexander the Great and lamented that he had achieved only a fraction of what Alexander had done by that age.

However, it wouldn’t be long before Caesar’s life became more exciting. In 63 BC, the senator Lucius Sergius Catilina attempted to assassinate the consuls and seize control of the Republic. The plot failed and the conspirators were caught. Many people wanted them to be executed without a trial. Chief among these voices were Cato the Younger and Marcus Tullius Cicero. It was Caesar who tried to convince the Senate that the men deserved a trial. Although his speech was powerful, Cato and Cicero’s arguments prevailed and the men were executed. Caesar himself was even accused of being aligned with them. Caesar’s argument might have failed, and he made lifelong enemies of Cato and Cicero, but his reputation for powerful oratory and political boldness was clear and he was fast becoming one of the most well-known faces in Rome.

1,500-Year-Old Crypt Of Rich Warrior Buried With Wife And Children Discovered In Ancient Russian City

An ancient warrior who was interred with his wife and three children has been found in a Russian crypt.

The Russian crypt was littered with bodies Credit: VOLNOYE DELO FUND

The find has created an archaeological enigma because researchers are unsure if the family died of the plague or were murdered by tribal members in the area.

The "noble" family, according to archaeologists, was interred there in Fanagoriya, Russia, about 1,500 years ago.

The family was buried 16 feet below ground Credit: VOLNOYE DELO FUND

According to the Russian Academy of Sciences, the adult male skeleton was discovered buried with riding stirrups and spurs.

Additionally, he was wearing a sword-belt, which indicates that he was a mounted warrior.

Rare artefacts buried with the family indicate high status or wealth

And there were valuables in the 16-foot-deep crypt, a sign of wealth or high status.

This prehistoric warrior resembled Khal Drogo from Game of Thrones in real life.

Aleksei Voroshilov, who oversaw the excavation, claimed that based on what they had discovered, the individual had been a member of the city's military.

Archaeologists think the family may have been butchered by local tribesmen

He was an experienced horseman, as we also discovered riding stirrups and spurs.

"A leather harness that is fastened to a belt and was previously used to carry a sword is also present.

It's likely the crypt belongs to a noble warrior family Credit: VOLNOYE DELO FUND

"The harness' buckles are seriously worn out, indicating that this warrior had participated in numerous battles.

He was repeatedly drawing and redrawing his weapon.

Along with his wife and three children, the long-dead warrior was also interred.

It's also possible that the family were killed by plague Credit: VOLNOYE DELO FUND

Although the cause of their death is unknown, archaeologists think the plague may have been the cause.

Another popular story holds that local nomadic tribesmen butchered the animals.

Skeletons were unearthed at the lost Russian city of Fanagoriya, founded by Ancient Greek colonists Credit: VOLNOYE DELO FUND

In any event, archaeologists are quite interested in the Fanagoriya excavation site.

The location is thought to have had a significant historical significance for Christianity and has given rise to several priceless artifacts.

The marble tabletop, which could have served as an altar in a church, is the most precise and convincing proof yet that Christianity was formed in Fanagoriya in the fifth century, according to Aleksei.

The eerie burial site was dug 1,500 years ago Credit: VOLNOYE DELO FUND

"We have found a marble baptismal font for babies, and perhaps even for toddlers. Although it is not very large, it is substantial and made of marble.

The ancient lost city has produced important artefacts

"A ship that was lost following the insurrection in Fanagoriya against Mithridates VI of Pontus, which took place precisely in 62 BC, was discovered by one of our underwater missions some time ago.

One of the oldest ships ever discovered in the world is this one.

Source: https://www.thesun.co.uk/tech/9819047/warr...

Jordan River Has Finally Dried Up And Something Terrifying Is Happening

River Jordan holds significant biblical importance to millions of people in the world. It was the same river where John the Baptist baptized Jesus, making it a sacred pool for Christians. However, recent reports show that River Jordan has finally dried up, and something terrifying is happening. The question on everyone's mind is, why is the river drying up, and what could this mean for the fate of humanity? Moreover, the Euphrates River, another biblical river, is also drying up, indicating a worrying trend. Stick with us until the end to learn all about it!

Lost World of the Maya

The Maya—their soaring pyramids, monumental cities, and mythical mastery of astronomy and mathematics—have captured our imaginations and spurred generations of explorers into the jungles of Central America on a quest to understand them. The Lost World of the Maya surveys their dramatic rise to prominence in the 'pre-classic era' of the Maya as well as new evidence of the collapse of their civilization in the 800-900s AD.

Dive into the "Lost World of the Maya," an enthralling exploration of a once-mighty civilization that ruled the heart of Central America. Journey with us through ancient city-states, vast pyramids, and intricate hieroglyphs to discover the mysteries behind the Maya's rise to power and their eventual decline. From advanced astronomy to intricate rituals, unravel the legacy and enigmas of a culture that still resonates today. Join us as we traverse the remnants of a world lost in time but never in significance.

The decline of the ancient Maya civilization has intrigued scholars, archaeologists, and history enthusiasts for many years. While there isn't a single definitive reason, a combination of factors likely contributed to the civilization's downfall. Here are some of the leading theories and contributing factors:

1. Environmental Factors:

Deforestation: The Maya heavily relied on slash-and-burn agriculture. Over time, widespread deforestation might have altered the local climate, reducing rainfall and leading to agricultural shortfalls.

Soil Degradation: Intensive farming could have led to soil exhaustion and reduced agricultural yields.

2. Climate Change:

Extended Droughts: Paleo-climatic records suggest the region experienced severe droughts during the time the Maya civilization started to decline. Without adequate water sources, both drinking water and agricultural output would have been seriously impacted.

3. Socio-Political Factors:

Inter-City Conflict: Many Maya city-states warred with each other. Constant warfare could have exhausted local resources, diminished populations, and disrupted trade routes.

Decentralization: Unlike other ancient empires with a singular capital, the Maya had various powerful city-states. This fragmentation might have made the civilization more susceptible to collapse.

4. Economic Factors:

Trade Disruption: Warring states might have disrupted key trade routes, affecting the economy of the region.

Overdependence on Certain Resources: The Maya heavily relied on certain trade goods like obsidian and jade. Changes in demand or access to these resources could have destabilized their economy.

5. Cultural and Religious Factors:

Resource Overexploitation for Religious Purposes: The construction of monumental architecture and religious ceremonies might have placed a heavy toll on resources.

Crisis of Faith: As conditions worsened and elites could not effectively address the issues, it's possible that the general populace lost faith in their leaders and the religious structures that upheld Maya society.

6. Outside Invasion:

While not a primary theory, it's conceivable that invasions or pressures from other Mesoamerican groups could have contributed to the Maya's decline.

7. Disease:

Epidemics could have reduced the population, impacting the workforce and social structures.

It's crucial to understand that the "collapse" of the Maya civilization refers primarily to the abandonment of the major cities in the Central Lowlands and the end of monumental architecture and written records in this region. Maya civilization, in terms of culture and population, persisted beyond this period, and descendants of the Maya continue to live in Mexico and Central America today.

12 Most Amazing Archaeological Artifacts Finds

An artefact is a history lesson in physical form. By studying artefacts, we find out new information about the civilizations and people of the past. The right artefact can put us in touch with our own history! Not every artefact discovery is interesting or exciting, but the ones you're about to see in this video are. Buckle up - it's going to be a wild ride!

This pterosaur's large neck was supported by bones shaped like bicycle wheels

Massive flying creatures with necks longer than giraffes roamed present-day Morocco some 100 million years ago. With its huge jaw and slender neck, this type of pterosaur is thought to have preyed on fish, tiny animals, and even young dinosaurs. But it has long been a mystery as to how they carry their victims without having their necks shatter. The bones within have a complex spoke-like structure, which made them strong and sturdy but light enough for flight, according to a recent study.

An internal computerized tomography scan of an azhdarchid pterosaur neck bone shows several spokes, which might have allowed them to support their long necks and lift prey.WILLIAMS ET AL./ISCIENCE

Some of the largest flying creatures ever to have existed were the Azhdarchid pterosaurs from Morocco, which were named after a dragon-like creature from Persian mythology. With necks up to 1.5 meters long and wingspans up to 8 meters, experts have always pondered how these creatures managed to hunt, walk, and fly with such strange bodies. Nizar Ibrahim, a paleontologist and anatomist at the University of Portsmouth and a co-author of the study, argues that with size come a variety of complex biological issues. "How do you create a giant flyer's skeleton?"

A roughly 100 million-year-old azhdarchid pterosaur vertebra that had been discovered in the Kem Kem beds, a fossil-rich area close to the border of Morocco and Algeria, was analyzed by experts to understand more about their bones. The scientists discovered the vertebra was packed with dozens of 1-millimeter-thick spikes, known as trabeculae, that crossed each other and formed a helix along the bone using x-ray computed tomography and 3D modeling.

Where the animal's spinal cord would have been, a central tube was encircled by the spokes. When Cariad Williams, a paleontologist at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, first examined the scans, "we just could not believe it," she says. "Never before have we seen anything like it. Really, it was astounding.

The researchers used mathematical modeling to determine if the spokes gave the bones additional support. They discovered that as few as 50 trabeculae nearly increased the vertebra's capacity to support weight. Their findings were published in today's issue of iScience. Additionally, according to the researchers' calculations, the specimen's neck could lift prey the size of a large turkey, weighing between 9 and 11 kilos. Ibrahim describes it as "a true feat of biological engineering."

The scientists point out that in addition to helping the pterosaurs catch and carry their prey, the complicated bone structure of their necks may have given them the strength to endure the forceful blows delivered by other males during fights for territory or the powerful winds that buffeted their massive skulls when flying.

According to paleontologist Rodrigo Pêgas of the Federal University of ABC, So Bernardo, many scientists have hypothesized that azhdarchid pterosaurs consumed huge prey, but this study is the first to validate that theory using data on internal bone structure. According to Pêgas, the study the team utilized to demonstrate how the vertebrae would react to outside forces was especially strong. It's intriguing that they were able to objectively show that the animal could lift such prey.

Azhdarchid pterosaurs spent a good part of their time on land hunting small mammals, baby dinosaurs, and fish.DAVIDE BONADONNA

To determine whether the spokelike bones were specific to the azhdarchids, Pêgas wishes the scientists had studied the vertebrae of other pterosaurs. Paleontologist and head of the National Museum at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Alexander Kellner concurs. "I'm not very impressed," he admits. "I believe you need more samples to make a valid claim," I said. In his investigation, he claims to have found pterosaur vertebrae with varying numbers of trabeculae. The team's next task, according to Williams, is to scan more vertebrae.

Finding the appropriate vertebrae could be challenging, though Ibrahim notes that the vertebra in the current study is extremely well preserved. Fossilized pterosaur bones that retain their 3D structure are uncommon. However, there are a number of locations that the researchers are looking into in case they come across well-preserved pterosaur vertebrae. We'll try after the pandemic is finished, he says.

Despite all that the latest study has shown, Ibrahim feels there is still much to discover. He claims that because no other living thing comparable to these flying reptiles, many essential features of azhdarchid biology, like their typical weight, are still unknown. "This paper serves to serve as a reminder that we're really just scratching the surface."

Source: https://www.science.org/content/article/pt...

Cave dirt's DNA reveals how some Neanderthals vanished

Northern Spain's Estatuas cave was a hub of activity 105,000 years ago. Its Neanderthal residents may have constructed fires, butchered red deer, and hafted stone tools, according to artifacts. Subtler traces of their DNA were also ejected, bled, and excreted onto the cave floor. "You can picture people working in the cave, chopping up animals and manufacturing tools. The perspective of population geneticist Benjamin Vernot, a postdoc at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (MPI-EVA), may have been influenced by the sounds of his own infant during a Zoom conversation. "Maybe they cut themselves or their babies pooped," he speculates. "The dirt floors accumulate all that DNA."

Researchers excavating Estatuas cave in Spain found a long record of Neanderthal DNA in the sediments.© JAVIER TRUEBA/MADRID SCIENTIFIC FILMS

The first ancient human's nuclear DNA has been extracted from sediments, according to his and MPI-EVA biologist Matthias Meyer's paper published today in Science. The human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) found on cave floors was previously reported to be shorter and more plentiful, but nuclear DNA, which was previously only found in bones and teeth, can be far more illuminating. According to Leiden University archaeologist Marie Soressi, "Now, it seems that it is possible to extract nuclear DNA from dirt, and we have a lot of dirt in archaeological sites."

Population geneticist Pontus Skoglund of the Francis Crick Institute concurs, calling this a "beautiful paper." The genetic identity and sex of prehistoric cave inhabitants are revealed by the sequences, which also demonstrate that one group of Neanderthals replaced another in the Spanish cave around 100,000 years ago, possibly as a result of a cooling of the temperature. "They can see a shift in Neanderthal populations at the very same site, which is quite nice," adds Skoglund.

Only 23 ancient humans, including 18 Neanderthals from 14 locations across Eurasia, have had their ancient DNA recovered from their bones or teeth thus far. Vernot and Meyer's team analyzed silt from precisely dated levels in three caves known to have been inhabited by prehistoric humans: the Denisova and Chagyrskaya caves in Siberia, as well as the Estatuas cave in Atapuerca, Spain.

In what Skoglund refers to as "an amazing technical demonstration," they created new molecular probes to fish out human DNA while ignoring the numerous sequences from plants, animals, and microorganisms. They next employed statistical techniques to isolate Neanderthal-specific DNA and compare it to reference Neanderthal genomes in a phylogenetic tree.

All three locations produced Neanderthal nuclear and mtDNA, although Estatuas cave's little amount of nuclear DNA from several Neanderthals surprised researchers the most. Nuclear DNA from a male Neanderthal from the deepest layer, dated to around 113,000 years ago, connected him to the earliest Neanderthals who lived in the Denisova cave and caves in Belgium and Germany around 120,000 years ago.

According to co-author and paleoanthropologist Juan Luis Arsuaga of the Complutense University of Madrid, two female Neanderthals who lived in Estatuas cave later, around 100,000 years ago, had nuclear DNA that more closely matched that of later, "classic" Neanderthals, including those who lived less than 70,000 years ago at Vindija cave in Croatia and 60,000 to 80,000 years ago at Chagyrskaya cave.

At the same time, diminishing diversity may be seen in the more prevalent mtDNA from Estatuas cave. In the cave 113,000 years ago, Neanderthals had at least three different forms of mtDNA. But there was just one type of Neanderthal in the cave between 80,000 and 107,000 years ago. Ancient DNA found in Neanderthal bones and teeth has previously indicated a decline in genetic diversity during the same time period.

According to Arsuaga, Neanderthals flourished and expanded their range during the warm, humid interglacial period that began 130,000 years ago. But as a new glacial epoch began around 110,000 years ago, temperatures in Europe abruptly dropped. All but one lineage of Neanderthals vanished shortly after then. During subsequent, warmer periods, members of the surviving lineage began to repopulate Europe, some of whom sought refuge in Estatuas cave.

The "famous" classic Neanderthals, such the skulls from France's La Ferrassie and Vindija, are among those survivors and their offspring, according to Arsuaga. Compared to older Neanderthals, whose cranial capacity were no greater than 1400 cm3, he writes that they possessed brains up to 1750 cubic centimeters (cm3). The advent of the cold age, according to Arsuaga, also caused a rise in brain size and several population replacements in modern humans in Africa.

In humans or other mammals, "we find this pattern almost everywhere we look," according to Beth Shapiro, a genetic researcher at the University of California, Santa Cruz. "Dispersal over perhaps long distances and population replacement or admixture."

DNA from cave dirt is expected to produce more hints. Paleogeneticist Viviane Slon, a current Tel Aviv University employee and co-author of the Science publication, claims that she and the MPI-EVA team are examining ancient DNA from sediments at numerous locations across the world. "Hopefully soon, we'll start to get a very high-resolution, fine-scale view of ancient humans and who was where at what time," adds the researcher.

Source: https://www.science.org/content/article/dn...

Treasure finding (documentary film)

The treasure was discovered in the land of a farm, with an area of about 2.4. Kilometers (1.5 miles) South near the Greek border, on 26 June 2015. Watch the video to find out more!

12 Most Incredible Underwater Discoveries

Here's a statistic that might surprise you. According to the National Ocean Service of the USA, only five percent of the world's oceans have been fully explored. That means there are almost certainly hundreds of fish and marine life species we've never encountered living down there and a vast realm of utterly unknown territory. Perhaps we should be making more effort to explore the seas because unknown and unexpected objects have a habit of turning up in them as you're about to see in this video!

The Buried Mysteries Of The Gotland Mass Grave

Tim Sutherland and the team make a return trip to Sweden, where they hunt for clues to a battle that took place on the island of Gotland. They travel battlegrounds and battlefields, towns and villages, churches and burial grounds to search for clues hidden in the bones of the dead from medieval time.

10 Most Mysterious Forbidden Places In The World

From the island of Montserrat to the resorts of Kauai, in the video below we will be exploring the 10 most mysterious forbidden places in the world. Watch the video to find out more!

The history of Romania explained in 10 minutes

The history of Romania summarized on a map explained in a nutshell from pre-historic civilizations, Dacia, The Roman Empire, Hungarian and Ottoman influence, The three principalities of Moldavia Wallachia and Transylvania, independence movements, greater Romania, ceausescu and modern times in the European Union. Watch the video below for more!