What Experts Say About Those 'Alien Corpses' in Mexico

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Science denounces the alleged extraterrestrials that were shown to the Mexican Congress as fraudulent.

While lawmakers heard testimony on the potential of alien life on Tuesday, the ghost of the tiny green men descended upon Mexico City. The researchers were from Brazil, Japan, Brazil, Mexico, and the United States.

The session, which was the first of its kind in the Mexican Congress, came two months after a related hearing before the U.S. Congress, during which a former U.S. Air Force intelligence officer asserted that his nation had likely been aware of "non-human" activities since the 1930s.

José Jaime Maussan, a journalist from Mexico, displayed two boxes containing purported mummies that he and others saw as "non-human beings that are not part of our earthly evolution."

The withered bodies with distorted, shrunken skulls horrified everyone in the room and instantly sparked a social media frenzy.

Maussan proclaimed, "It's the queen of all evidence." That is, "we should take it as such" if the DNA indicates that they are not humans and that nothing else in the world resembles them.

But he cautioned that it was too early to call them "extraterrestrials."

The bodies, which appeared to have been dried up, were discovered in 2017 and were buried deep beneath the Nazca sand dunes in the coastal desert of Peru. The region is renowned for the enormous, enigmatic figures that can only be seen from the air. Although many believe that ancient indigenous communities created the Nazca Lines, many others find the formations fascinating.

Similar claims were made by Maussan in Peru in 2017, and a prosecutor's report revealed that the bodies were actually "recently created dolls, which have been covered with a mixture of paper and synthetic glue to resemble the presence of skin."

The figurines "are not the remains of ancestral aliens that they have tried to convey," the report continued, adding that they were almost certainly created by humans. It's unknown if the bodies are the same as those delivered to Mexico's Congress because they weren't made public at the time.

Julieta Fierro, a researcher at the National Autonomous University of Mexico's Institute of Astrophysics, was one of several to voice doubt on Wednesday, claiming that numerous facts in the data "made no sense."

Fierro went on to deny the researchers' assertions that her university approved of their purported discovery and point out that scientists would require more sophisticated equipment than X-rays to assess whether the purportedly calcified remains were "non-human."

"Maussan has accomplished a lot. She replied, "He claims to have spoken to Mary of Guadalupe. He claimed that because I don't believe in extraterrestrial life, they don't communicate with me the same way they do with him.

The researcher continued that it looked odd that they had taken what would undoubtedly be a "prize of the nation" from Peru without first inviting the ambassador of that country.

Congress has not taken a position on the theses advanced during the more than three-hour debate, according to Congressman Sergio Gutiérrez Luna of the dominant Morena party.

Each legislator was free to believe what they wanted, but witnesses were required to take an oath to be truthful.

Gutiérrez Luna emphasized the value of hearing "all voices, all viewpoints" and thought it was good that there was an open discussion about extraterrestrials.

Retired Maj. David Grusch said in the U.S. in July that the country is hiding a long-running program that retrieves and decodes unidentified flying objects. The Pentagon refuted his allegations.

The U.S. Congress' most recent journey into the world of UAPs, or "unidentified aerial phenomena," as the U.S. government officially refers to them, was Grusch's much-awaited testimony before a House Oversight panel.

In recent years, both Democrats and Republicans have pushed for more research as a national security issue due to worries that sightings reported by pilots may be connected to enemies of the United States.

On a mountainside, a Spanish water worker discovers antique gold necklaces

In northwest Spain, two gold necklaces that date back to almost 2,500 years ago were stumbled upon by a worker for the local water company.

On August 29, Sergio Marciandi was at work near Cavandi, Asturias, when he discovered a gold necklace hidden among some rocks.

He informed University of Cantabria prehistoric archeology professor Pablo Arias, who told CNN about the discovery.

When Arias and specialists from the Asturias Archaeological Museum arrived at the location and conducted a preliminary inspection, they discovered a second necklace that had been split up into multiple parts, according to Arias.

"It's really impressive," Arias exclaimed, adding that the discovery might improve our knowledge of the Iron Age, the time frame in which they were created.

Although there have been other discoveries of gold necklaces from the Iron Age, most of them were made in the 18th and 19th centuries, a time when archeological techniques were more limited and much of the knowledge about their source was lost, according to Arias.

He continued: in this instance, the site is still in situ, which helps archaeologists understand its context much better.

“We have very precise information about where they were found,” said Arias. “It’s quite exceptional.”

According to him, the discovery opens up a wide range of prospective research areas and may shed new light on a time period that is now little understood.

Archaeologists are excited about what further study of the necklaces could reveal.

Right now, the necklaces exhibit wear in places where they would have come into contact with the wearer's skin and clothing.

“We know that they were used,” mentioned Arias.

He continued, saying that this type of necklace belonged to the top classes of society and that not everyone could buy one.

Although it is impossible to date the items, Arias thinks they are unlikely to be older than 2,500 years.

In a statement released on Sunday, the Asturian regional government praised Marciandi for immediately informing authorities of the discovery and hailed it as “an extraordinary development considering their quality and the skill of the artisans that made them, and most of all for opening a window to the study and knowledge of the most emblematic type of jewelry of Iron Age gold work, which until now had been closed.”

'I am horrified': Archaeologists are outraged over ancient human ancestor bones that were sent to the edge of space

The Virgin Galactic expedition that brought the remains of Australopithecus sediba and Homo naledi to the edge of space is being criticized by scientists as a serious ethical lapse.

The fossilized bones of the ancient human relatives Australopithecus sediba and Homo naledi went to the edge of space in this tube. (Image credit: Future)

Scientists are upset that ancient human ancestors' fossilized remains have for the first time traveled to the edge of space.

On September 8, fragments of two extinct human ancestors, Australopithecus sediba and Homo naledi, were transported on a Virgin Galactic voyage. The fossils were launched to the edge of space by millionaire Timothy Nash, who was born in South Africa, from Spaceport America in New Mexico.

Lee Berger, the head of the Centre for the Exploration of the Deep Human Journey at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa and an explorer in residence with the National Geographic Society who played a key role in the discovery of both species, made the selection of the fossils. A thumb bone from H. naledi, the still-mysterious 300,000-year-old hominin discovered in the Rising Star cave in 2013 by a team of researchers Berger dubbed "Underground Astronauts," and a fragment of the collarbone of the 2 million-year-old A. sediba were both chosen for the expedition.

In a statement, Lee Berger said that "the journey of these fossils into space represents humankind's appreciation of the contribution of all of humanity's ancestors and our ancient relatives," while Matthew Berger opined that these hominins "never could have dreamed while alive of taking such an incredible journey as ambassadors of all of humankind's ancestors." Lee Berger had not responded to a request for comment by the time of publication.

Anthropologists and others have criticized the space travel for a variety of reasons, including the fact that these extinct creatures would not have understood their journey into the upper atmosphere.

Alessio Veneziano, a biological anthropologist and co-organizer of the AHEAD conference (Advances in Human Evolution, Adaptation, and Diversity), succinctly summarized the four main topics that have been explored in a discussion on X (previously Twitter): 1) The absence of a scientific rationale for the flight; 2) The moral dilemmas associated with treating our ancestors with respect; 3) Berger's access to the fossils, which few other researchers have; and 4) The distortion of palaeoanthropology as a field of study.

The remains of Homo naledi, whose thumb bone was sent to the edge of space on Sept. 8, 2023, in a Virgin Galactic craft. (Image credit: Stefan Heunis / Stringer / Getty Images)

It has been harshly criticized since the fossils' trip into space had no discernible scientific goal, especially considering that a mission malfunction may have destroyed the irreplaceable specimens. Berger's initial application for a permit, which was ultimately granted by the South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA), stated that the mission's purpose was to advance science and draw attention to South Africa's work on human origins rather than to address any specific scientific issues.

According to Justin Walsh, a professor of art and archaeology at Chapman University in California, the impacts of spaceflight on cultural artifacts "hasn't been an area of scientific study. Space archaeologists like me are definitely interested in the effect of the space environment on items in space," he said, "but I don't think we'd use a piece of heritage from here on Earth as a test article to see what happens to it."

Sonia Zakrzewski, a bioarchaeologist at the University of Southampton in the U.K., remarked in an X thread, "I am horrified that they were granted a permit," adding that she would use it as an example in her students regarding unethical methods. This "is NOT science".

Zakrzewski's worries about the morality of the flight were shared by Walsh. We owe the petrified bones respect since they are not merely scientific objects but also the remains of our common ancestors, according to Walsh. However, it appears that the fossils were classified as paleontological remains rather than human remains for the sake of the permission, avoiding moral and legal dilemmas. This speaks to the larger, continuing scientific debate about what constitutes a "human" being.

According to Rachel King, an associate professor of cultural heritage studies at University College London, "As a sovereign state, South Africa can manage its national estate as it sees fit, including shooting part of that estate into space like the US, Russia, Denmark, and others all have," she told Live Science in an email. However, she emphasized that "the fact that it happened through what looks like a standard compliance procedure should make everyone think about potential wider consequences," including upcoming events that could endanger archaeological property.

The fossilized remains of Australopithecus sediba, whose clavicle rocketed to the edge of space in a Virgin Galactic spaceship on Sept. 8, 2023. (Image credit: Alexander Joe / Staff / Getty Images)

A crucial component of Berger's permit application is the supporting documentation, which he used to demonstrate why the fossils were chosen and reduce the likelihood that they would be lost because they have been "extensively studied" and "published many times." But aside from Homo naledi, there aren't many fossil hominin casts that can be studied and viewed by the general public. This is frequently due to a lack of financial and material resources in the nations where these casts were discovered. The entitlement and privilege made apparent by the flight is the final significant criticism of the space flight of the fossils.

Nash, whose father John amassed a fortune in aviation, brought the fossils aboard Virgin Galactic. Nash was among the first customers to purchase a ticket for Richard Branson's Virgin Galactic spacecraft's second commercial trip. In addition, Nash has known Lee Berger for more than ten years and he owns the majority of the so-called Cradle of Humankind, including the area where the Bergers found A. sediba, which he plans to turn into a "paleotourism" business.

Although the majority of paleoanthropological scholars do not have Berger's access to land and fossils, the issue still exists in many people's views because Berger misrepresented what these researchers truly do.

"This is an unusual activity for ancient fossils," Walsh said, with "no sign that Berger was interested in performing science and answering that question [on the effects of spaceflight] by flying the fossils." Walsh would have preferred more open discussion about the mission, including greater details about the advantages and disadvantages, prior to the flight, in conformity with accepted scientific practice.

"We should ask: Can the University of the Witwatersrand and Lee Berger be trusted to care for these fossils going forward, if this is what they think is an appropriate thing to do with them?" Walsh said.

Central China's water system from the early Shang Dynasty has been unearthed.

In the Henan Province of central China, a water system that dates back more than 3,600 years has been uncovered. This discovery will help people comprehend how the old city was laid out.

This photo taken on March 23, 2023 shows a ditch of the water system in the ruins of a city from the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 B.C.) in Zhengzhou, capital of central China's Henan Province.

A water system from more than 3,600 years ago has been discovered in central China's Henan Province. This find will improve people's understanding of the city layout back then. (Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology/Handout via Xinhua)

In the ruins of a city from the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 B.C.) in Zhengzhou, the capital of Henan, three ditch sections were discovered. Together, these parts make up the greatest water infrastructure from the Shang Dynasty's early years that has been uncovered thus far.

One of the portions was constructed on a real river channel, while the other two were wholly artificial, according to local archaeologists. The ditches were discovered to be around 540 meters long, 12 meters wide at their widest point, and four meters deep at their lowest point.

"Based on our study of spatial positions and cultural relics recovered from the ditches, we believe that they were interconnected and belonged to a large water system, which demonstrated the grandeur of a Shang capital," mentioned Yang Wensheng, vice director of the Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology.

About 25 square kilometers of the city were in ruins, and it is thought that Tang, the first emperor of the Shang Dynasty, established the city as the Shang capital.

Archaeologists discovered stone water diversion facilities and fake open channels in one of the ditch sections, proving that the water system had a complicated functional design as early as the Shang Dynasty. Additionally, remnants of handicraft facilities for casting copper and creating bone things were discovered.

In the northern areas of the city, the ditches were linked to ponds and gardens, indicating that water from the system provided not only the city's industry and life but also its beautification.

"Discovery of this water system enhanced our understanding of the layout of the ancient city, which is of significance for in-depth study of city planning and functional zones division in the early Shang Dynasty capital," said Yang Shugang of the Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology.

During excavations in Kent, a Roman statue of the Greek sea god Triton was uncovered

Archaeological excavations at Teynham, Kent, have uncovered a Roman figure of Triton, a Greek sea god.

The Triton statue has been carefully lifted and removed from the site for initial conservation works.

The location was discovered while conducting research for a brand-new housing development next to the A2 London Road, which parallels the historic Roman Watling Street.

For early conservation treatment, the Triton statue was gently raised and removed from the area, exposing the piece's intricate design.

The statue itself and the circumstances surrounding its ritual burial are still being studied further.

Dr Richard Hobbs, Senior Curator of Roman Britain, The British Museum mentioned: "This is a really stunning piece of sculpture, undoubtedly of great significance to our understanding of Roman Britain and its place in the wider Roman Empire.

"It shows a Triton – half man, half fish – riding a sea monster. Although a few other fragments of similar sculptures are known from Roman Britain, nothing quite like this has been discovered before."

The archaeological investigation works commenced late May 2023.

Roman cremation remains and pieces of a chalk wall foundation were identified during the initial site assessment.

Due to this, Swale Council mandated a 0.5 hectare archaeological excavation at the site with the help of Kent County Council Heritage Conservation.

A 7m square structure was surrounded by a walled enclosure that measured 30m square.

Additional excavation work showed the building was formerly a Roman mausoleum, and one of its artifacts was a Roman coin from between 320 and 330 AD.

Roman and maybe later graves with diverse grave items were also present at the site.

Further research into the statue itself and the circumstances of its ritual burial are ongoing.

Canterbury Archaeological Trust (CAT), who were chosen to lead the inquiry, started working on the archaeological investigation in late May 2023.

The intention is to carefully bury and preserve these important relics within the roundabout's manicured center, preserving access to them for future generations.

Robert Masefield, Archaeology Director for RPS the project archaeological consultant confirmed: "We expected interesting Roman archaeology, perhaps a cemetery, but the finds including the lively and unique statue of a Triton and the mausoleum remains have by far exceeded that. These finds are now part of Teynham’s local legacy and the nations rich Roman story. Further study will place the findings in their full historical context."

"This area of North Kent, where the main Roman road travelled close to the many inlets off the Swale is particularly rich in in Roman remains taking advantage of the sea and road connections. The Roman mausoleum is the latest spectacular discovery in Swale and is itself an outstanding and significant find which will add considerably to our understanding of the Roman landscape in this region. I am fortunate in my work to regularly see many remarkable archaeological discoveries in Kent, however seeing the uncovering of the Triton statue was a very special moment indeed. It will be fascinating to follow the research into the statue and find out more about the ritual burial of it", said Simon Mason, Principal Archaeological Officer, Kent County Council.

A Look at Mycenaean Monumental Architecture: The Example of the Treasure of Atreus and the Realistic Rendering of the Video Game Assassin's Creed Odyssey

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The semi-columns of the 'Treasure of Atreus', the British Museum, and a realistic depiction of the game 'Assassin's Creed Odyssey' give us an interactive taste of the Bronze Age!

Mycenaean architecture, a towering achievement of Bronze Age Greek civilization, reflects a time when monumental structures not only demonstrated the might of Mycenaean rulers but also satisfied both aesthetic and spiritual values. The epicenter of Mycenaean monumental architecture is perhaps best epitomized by the 'Treasure of Atreus,' also known as the 'Tomb of Agamemnon.' As the study of this ancient world continues, a modern representation of it finds life in unexpected quarters: the digital landscapes of video games, most notably in the meticulously crafted environment of Assassin's Creed Odyssey. This article explores the Treasure of Atreus in both its original grandeur and its reincarnation in the digital world of Assassin's Creed Odyssey.

A Deep Dive into the Treasure of Atreus

The Treasure of Atreus, an emblem of Mycenaean sophistication, stands as a testament to the grandeur and architectural genius of the Mycenaean civilization. Constructed around 1250 BC, this beehive tomb, known for its false dome and intricate relief sculptures, showcases a fine example of ‘corbelled architecture’. The tholos, or beehive structure, with its carefully arranged stone layers, creates a grandiose interior space that bears witness to the might and resources of the Mycenaean civilization.

Internally, the tomb consists of a dromos, or passageway, leading to the large circular burial chamber, which is adorned with precious artifacts representing the wealth and might of the ruler it was built to honor. The façade is marked by a distinctive relieving triangle, a unique architectural solution to redistribute the enormous weight of the stones and prevent the colossal lintel from crumbling.

In image 1 (upper left), we see how it is today in the British Museum: the representation of the entrance to the vaulted tomb of Atreus after the restoration of the two pillars that surrounded it. The reconstruction was made on the basis of the integrated pieces of the pillars found and transported to Great Britain (among other Mycenaean antiquities).

In picture 2, we see the graphic representation of the entrance to the tomb. The wall above the door was blocked with the Kufic triangle and had relief bands of spirals and amphirodacs, flanked by two semi-columns, all of colorful marble.

In picture 3, we can see part of one of the two semi-columns that framed the door with greenish marble and incised ridges, varied with spirals.

In image 4, we focus on the capital and its decoration, from which an original form of the Doric style many centuries ago is revealed, as well as the influence of corresponding Egyptian capitals of the time.

The last image below is a screenshot of the video game that brings Bronze Age architecture to us in great detail. The period referred to in the game is of course the classical period; nevertheless, the producers could not have omitted earlier monuments (Mycenaean and Minoan), which are of course represented as burials, abandoned, and half-demolished (logical since they are quite earlier than the classical era).

Assassin's Creed Odyssey: Bringing Ancient Greece to the Digital Forefront

Ubisoft’s Assassin’s Creed Odyssey takes players on a historical yet fictional journey through ancient Greece, meticulously recreated to be as historically accurate as possible. The game transports players back to 431 BC, a world meticulously built on historical references and archaeological findings.

What stands out is the extraordinary attention to detail in recreating Bronze Age Mycenaean structures, including the Treasure of Atreus. Players navigating through this digital landscape can explore the monument's interior, appreciate the engineering marvel of the dome, and witness the grandeur and splendor of the site.

By enabling players to immerse themselves in a realistic representation of this ancient world, the video game serves as a digital museum, offering a unique pedagogical tool that allows for a deeper understanding and appreciation of Mycenaean monumental architecture.

A Harmonious Intersection of the Ancient and the New

This digital reincarnation of the Mycenaean architectural marvel brings with it a fresh perspective, fostering a harmonious blend of the old and the new. It offers not just gamers but also historians, archaeologists, and the generally curious an immersive experience of walking through the hallways that echo tales from more than a millennium ago.

Furthermore, it empowers educators to employ an interactive medium to bring history alive, engaging students with the architectural marvels of ancient civilizations in a way that traditional mediums might fall short. It paints a vivid picture, enabling one to understand the scale, grandeur, and intricate details of these monumental structures, fostering a deeper appreciation and understanding of ancient Greek history.

Conclusion

The synergy between the historical magnificence of the Treasure of Atreus and the digital finesse of Assassin's Creed Odyssey brings forth a vibrant landscape where history meets modern technology. It is a vivid testimony to how the past can be revived and explored in novel ways, creating avenues for learning and exploration that transcend traditional boundaries.

As we stand at this juncture where the ancient marvel of Mycenaean architecture breathes life through modern technology, it prompts us to ponder the expansive and untapped potential of video games as not just recreational outlets but powerful educational tools, offering an immersive gateway into the lost worlds of our ancient forebears and kindling a timeless connection between the past and present.

The Divided Fragments of the Façade of the Tomb of Atreus: A Tale of Global Museums

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Tomb of Atreus, often referred to as the Treasury of Atreus or Agamemnon's Tomb, stands as a testament to Mycenaean architectural ingenuity. Located at the archaeological site of Mycenae, Greece, this tholos, or beehive tomb, is renowned for its exquisite craftsmanship and intricate details. Yet, for all its glory within its home nation, fragments of its facade are found scattered across museums in Europe. The dispersion of these fragments tells a story of colonialism, historical intrigue, and the ongoing debate over cultural heritage and repatriation.

Graphic reconstruction of the stone decoration of the facade indicating the suggested position of the fragments of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens (study by Maria Kontaki).

1. National Archaeological Museum of Athens, Greece

The National Archaeological Museum of Athens, being Greece's principal archaeological museum, rightfully possesses a significant portion of the Tomb's fragments. The museum's collection not only presents the facade fragments in their historical context but also tells the story of a nation's journey through time. Here, visitors can see the pieces in proximity to other Mycenaean treasures, painting a fuller picture of the era.

Reconstruction of one of the pillars from the façade, in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.

2. The British Museum, London

The British Empire's colonial history and its penchant for collecting treasures from its colonies and beyond resulted in the British Museum becoming one of the world's most comprehensive museums. Among its vast collection are fragments from the Tomb of Atreus. Their presence here speaks to the era of British archaeology and exploration in the 19th century, when artifacts from around the world were brought to London, often without the explicit consent of their home nations.

British Museum: Parts of two carved green marble half-columns that flanked the tomb at the Treasury of Atreus.

3. The Karlsruhe Museum, Germany

The Karlsruhe Museum in Germany, although lesser-known on the global stage compared to some other institutions, also houses fragments of the Tomb's facade. The German interest in archaeology and classical studies during the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to a myriad of excavations and acquisitions, including those from Mycenae.

4. Archaeological Collections in Munich and Berlin

Similarly, in Munich and Berlin, the storied history of German archaeology is reflected in their respective archaeological collections. Both cities possess fragments from the Tomb of Atreus, showcasing them alongside other ancient world artifacts and creating a narrative of interconnected ancient civilizations.

The Broader Implications of Fragmented Cultural Heritage

The fragmented dispersion of the Tomb of Atreus’s facade serves as a microcosm of a larger issue: the global distribution of cultural heritage artifacts. It raises pressing questions: Who truly 'owns' history? Where should these artifacts reside?

Such phenomena have broad and significant implications not just for the countries of origin and the museums that house them but also for global understandings of history, culture, and ethics.

• Identity and National Pride:

Artifacts are often tied to a nation's identity and historical narrative. When key artifacts are located outside their country of origin, it can feel as though a piece of the nation's soul and heritage is missing. For many, the return of these pieces is essential to complete the story of their ancestors, to connect with their past, and to bolster national pride.

• Colonial Legacies:

The dispersion of cultural treasures is often intrinsically linked with colonial histories. Many artifacts found their way to European and American museums during the age of colonialism and imperialism. This movement wasn’t just a mere exchange; it was often done without consent or under duress, making the artifacts symbolic of a painful era of exploitation.

• Economic Implications:

Cultural treasures attract tourism. Countries that have their artifacts returned can see an uptick in tourism revenue as visitors flock to see iconic pieces in their original or intended setting. Conversely, international museums, which have built reputations around their extensive collections, might experience a decline in visitors if significant artifacts are repatriated.

• Ethical and Moral Questions:

The debate about repatriating artifacts goes beyond legal ownership to deeper ethical questions. Even if a museum acquires an artifact legally, is it morally right for them to keep it if it was originally taken without consent? Should historical wrongs be corrected in the present?

• Conservation and Research:

Some argue that certain international museums have better resources and expertise to conserve and research artifacts. They contend that these institutions can ensure the preservation of the artifact for future generations and further academic understanding. However, with advancements in technology and growing expertise, many nations are now fully equipped to handle and care for their own cultural treasures.

• Shared Global Heritage vs. National Ownership:

While some argue for the national ownership and repatriation of artifacts, others see significant artifacts as part of a shared global heritage. They believe that such pieces should be accessible to as many people as possible, often in the context of other world artifacts, to promote a broader understanding of global histories and connections.

• Legal Battles and Diplomacy:

The debate over artifact repatriation often leads to legal battles and diplomatic tensions between countries. Some countries have passed laws demanding the return of their artifacts, leading to negotiations and, at times, strained relations with the countries housing these artifacts.

The debate over repatriation has grown louder in recent years. Many nations have called for the return of their cultural and historical artifacts. In some cases, there have been successes, and in others, the discussions are ongoing.

The story of the Tomb of Atreus’s facade also sheds light on our shared human history. While these artifacts originated in Greece, their presence in museums across Europe denotes interconnectedness, a shared appreciation for ancient cultures, and the historical ties that bind different civilizations.

The divided fragments of the facade of the Tomb of Atreus, spread across Europe's museums, serve as a reminder of our shared human history, the complexities of cultural heritage, and the ongoing discussions about ownership and repatriation. As we move forward, it remains to be seen how these debates will reshape museum collections worldwide. For now, they stand as a testament to the Mycenaean civilization's grandeur and the ever-evolving narrative of global history.

Machu Picchu: The Enigmas of the Inca Citadel

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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As incredible as it may be, not all of the mysteries surrounding the Inca citadel of Machu Picchu in Peru have been solved. Experts are still baffled by the site's purpose, construction, and seemingly abrupt abandonment, despite years of research and investigation.

For example, historians disagree as to whether or not it was meant to be a royal estate, while others believe it was a place of worship. Its perch high in the Andes Mountains makes it sound like the perfect place to relax, but the intricate design and elaborate water system suggest that it also played a significant role in the Inca Empire. Without any kind of written record and with only a few decades of occupation, the true nature of Machu Picchu's function remains a mystery.

The complex water system that kept the site alive is another mystery. The Incas built a complex system of fountains and channels to ensure a reliable supply of water despite the city's perilous mountaintop location, though no one knows where the water came from. There is speculation among experts as to whether or not the water was used for irrigation or whether or not it served a religious or spiritual purpose.

The walls of Machu Picchu are built of massive, precisely cut stones, many of which weigh multiple tons, and are held together without the use of mortar or cement, which continues to be a wonder and a testament to the Incas' engineering prowess. It is unknown how these massive stones were moved from the quarry to the construction site and then set into place. Ropes, rollers, and ramps have been proposed as possible tools, but the precise techniques have yet to be determined.

The complex system of terraces that surrounds Machu Picchu also remains a mystery to this day. Some have theorized that the terraces were used to grow crops on scarce arable land, while others have suggested that they were built to make a community independent of outside resources. Extensive investigation has not yet revealed the true function of these terraces.

Finally, the reason behind Machu Picchu's mysterious abandonment is still a mystery that intrigues people everywhere. A few decades of use followed by abandonment have left many to wonder what happened at the site. Others speculate that a natural disaster, like an earthquake or landslide, may have been the final straw that finally drove the Incas from their homeland. Yet, the reason for Machu Picchu's abandonment is still a fascinating mystery.

In conclusion, the many unanswered questions surrounding Machu Picchu continue to fascinate experts, historians, and visitors alike. Machu Picchu's mysteries will never cease to amaze and captivate visitors of all backgrounds and interests, be they archaeologists, historians, or simply those looking for a unique travel experience.

What Happened to the Vikings?

Welcome to our captivating video exploring the intriguing history of the Vikings and their legendary expeditions across Europe and beyond. In this informative presentation, we delve into the world of the Vikings, their culture, exploration, and their reputation as fierce raiders. Join us on a journey through time as we uncover the fascinating tales of these seafaring warriors.

Discover who the Vikings were, their origins, and the society they built. Gain insights into their advanced shipbuilding techniques, navigational skills, and the fearless spirit that drove them to explore uncharted territories. Explore their far-reaching expeditions, trading routes, and the impact they had on the regions they encountered.

Join us as we unravel the mysteries and stories of the Vikings, shedding light on their exploration, raiding, and their enduring impact on history.

Tracing the Roots of the Ainu People: Insights from Genetics and Linguistics

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The Ainu are among the oldest and most recognizable of Japan's native populations. There is much debate among archaeologists, linguists, and other scholars about the Ainu people's origin and history, despite the fact that they have lived in Japan for thousands of years.

The Ainu likely originated in what is now Manchuria or the Amur River basin in northern Asia. Migration of the Ainu to Hokkaido and the rest of Japan probably occurred between 12,000 and 13,000 years ago, during the late Pleistocene epoch when sea levels were lower and land bridges connected northern Asia and Japan.

The Ainu may have descended from the Jomon, an ancient Japanese culture that flourished between 14,000 and 300 BCE. The Jomon culture is well known for its distinctive pottery, which often features intricate patterns and designs.

According to proponents of the Jomon theory, the Ainu share many physical and cultural characteristics with the Jomon people, including their pottery, their reliance on fishing and hunting, and their distinctive physical features, such as thick hair and a tendency toward epicanthic eye folds.

But not every academic believes the Jomon theory. The Ainu may have descended from the Okhotsk culture, a nomadic people who lived in what is now the Russian Far East between c. 500 b.c.e. and c. 1200 a.d. The Okhotsk culture was well-known for its use of iron tools and its hunting of marine mammals like seals and walruses.

Okhotsk theory proponents use linguistic and genetic evidence to buttress their argument. The Ainu language is related to other northern Asian languages, including those spoken by natives in the Russian Far East, but only on a distant genetic level. Ainu and Okhotsk populations in northern Asia share some genetic markers, according to genetic studies.

The Ainu have played a significant role in Japanese history and culture, regardless of the controversy surrounding their genesis. The indigenous Ainu people of Japan established a distinct culture and way of life in the centuries following their arrival. They lived off the land and sea, subsisting on hunting, fishing, and gathering, and developed a profound spiritual tradition based on a recognition of the inherent value of all forms of life.

The Ainu also created their own unique fashions and architectural styles, as well as elaborate wood carvings, embroidery, and beadwork. The Ainu were especially admired for the complexity and symbolism of their textiles.

The Ainu people have endured many hardships over the centuries, despite their rich cultural heritage. The Japanese government colonized Hokkaido in the late 19th century and actively pursued the assimilation of the indigenous Ainu people. The Japanese government outlawed numerous aspects of Ainu culture, including their language, religion, and traditional clothing. Furthermore, many Ainu were compelled to take on Japanese given names and surnames.

In the decades that followed, the Ainu were the target of widespread prejudice and discrimination in Japan. Many Ainu were prevented from receiving healthcare, an education, and other fundamental necessities. After WWII, the Japanese government acknowledged the Ainu as an indigenous people and began taking measures to correct past wrongs.

The Ainu people still have a long way to go before they can rest easy. The Ainu language is endangered because it is not Japanese and is instead related to the languages spoken by natives in Russia and other parts of northern Asia. Attempts are being made to revive and preserve the Ainu language for future generations, as many younger Ainu no longer speak it.

The Ainu people of Japan and the rest of the world have seen a surge in interest in their culture and history in recent years. There has been a resurgence of interest in traditional Ainu textiles and artwork, spurred in part by the opening of museums and cultural centers in Hokkaido and elsewhere in Japan.

The mysteries of Ainu history and culture have been partially solved thanks to archaeological investigations. Ainu pottery, stone tools, and other artifacts, as well as their material culture as a whole, have been uncovered through archaeological excavations.

Despite this, there is still a lot about the Ainu and their history that we don't know. There may be more to learn about the origin and history of this fascinating and resilient indigenous group if archaeologists, geneticists, and linguists dig deeper into their past.

To sum up, the Ainu are an endearing and vital part of Japan's past and present. The Ainu have persisted through many hardships to preserve their unique culture and play a significant role in modern Japan. While archaeological investigations have shed light on previously unknown aspects of Ainu history and culture, much more remains to be discovered about this intriguing and resilient indigenous people.

The Muisca Civilization: Keepers of the Secret of El Dorado

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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For centuries, stories about El Dorado, the city of gold, have captivated and intrigued people. It is said to be an extremely wealthy metropolis, with residents who adorn themselves with gold and jewels. Numerous expeditions have set out in search of El Dorado, and the quest has captivated people from all walks of life. But what exactly is the reality behind this urban legend, and why has it persisted for so long?

When Spanish conquistadors first arrived in South America in the early 16th century, they also brought with them the legend of El Dorado. They had heard tales of a city made entirely of gold and were eager to investigate. The story developed and expanded over time, eventually becoming legendary.

The Muisca, a people who once lived in what is now Colombia, are famously associated with El Dorado legends. The Muisca, so the myth goes, had a ritual in which their leader, the "gilded one," would be showered in gold dust before setting sail on a raft made of the precious metal. The people believed that his practice of throwing gold and gemstones into the water would bring them prosperity.

The Muisca civilization collapsed after the Spanish conquest of South America, but the quest for El Dorado persisted. Many attempts were made throughout the years and centuries, but none were fruitful. Some explorers thought they were so close to discovering the city, but their efforts were always fruitless.

Sir Walter Raleigh's search for El Dorado is among the most well-known. In 1595, he led a group of men on a search for the city. Disease and hunger took a heavy toll on the expedition, and they were eventually forced to turn back from their foray deep into the Amazon rainforest. The legend of El Dorado died when Raleigh returned to England empty-handed.

The legend of El Dorado endured despite a lack of evidence. It was widely held that this city existed and that its discovery was imminent. In the early 20th century, a new group of explorers, equipped with cutting-edge equipment and scientific knowledge, set out to locate the city.

Some have speculated that El Dorado wasn't a city at all but rather a living, breathing individual. Historians are divided on whether or not the "gilded one" legend is based on a real-life Muisca leader who was ritualistically doused in gold dust. They contend that it was this ritual that gave rise to the legend of El Dorado, which in turn became the tale of a city of gold.

One alternative is to view El Dorado as a collection of interconnected, prosperous cities and towns. The idea behind this hypothesis is that before the arrival of the Spanish, South America was home to numerous advanced civilizations that were proficient in the use of gold and other precious metals.

The search for El Dorado has persisted to this day despite a lack of hard evidence. Satellite imagery and ground-penetrating radar are two examples of cutting-edge technology being used by modern explorers. Some people think they are getting closer to the truth behind the El Dorado legend after discovering artifacts from long-lost civilizations in the Amazonian jungle.

Finally, El Dorado is an intriguing mystery that has captivated people for centuries. Although the city of gold may only exist in legend, it has nonetheless sparked the interest of many would-be explorers and adventurers. The question of whether or not El Dorado will ever be discovered remains unanswered.

The Khmer Empire: A Mysterious Civilization That Built Angkor Wat

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EDITOR GROUP

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With its magnificent temple complexes, grand waterways, and ornate infrastructure, the city of Angkor Wat is one of the most spectacular ancient sites in Southeast Asia. During the height of the Khmer Empire, from the 9th to the 15th centuries, the city served as the empire's capital. The city's architecture, art, and religious symbolism continue to enthrall scholars and visitors today for the same reason: they are veiled in mystery. In this piece, we'll try to unravel some of Angkor Wat's mysteries and fathom its significance.

Angkor Wat, in modern-day Cambodia, was once the capital of an empire that ruled much of Southeast Asia and amassed vast wealth as a result. The Hindu god Vishnu was the focus of the city's construction, as it was erected around a massive temple complex. Construction on the temple began in the early 12th century and continued for more than 30 years. The temple's towers and spires are meant to symbolize Mount Meru, the cosmic mountain at the center of the Hindu universe, making the structure itself a miniature version of the Hindu cosmos.

The engineering and building of Angkor Wat are two of the temple's many mysteries. More than a million stone blocks, each weighing up to 1.5 tons, make up the temple complex. Stones for Angkor Wat were hauled from a quarry more than 50 kilometers away via a network of canals and waterways. In addition to requiring a sophisticated understanding of astronomy and mathematics for its construction, the temple complex is laid out to correspond with the motions of the sun, moon, and stars.

As if that weren't enough of a mystery, nobody seems to know what Angkor Wat means symbolically or religiously. Hindu mythological and everyday Khmer life scenes are depicted in the complex's intricate carvings and reliefs. Religious symbolism abounds in the carvings, such as the churning of the ocean of milk, which is said to represent the creation of the universe. Countless sanctuaries and shrines honoring various Hindu deities can also be found within the temple grounds.

The temple's decline is a mystery in and of itself. In the 15th century, the city's population left for other parts of Southeast Asia, and it was abandoned. Environmental degradation, climate change, and political instability are all factors that scholars believe may have contributed to Angkor Wat's decline, but the exact reasons for this are still unknown. When French explorers found it again in the 19th century, the city quickly rose to prominence as a tourist hotspot.

The Angkor Wat temple complex is also shrouded in mystery because of its many secret rooms and hallways. Numerous secret chambers and passageways serve as sacred spaces for religious and ceremonial activities within the temple complex. The discovery of some of these chambers continues to this day, and the mysteries they conceal continue to captivate researchers and tourists alike.

The true nature of the Khmer Empire is yet another enigma surrounding Angkor Wat. We know surprisingly little about the history and culture of the Khmer people, who constructed Angkor Wat and ruled over one of Southeast Asia's most powerful and influential empires. Though the Khmer language and script have endured, much of the Khmer people's history and mythology have been lost to the ages.

Angkor Wat may be shrouded in mystery, but that has not diminished the city's significance in Cambodian religion and culture. Cambodian art and architecture have been influenced by the Angkor Wat temple complex, a symbol of the ancient Khmer civilization, for centuries. Some of the temple's shrines and sanctuaries have been repurposed for use by Buddhists, making the entire complex a significant pilgrimage site for both religions. In sum, Angkor Wat's enigmas are just as alluring as they are difficult to unravel. Many mysteries remain about the city, such as its origins, the causes of its decline, and the significance of its art and architecture, despite decades of archaeological investigation. Can you imagine how many secret rooms and passages the temple has? Is there any limit to the mysteries and secrets that the Khmer civilization could hold? This ancient site is one of the most mysterious and impressive in the world, and the answers to these and other questions may not be known until much more research and exploration are done.

The Animated History of Argentina

The huge Rio de la Plata, the wild open Patagonia, and the high peaks of the Andes.. In the following video we will be exploring the land of Silver, Argentina! Enjoy!

The Nabatean City of Petra: A Masterpiece of Ancient Engineering

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Petra: A window into the Nabatean culture and civilization

Petra, a city founded by the Nabataeans and now in modern-day Jordan, is a stunning example of Nabatean architecture. Petra is known for its exceptional rock-cut architecture and sophisticated water management system, both of which were rediscovered in 1812 by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, who posed as a Muslim pilgrim to gain entry to the site. The city, which was once the Nabataean capital and a thriving commercial hub, is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site that draws tourists from all over the world.

The intricate rock-cut buildings in Petra are a major tourist attraction. Petra was constructed by the Nabataeans, an Arab tribe, who cut their buildings into the sandstone cliffs. The Treasury, a humongous building at the end of a short canyon called the Siq, is the most well-known of these structures. The Treasury is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of Nabatean architecture due to its elaborate facade and intricate carvings.

Petra's clever water system is another remarkable aspect of the city. Even in the dry climate of the desert, the Nabateans were able to collect and store water thanks to their complex system of cisterns, dams, and channels. Petra was able to flourish as a commercial hub thanks to this system, which made it possible to maintain a sizable population despite the city's desert setting.

Petra's status as a major trading post meant that it attracted businesspeople from all over the ancient world. The strategic location of the city at the intersection of multiple trade routes made it an important stop for the delivery of goods like spices, textiles, and incense. The Nabataeans' control over the trade of precious frankincense and myrrh contributed to Petra's status as one of the ancient world's wealthiest cities.

The Nabataeans' religious and cultural activities also revolved around Petra. Several religious structures, such as temples, tombs, and shrines, can be found in the city, and many of them were hewn out of the cliff faces. Probably the best-known of these buildings is the Monastery, a colossal structure with a layout not dissimilar to that of the Treasury. The Monastery, thought to have been used for religious and ceremonial purposes, is also regarded as one of the most impressive examples of Nabatean architecture.

A combination of factors, including a change in trade routes, earthquakes, and alterations to the water supply, led to the abandonment of Petra around the fourth century AD. But in 1812, it was rediscovered by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, and ever since then, archaeologists and historians have been studying and exploring it.

To sum up, the Nabataean city of Petra is an architectural marvel, distinguished by its extraordinary rock-cut buildings and sophisticated water distribution system. The city, which was once the Nabataean capital and a thriving commercial hub, is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site that draws tourists from all over the world. Petra is an incredible window into the past and a tribute to the Nabateans' creativity and expertise.

Marathon: The Battle that Gave Birth to Western Civilization

The Battle of Marathon: A Pivotal Moment in Western History

The Battle of Marathon, fought in 490 B.C., stands as one of the most consequential military engagements in the annals of Western history. This clash between the mighty Persian Empire and the fledgling city-state of Athens marked not only a decisive moment in the Greco-Persian Wars but also set the stage for the rise of classical Greek civilization, a cornerstone of Western culture.

Background: The Persian Expansion

To fully appreciate the significance of the marathon, one must understand the backdrop against which it was fought. The Persian Empire, under King Darius I, was an expanding colossus, stretching from Asia Minor to parts of India. Its ambition to extend its dominion into Greece was partly in retaliation against the Athenian and Eretrian support for the Ionian Revolt (499–494 B.C.), which was a rebellion of Greek cities in Asia Minor against Persian rule.

The Athenian Response

Athens, though politically and militarily nascent compared to the Persian behemoth, responded to the Persian threat with remarkable alacrity. Under the leadership of the strategos (generals), the Athenians decided to engage the Persians on their terms. A small force from Plataea joined them, displaying the developing sense of Greek unity against a common foreign foe.

The Stage of Battle: Marathon

The Persians landed at the plain of Marathon, a site chosen for its suitability for Persian cavalry. The Athenian force, though outnumbered (contemporary accounts suggest by at least two to one), was heavily armored and well-disciplined. The decision to meet the Persians at Marathon rather than waiting to defend Athens was a strategic gamble that underscored the Athenians' resolve.

The epic Battle

The battle itself was a showcase of tactical ingenuity. Miltiades thinned the center of his line, strengthening the flanks to envelop the Persian army. This tactic, combined with the ferocity of the Athenian hoplites, proved devastating. The Persians, more accustomed to missile warfare and cavalry charges, found themselves outmatched in close-quarters combat. The Greek forces achieved a stunning victory, driving the Persians back to their ships.

Aftermath and Legacy

The Battle of Marathon did not end the Persian threat to Greece, but it marked a turning point. It boosted the confidence of the Greek city-states, paving the way for future victories such as at Salamis and Plataea. Politically, it reinforced the Athenian belief in their democratic system, which had enabled such decisive action.

The legacy of Marathon extends far beyond its immediate military consequences. It symbolized the triumph of the Greek way of life over foreign domination, an ethos that would deeply influence Western thought. The concepts of democracy, individual rights, and civic duty, which were nascent in Athenian society, gained a new lease of life following this victory.

The Battle of Marathon, thus, was more than just a military victory; it was a cultural and ideological triumph. It underscored the capability of a unified, democratic society to overcome seemingly insurmountable odds. As such, it remains not just a significant historical event but a perennial source of inspiration, reminding us of the enduring power of collective action and democratic principles in the face of adversity.

How Did Ancient Rome Begin?

Today’s video covers the origins of Rome, from a small Latin settlement, to the Roman Kingdom under its Seven Legendary Kings. It then goes through the early Roman Republic until the Sack of Rome and its rebirth in the early 300s BCE.

The Roman Kingdom (also referred to as the Roman monarchy, or the regal period of ancient Rome) was the earliest period of Roman history when the city and its territory were ruled by kings. According to oral accounts, the Roman Kingdom began with the city's founding c. 753 BC, with settlements around the Palatine Hill along the river Tiber in central Italy, and ended with the overthrow of the kings and the establishment of the Republic c. 509 BC.

The Roman Republic was a state of the classical Roman civilization, run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire, Rome's control rapidly expanded during this period—from the city's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world.

Roman society under the Republic was primarily a cultural mix of Latin and Etruscan societies, as well as of Sabine, Oscan, and Greek cultural elements, which is especially visible in the Roman Pantheon. Its political organization developed, at around the same time as direct democracy in Ancient Greece, with collective and annual magistracies, overseen by a senate. The top magistrates were the two consuls, who had an extensive range of executive, legislative, judicial, military, and religious powers. Even though a small number of powerful families (called gentes) monopolised the main magistracies, the Roman Republic is generally considered one of the earliest examples of representative democracy. Roman institutions underwent considerable changes throughout the Republic to adapt to the difficulties it faced, such as the creation of promagistracies to rule its conquered provinces, or the composition of the senate.

Unlike the Pax Romana of the Roman Empire, the Republic was in a state of quasi-perpetual war throughout its existence. Its first enemies were its Latin and Etruscan neighbours as well as the Gauls, who even sacked the city in 387 BC. The Republic nonetheless demonstrated extreme resilience and always managed to overcome its losses, however catastrophic.

Little is certain about the kingdom's history as no records and few inscriptions from the time of the kings survive. The accounts of this period written during the Republic and the Empire are thought largely to be based on oral tradition.

Disgusting Things That Was Normal in Ancient Rome

We all know that the Roman Empire lasted many years and is one of the significant examples of the rise and fall of a civilization throughout human history. And while it's fascinating to learn about epic Roman emperors like Caligula or Commodus, in reality, living in the time of their reigns was probably not good at all.

Today you will get to know what daily reality was like in Ancient Rome. Enjoy!

Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece and Rome

Although the ancient Greeks and Romans believed that human sacrifice was barbaric, they occasionally practiced it themselves. Watch the video for more!

Divine Intimacy in Marble: Exploring the Hermes of Praxiteles

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Witnessing History Through Praxiteles’ Hermes: A Sculptural Marvel

The "Hermes of Praxiteles" is one of the most renowned sculptures of ancient Greece, believed to have been crafted around 330 BC by the acclaimed sculptor Praxiteles. This masterpiece of the classical era stands as an epitome of grace, showcasing the divine messenger and son of Zeus, Hermes, holding the infant Dionysus, the god of wine.

Hermes is portrayed as a young, athletic figure with harmonious proportions, embodying the idealized male form of the period. Standing at a height of over 2 meters, the statue exemplifies the perfect balance of movement and repose, a hallmark of Praxiteles' work. The detailed rendering of Hermes’ anatomy, with finely carved muscles and a relaxed posture, brings to life a figure that is both godly and naturalistic, capturing a moment of quiet intimacy between the two gods.

While the statue showcases Hermes holding the infant Dionysus, it is the depiction of Hermes that steals the limelight. His contemplative expression and the graceful curvature of his limbs showcase artistic brilliance, evoking a sense of dynamic yet serene energy.

Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis, Archaeological Museum of Olympia.

Dionysus is held safely in Hermes’ arm, depicted as a trusting and innocent infant, a stark contrast to the mature and graceful demeanor of Hermes. The intricate detailing in the rendering of the baby Dionysus is equally fascinating, offering a glimpse into the god's early life, which is seldom portrayed in Greek art.

The statue has stood the test of time, yet it shows signs of its age, with parts like Hermes' forearm and Dionysus' hand missing. Despite this, the statue continues to retain its enchanting beauty, offering a rich insight into the artistry of ancient Greek sculpture and standing as a testimony to Praxiteles’ unparalleled skill in capturing beauty and grace in marble.

Visitors to the Archaeological Museum of Olympia are graced with the opportunity to witness this magnificent piece, a convergence of mythology, artistic innovation, and unparalleled craftsmanship, offering a rare glimpse into the ancient world's aesthetic values and artistic heights.

The oldest shipboard cannon in Europe may have been discovered off the coast of Sweden

What may be Europe's earliest shipboard cannon has been researched by an international research team under the direction of maritime archaeologist Staffan von Arbin of the University of Gothenburg. The 14th-century cannon was discovered in the water near Marstrand on Sweden's west coast.

The Marstrand Cannon – a unique 14th century shipboard cannon.

The results of the interdisciplinary study add to our understanding of the early development of artillery on land and at sea, but they also shed light on a trying time for mariners and coastal residents.

The small, muzzle-loading cast copper-alloy cannon was discovered by a recreational diver off the coast of Marstrand at a depth of 20 meters. It is thought to have been recovered from a shipwreck. Because it still had some of a charge in its powder chamber when it was discovered, the researchers believe that the cannon is one that was mounted on a ship rather than one that was being transported as cargo. This indicates that when the cannon landed up on the ocean floor, it was loaded and prepared for use in battle.

“Thanks to the preserved remains of the charge, it has been possible to use radiocarbon dating to establish the age of the find,” says Staffan von Arbin, maritime archaeologist at the University of Gothenburg.

“The study’s findings show that the Marstrand cannon is probably from the 14th century, making it one of the oldest artillery pieces ever found in Europe.”

An examination of the metal's chemistry

The item was 3D scanned by the researchers, who also chemically analyzed the metal that was utilized to cast the cannon. According to the examination, it was a copper alloy with just trace levels of tin and around 14% weight lead.

According to the experts, this alloy is far from ideal for casting cannon, and it is possible that the cannon would have broken and been useless if used heavily for a longer period of time.

“Clearly, the person who cast the cannon did not have the necessary knowledge and understanding of the properties of various copper alloys,” says Staffan von Arbin.

“This shows that the noble art of cannon casting had not yet been fully mastered at that time, and that production was largely based on trial and error.”

The investigation also shows that the lead most likely came from England or the area along the borders of Poland and the Czech Republic, while the copper ore used to make the cannon was mined in modern-day Slovakia.

The researchers report the findings of their investigations in this interdisciplinary study, which was published in the English maritime history magazine The Mariner's Mirror. They also discuss the discovery in light of historical, iconographic, and archaeological sources. The town of Marstrand, renowned for its superior harbor, served as a crucial commercial shipping hub between Western Europe and the Baltic Sea region in the fourteenth century. However, the sea served as a battlefield and a battleground, and civilian communities along the coast were frequently severely impacted. Additionally, there was always a possibility of pirate raids.

Which vessel did the gun belong to?

The novel rifle designs created at this period offered significant tactical benefits in naval warfare. The late Middle Ages saw the introduction of cannons aboard merchant ships as a means of self-defense against pirates and other hostile ships, so it wasn't just warships that were armed. The investigation of the Marstrand cannon offers fresh insights and viewpoints on the evolution of this military technology.

The Marstrand cannon type's funnel-shaped cannons are typically dated to the 15th and 16th centuries, however this discovery proves that the model was already in use in the 14th century. The cannon's powder chamber's well-preserved remnants of the charge also demonstrate that cartouches, a type of textile packing for the powder charge, were used considerably earlier than previously thought.

“Now, of course, we also want to try to locate and document the ship that the cannon belonged to. Although it is probably severely degraded and broken up, it should be possible to find scattered remains of the wreck if we conduct a thorough inventory of the site and its surroundings,” mentions Staffan von Arbin.