Opening The Coffin Of King Henry V

One of the most ruthless yet celebrated Kings of England was Henry V, the man who valiantly led the English Army against the French during the Battle of Agincourt. Henry V would reign for only a short period throughout the Medieval period, and he was a King for only 9 years but he is remembered for his military skill and might. However Henry V's died early, and he would be buried inside of a ornate tomb inside of Westminster Abbey. But his tomb in the recent decades was opened and what was found was incredibly shocking.

In 1953 Henry V's tomb was opened inside of Westminster Abbey and it was found that buried in his tomb with the King was the King's close friend Richard Courtenay. This led historians to consider the role that Henry V's friend had in his life, and some even questioned if he was the King's lover. But this was a shocking discovery.

Super Kinky Facts About Sex In Ancient Babylon

Throughout the ages, different cultures have had vastly different sexual practices, ranging from mundane to bizarre. Like culture itself, sexuality is more than just a means of procreation; it is an expression of the dominant ideas of the time and can tell us a lot about what’s floating around in the collective zeitgeist of a particular society and ourselves as a species. So it goes without saying that if we peer into the sexual lives of the distant past, we find hints of ourselves, no matter how different they may have been in their expression of this fundamentally universal human activity.

Babylon (or Babylonia) was one of the first civilizations in existence, a region of settlements that is believed to have been initially established around 4000 BC. Famous for the Code of Hammurabi, Babylon was a society rich with culture, including a detailed writing system, accounting with mathematics, a diverse cuisine, and, of course, sex, with even the wild and lusty Greeks viewing the Babylonians as a sex-obsessed culture. Here is a glimpse into the world of Babylon, told through the lens of ten facts about sex in the ancient civilization.

A day in the life of an ancient Athenian

It’s 427 BCE, and the worst internal conflict ever to occur in the ancient Greek world is in its fourth year. Athens is facing a big decision: what to do with the people of Mytilene, a city on the island of Lesbos where a revolt against Athenian rule has just been put down. How did these kinds of decisions get made? Robert Garland outlines a day in the life of Athenian democracy. Watch the video for more!

The Mystery of the Trojan Horse

The age-old tale of the Trojan Horse and the fall of Troy has been recounted through generations, marking it as one of the most illustrious stories ever shared. This narrative, often depicted through vibrant art and storytelling, is soon to be explored in depth in a captivating documentary.

A monumental wooden horse, housing valiant Greek soldiers, is portrayed as a goodwill offering to the Trojans. With no suspicions, the Trojans accept this ominous gift and position it within their fortified city. As night descends, the hidden Greeks emerge from their wooden concealment, unlocking the city gates for their comrades. In merely a few hours, the indomitable city of Troy is engulfed in unyielding flames, narrating a tale of deceit and strategic triumph.

But, could the legendary horse be merely a figment of ancient imagination? The documentary delves into novel, groundbreaking findings that propose a different truth. It challenges the traditional narrative, suggesting that the famed Trojan Horse might not have been a horse at all. So, how did the ingenious Greeks achieve their historic deceit against Troy? And how will these revelations reshape the history chronicled in textbooks for future generations?

This documentary ventures beyond the myth, unraveling the mysteries surrounding one of history's most intriguing wartime strategies in Troy. Through a blend of historical evidence and scholarly interpretations, the documentary invites audiences to reevaluate a tale deeply ingrained in our cultural memory and discover the real story of Troy and the Trojan Horse.

Everything you Know About Roman Roads is Wrong

The construction of Roman roads involved laying lines from each direction until they met in the middle, suggesting a more precise method of road-building than previously thought. The traditional belief that Roman roads required digging down 3 to 6 ft for a foundation is a misconception that has been perpetuated for 400 years, despite archaeological evidence suggesting otherwise.

The image of the entire Roman Empire in Britain being paved with Roman roads is a misconception perpetuated by the media for decades.

️ The Roman roads were not always straight lines, as pre-Roman routes like the Harrow way and Pilgrim's way zigzagged across the country, suggesting that the Romans prioritized efficiency and resource accessibility over defense.

The assumption that the tools and jigs used to build Roman wagons remained the same for centuries and potentially millennia is based on no evidence whatsoever. Watch the video below to find out more!

What Happened to Dead Bodies After Big Battles Throughout History?

Given that even Neanderthals would bury their dead (even including objects with the bodies) and various human hunter-gatherer groups likewise used to bury or cremate people at specifics sites that functioned as sort of pilgrimage locations for these nomads, it should come as no surprise that since the dawn of known warfare soldiers have pondered the question of what to do with the bodies of their fallen comrades and enemies. So what did various groups actually do throughout history? Watch the video to find out!

The Prehistoric Weapons Made from Crystal: A Glimpse into the Ancient Iberian Elite

In the annals of prehistory, humans have always exhibited an innate ability to adapt and innovate, especially when it comes to crafting tools and weapons. The late prehistoric Iberian Peninsula stands as a testament to this ingenuity, where an elite tradition emerged, featuring the use of rock crystals to fashion a unique array of weapons, including micro-blades, arrowheads, and daggers. This fascinating period, which coincided with the Chalcolithic Copper Age, unveiled a distinct material choice and craftsmanship that set the elite apart. In this article, we delve into the intriguing world of prehistoric crystal weapons, exploring their purpose, rarity, and the advanced lithic techniques employed in their creation.

The Tradition of Crystal Weapons

Throughout prehistory, most cultures around the world relied on cryptocrystalline materials like chert, flint, obsidian, and quartzite to manufacture their stone tools and weapons. This process, known as lithic reduction, involved striking stone flakes from a core material, using a hammerstone or similar hard hammer fabricator. The resulting tools served functional purposes in hunting, protection, and various daily tasks.

However, in parts of southern Iberia around 3,000 BC, a distinct tradition emerged. Rather than using the conventional cryptocrystalline materials, the elite opted for macro-crystalline quartz, characterized by its translucent appearance. This marked the beginning of a new era where crystal was reserved for crafting elite weaponry and amulets, distinguishing the upper echelons of society.

Functional Constraints of Crystal Weapons

Using crystal as a raw material for weapon manufacturing posed unique challenges. Unlike conventional stone, crystal is less flexible and more fragile. This made it less practical for the routine demands of tool and weapon use. As a result, other stones, such as variscite and amber, were exclusively used to craft body ornaments, leaving crystal for more specialized purposes.

Among the crystal weapons found in archaeological excavations, they were most commonly discovered in small quantities within Mesolithic burial sites. However, exceptions stand out, such as the dolmens of Lanchas I, El Corchero, and Ontiveros, where significant numbers of crystal arrowheads were unearthed. Moreover, the Cuesta de Los Almendrillos megalith yielded an impressive collection of crystal micro-blades.

The Dolmen de Montelirio Discovery

One of the most remarkable discoveries in the realm of crystal weapons occurred during the excavation of the Dolmen de Montelirio between 2007 and 2010. Here, archaeologists unearthed an 8.5-inch crystal dagger, along with crystal arrowheads and an intricately carved ivory handle. This dagger is not merely a functional tool but an artifact of great symbolic significance. It is believed to have represented vitality, magical powers, and a connection with the ancestors.

Furthermore, the Dolmen de Montelirio crystal dagger showcases an advanced level of lithic technique and craftsmanship, underlining the sophistication of the artisans responsible for its creation.

The Symbolism and Rarity of Crystal Weapons

Although crystal was readily available in the region, the scarcity of fashioned crystal weapons suggests that these objects were reserved for high-status individuals who could commission such sophisticated items. The crystal weapons found in archaeological sites offer insights into the symbolism, status, and ceremonial aspects of prehistoric Iberian society. These objects not only served as tools but also as expressions of power, spirituality, and social hierarchy.

The prehistoric crystal weapons of Iberia are a testament to the innovative nature of human societies throughout history. These unique artifacts, crafted during the Chalcolithic Copper Age, symbolize the elevated status of their owners and provide a window into the spiritual and ceremonial aspects of prehistoric Iberian culture. As we continue to explore the archaeological treasures of our past, the legacy of crystal weapons endures as a testament to human ingenuity and creativity.

1,400-Year-Old Treasure Discovered Beneath Chinese School Playground

In a remarkable archaeological discovery, the seemingly ordinary school playground in Ningbo, China, has unveiled a hidden world of history. Beneath the surface lay the ruins of a 1,400-year-old settlement, complete with storage pits and thousands of valuable artifacts. This find offers a unique glimpse into the past, buried under the playground where schoolchildren once played.

The Institute of Archaeology at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences unveiled this extraordinary discovery on October 10, 2023. The excavation, carried out during the preparations for a school construction project, revealed 65 pits, eight wells, and various ancient structures, all dating back over a millennium. These remnants paint a picture of a once-vibrant settlement.

Some of the coin stacks found under the playground. Photo from the Institute of Archaeology at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences

One of the most captivating aspects of this discovery is the collection of copper coins, totaling 2,478 in number. In one storage pit, archaeologists found 796 neatly stacked copper coins, each featuring square holes in the center, offering a visual representation of ancient currency. Another 1,682 coins were found in a nearby well. These coins, along with their manner of burial, suggest that they were hidden by residents as an emergency measure during a period of rebellion and famine in the sixth century A.D.

The acorns found in one of the storage pits. Photo from the Institute of Archaeology at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences

In addition to the coins, the excavation revealed well-preserved plant remains in one of the pits, including bamboo, gourds, peach pits, and a substantial quantity of acorns. This botanical evidence sheds light on the dietary habits and agricultural practices of the people who inhabited the area over a millennium ago.

Apart from the coins and plant remnants, the storage pits and wells contained a variety of artifacts, such as pottery fragments, tiles, altars, washbasins, and more. Among these treasures, archaeologists discovered two well-preserved lamps that were once part of a bronze chandelier. These lamps date back to the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to 220 A.D.) and the Six Dynasties period (220 A.D. to 589 A.D.), showcasing a rich historical and cultural heritage.

Two lamps, part of a bronze chandelier, found in a well. Photo from the Institute of Archaeology at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences

Ningbo, located in Zhejiang province, has a history rich in significant archaeological discoveries, and this recent find adds another layer to its historical tapestry. As experts continue to analyze and interpret the significance of this discovery, the school playground in Ningbo has transformed into a place of historical intrigue. It provides a remarkable window into the lives of the people who once inhabited this settlement and the events that led them to bury their precious treasures in a time of desperation during a tumultuous period in history.

This discovery serves as a poignant reminder that history can often lie hidden just beneath our feet, waiting to be unearthed and shared with the world.

One of the wells found under the playground. Photo from the Institute of Archaeology at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences

Earthworks Created by Indigenous Peoples 500 to 1,500 Years Ago Were Discovered in the Amazon

The Amazon rainforest, often referred to as the "lungs of the Earth," is a region teeming with natural beauty and biodiversity. Yet, beneath its lush canopy, a hidden history is slowly revealing itself. A recent study published in Science has uncovered an astonishing number of ancient earthworks created by indigenous peoples who lived in the Amazon 500 to 1,500 years ago. These earthworks, with almost 10,000 yet to be discovered, offer intriguing insights into the lives and cultures of ancient Amazonian civilizations.

Earthworks are structures made by manipulating the earth's surface, whether through the digging of ditches or the raising of mounds. These enigmatic structures have been linked to various purposes, such as ceremonial and defensive functions. They provide a window into the past, shedding light on how these ancient communities lived and interacted with their environment.

Many pre-European colonial Amazonian earthworks have been unearthed in deforested areas, but researchers have long suspected that a multitude of similar sites remain hidden beneath the dense Amazonian rainforest. To reveal these concealed relics, scientists employed a powerful tool - lidar, or light detection and ranging technology. Lidar uses laser pulses to scan the earth's surface, creating detailed 3D maps of the terrain. This technology allowed researchers to detect earthworks that were otherwise hidden beneath the forest canopy.

According to geographer Vinicius Peripato, a researcher at Brazil's National Institute for Space Research, "Lidar is really essential to confirm the presence of the structures, especially beneath the forest." Through lidar analysis, researchers identified 24 previously unknown earthworks, each offering a unique glimpse into the past. These newly discovered earthworks varied in form and function, ranging from settlements with plazas and fortified villages to megalithic buildings and geoglyphs.

Impressively, the lidar survey covered only a minuscule 0.08% of the vast Amazon rainforest, which spans an area of 2.6 million square miles (6.7 million square kilometers). Despite this limited scope, the researchers managed to map 937 existing earthworks and used an algorithm to identify additional sites based on shared topographic characteristics. To narrow down the possibilities further, they analyzed tree survey data, looking for signs of the 79 species known to have been cultivated and grown by pre-Columbian cultures.

The results were staggering. The model suggested that over 10,000 earthworks remain hidden beneath the Amazon's canopy, with the known sites representing just a fraction, no more than 9% of the potential discoveries. These findings fundamentally alter our understanding of the Amazon jungle's history. Previously, many scientists believed the forest had remained untouched for ages, but the earthworks suggest otherwise, indicating that the Amazon was once home to thriving indigenous populations.

Dr. Michael Heckenberger, a professor of anthropology at the University of Florida, noted, "The conclusions are not surprising but follow a trend in Amazonian studies to increase the scale, density, and impact of human occupations on the Amazon forest." These findings illuminate the dynamism and innovation of indigenous cultures in the Americas, challenging the notion of the Amazon as an untamed wilderness.

The discovery of these earthworks carries not only scientific significance but also societal implications. Indigenous Amazonians can use this research to assert their longstanding presence in the jungle, defending their land rights. These revelations might also inspire new archaeological expeditions to previously unexplored corners of the Amazon, expanding our knowledge of this ancient and diverse ecosystem.

As the secrets of the Amazon continue to unfold, the rainforest's value as a treasure trove of knowledge and culture becomes increasingly apparent. The Amazon is not just a source of natural wonder but also a repository of untold stories from the past, waiting to be revealed by modern technology and inquisitive minds.

A new study examines the history of cannabis use, including necromancy

Cannabis has been a subject of fascination for humanity for thousands of years. Its versatile uses, ranging from food to medicine and even the mystical world of necromancy, have captivated our ancestors and continue to intrigue us today. A recent research paper titled "From ancient Asian relics to contemporaneity: A review of historical and chemical aspects of Cannabis," delves into the history of cannabis use, shedding light on its rich and varied past. Authored by Gabriel Vitor de Lima Marques and Renata Barbosa de Oliveira from the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil, this paper explores the multifaceted journey of cannabis through time.

Cannabis, a term encompassing various plants of the genus Cannabis, holds a prominent place in history alongside other staple grains such as rice, soy, barley, and millet. Unlike its contemporary reputation as a recreational drug, cannabis served as an essential resource for our ancestors. It was used not only for its nutritional value but also for manufacturing a wide range of products. Hemp, extracted from the cannabis plant's sturdy stalks, was employed in crafting ropes, sails, clothing, and paper. In fact, during the 19th century, it is estimated that approximately 80% of fabrics, candles, rope, and more were made from hemp.

Ancient Uses and Discoveries

The history of cannabis use dates back thousands of years. Archeological evidence traces its use as far as 8,000 years B.C.E. in ancient Mesopotamia, which encompasses modern-day Iran and Iraq. Additionally, hemp rope material from around 4,000 years B.C.E. has been discovered in regions like China and Kazakhstan, providing further evidence of the plant's historical importance. The cannabis plant has a long and diverse history as a crucial resource for ancient civilizations across the globe.

The research paper also sheds light on the curious intersection of cannabis and necromancy in history. The Ma-fen, an element of the cannabis plant, was mentioned in the world's oldest pharmacopeia, the Pen Ts'ao Ching, originally compiled in the 1st century but dating back to 2,700 B.C.E. When ingested in excess, it was believed to induce hallucinations and enable the user to see demons. In combination with ginseng, it was considered a tool to achieve premonitory powers and enlightenment.

Cannabis's entheogenic properties became apparent in India around 1,000 B.C.E. In ancient Hindu religious texts, known as the Vedas, cannabis was revered as one of the five sacred plants. It was believed to have descended from heaven as a drop of sacred nectar, capable of bringing joy and freedom to those who used it. Common variations of cannabis, such as bhang, ganja, and charas, found their place in religious celebrations, including the Holi festival and Durga Puja.

Furthermore, cannabis played a multifaceted role in ayurvedic medicine, serving as an analgesic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory agent, aphrodisiac, and even an abortifacient. Despite its rich history in the East, the Middle Ages and the advent of the Catholic Church demonized the use of cannabis and other herbal medicines in Europe.

From Napoleon to Literary Greats

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the European understanding of cannabis took a new turn. As Napoleon's army invaded Egypt, French scientists studied the use of hashish among local populations. Jacques-Joseph Moreau, a notable researcher, experimented with hashish on himself and his students, exploring its psychotomimetic properties. This marked the beginning of scientific inquiry into the effects of cannabis. Additionally, hashish made its way to France, influencing famous authors such as Alexandre Dumas, Charles Baudelaire, and Victor Hugo.

Moreover, Irish physician William Brooke O'Shaughnessy made significant contributions to the understanding of cannabis in the 19th century. He documented its effectiveness in treating pain, convulsions, and vomiting associated with infectious diseases like rabies and cholera, leading to its inclusion in the British pharmacopeia.

Cultural and Religious Movements

In the mid and late 20th century, cannabis experienced a resurgence in popularity, driven by cultural and religious movements. The likes of jazz, blues, the hippie movement, and Rastafarianism embraced cannabis as a part of their spiritual practices and artistic expressions. Renowned artists such as Bob Marley, Janis Joplin, Jimi Hendrix, The Beatles, and The Doors further fueled its popularity, leaving a lasting impact on popular culture.

Cannabis, with its diverse history and applications, has evolved from an ancient grain to a plant that has stirred cultural, medical, and recreational revolutions throughout history. Despite the setbacks of prohibition, modern research is on the path to uncovering the many mysteries and potential benefits of this remarkable plant. Whether it's used as a psychedelic substance, a medical treatment, or as a source of food and textiles, cannabis remains one of the most controversial and captivating subjects in contemporary human history. As we continue to explore its potential, the story of cannabis unfolds, revealing its place in our past, present, and future.

Neanderthals: The Apex Predators Who Hunted Cave Lions

A groundbreaking new study has shed light on the remarkable capabilities and behaviors of our ancient relatives, the Neanderthals. Recent excavations at the Einhornhöhle (Unicorn Cave) in the Harz Mountains, Lower Saxony, Germany, have uncovered evidence that Neanderthals not only hunted cave lions but also used their skins for various purposes. This discovery challenges our perception of Neanderthals as primitive beings and suggests they had a far more complex and advanced lifestyle than previously thought.

In 2019, the excavation team unearthed a treasure trove of Ice Age animal remains, including bones of the extinct cave lion. The bones were discovered in a cave gallery, dating back more than 200,000 years. Among these remains, researchers found a toe bone from a cave lion with a distinctive cut mark. This find was a pivotal moment, indicating that Neanderthals skillfully removed the lion's pelt while keeping its sharp claws attached, presumably to use the skin for their own purposes.

What's more, the bones at Einhornhöhle provided an intriguing context for this discovery. To validate their findings, lead author Gabriele Russo and archaeologist Dr. Annemieke Milks examined the remains of a cave lion found in Bavaria. A closer look at the skeleton revealed unusual damage on a rib. Upon further analysis, they identified the damage as the result of a weapon impact, suggesting that the lion was killed by a spear thrust into its abdomen when it was already on the ground.

Russo noted, "The rib lesion clearly differs from bite marks of carnivores and shows the typical breakage pattern of a lesion caused by a hunting weapon." Dr. Milks added, "The lion was probably killed by a spear that was thrust into the lion’s abdomen when it was already lying on the ground."

This remarkable finding, a 50,000-year-old skeleton, provides the first concrete evidence that Neanderthals not only hunted the apex predator, the cave lion but also consumed its meat. This behavior challenges previous assumptions about Neanderthal hunting practices, suggesting they had the capability to take down formidable creatures.

Cave lions, with a shoulder height of approximately 1.3 meters, were among the most dangerous animals in Eurasia for over 200,000 years. They hunted large herbivores such as mammoths, bison, and horses, as well as the formidable cave bear. Their presence in Ice Age caves is responsible for the name "cave lion."

This discovery also challenges the previous belief that interactions with cave lions as a cultural symbol were reserved for Homo sapiens. Among the earliest artworks of Homo sapiens are the famous Swabian Jura cave paintings, featuring the cave lion as a prominent motif, dated to around 40,000 years ago. Cave lions also appear in rock art panels in the Grotte Chauvet in south-eastern France, dating back about 34,000 years.

Thomas Terberger, speaker of the project, highlighted the significance of the cave lion in Neanderthal culture: "The interest of humans to gain respect and power from a lion trophy is rooted in Neanderthal behavior, and until modern times, the lion is a powerful symbol of rulers."

This discovery contributes to our growing understanding of the behavioral similarities between Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens. Recent findings, such as an engraved giant deer bone from Einhornhöhle, have shown Neanderthals' ability to produce and communicate with symbols. The role of cave lions in Neanderthal culture suggests a level of complexity and cultural development that was previously underestimated.

The Neanderthals, it seems, were not the simplistic beings we once thought them to be. They were skilled hunters, using weapons and tools, and they held symbolic significance, laying the groundwork for the more advanced cultures of Homo sapiens. This study adds a significant piece to the puzzle of our shared human history, showing that our Neanderthal cousins were not only survivors but also apex predators and cultural bearers in their own right.

Ancient Clues in Fossilized Feces: A Glimpse into the Diets of Pre-Columbian Cultures

The study of ancient cultures often relies on artifacts and remnants from bygone eras to piece together the puzzle of our human history. Among the more unconventional sources of information, fossilized feces, or coprolites, have emerged as unlikely biographers, offering unique insights into the lives of ancient peoples. In a recent discovery, a 1500-year-old coprolite from Puerto Rico has revealed a surprising twist in the diets of two ancient cultures, the Huecoids and Saladoids. This article delves into the unexpected findings and their implications for understanding the diet, lifestyle, and interactions of these pre-Columbian cultures.

Discovering the Past with Coprolites

Coprolites have long been an essential source of information for archaeologists and anthropologists, as they provide a glimpse into the dietary habits and microbiomes of ancient humans. Furthermore, they can shed light on the viruses and bacteria that affected these populations. The study of pre-Columbian cultures in Central and South America has been particularly intriguing, as it continues to present questions and mysteries.

In a groundbreaking study published in PLOS ONE, a team of researchers from Puerto Rico, Minnesota, and California examined a 1500-year-old coprolite found in Vieques, Puerto Rico. This coprolite originated from two co-inhabiting ancient cultures, the Huecoids and Saladoids, who lived on the island centuries before Columbus's arrival. The research aimed to reconstruct the diets and plant life of these cultures by analyzing plant DNA from the coprolite.

The Expectations and Surprises

The analysis of six Huecoid samples and four Saladoid samples revealed a dietary pattern consistent with the expected foods of the time, such as peanuts, papaya, maize, and chili peppers. However, the researchers made a surprising discovery. In addition to these traditional foods, the coprolite contained traces of cotton and tobacco – two plants not typically considered as edible.

The presence of cotton and tobacco in ancient feces raised eyebrows among researchers. To explain this anomaly, the team floated two plausible hypotheses. They proposed that the ancient cultures might have used cotton oil as a food additive or accidentally ingested cotton fibers while preparing yarn, as women in these cultures were known for their weaving practices. This suggestion is supported by the discovery of cotton DNA between teeth in dental samples from the same cultures. Regarding tobacco, the researchers hypothesized that it might have been ingested through chewing. While no direct reference to chewing tobacco exists in pre-Columbian practices, evidence suggests that a blend of pulverized herbs, including tobacco, could have served as a hallucinogenic snuff. Tobacco also had medicinal and hallucinogenic uses in these cultures.

The Implications for Human Interaction

Beyond the dietary revelations, the findings have broader implications for understanding the interactions between ancient cultures. Jelissa Reynoso-García, the study's first author and a postdoctoral microbiology researcher at the University of California, Davis, suggests that these findings indicate an active trade between the continents and Puerto Rico, possibly extending to other Caribbean islands. Gary Antonio Toranzos Soria, the senior author of the paper and a microbiology professor at the University of Puerto Rico, highlights how this research fits into the larger narrative of commerce. Earlier studies revealed DNA from animals not native to Puerto Rico, suggesting active trade between these ancient cultures and South America, and perhaps Central America. Matthew Biwer, a paleoethnobotany professor at Dickinson College, supports the findings and emphasizes their value in documenting the archaeological connections between South America and the Caribbean. These discoveries enrich our understanding of the complex network of trade and interaction among ancient cultures.

The examination of a 1500-year-old coprolite from Puerto Rico has unearthed remarkable insights into the diets and interactions of pre-Columbian cultures. The presence of cotton and tobacco in the feces of the Huecoids and Saladoids has challenged traditional notions of their dietary habits and hinted at a world of trade and cultural exchange. As researchers continue to delve into the fecal archives of ancient societies, they hope to uncover more secrets about the vibrant history of our ancestors and their connections to distant lands.

Archaeologists Made a Remarkable Discovery from the Aztec Era

In the heart of what is now Mexico City, a city with a rich history that dates back to the Aztec era, a team of dedicated archaeologists from the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) have unearthed a remarkable artifact that sheds light on the intricate artistry and culture of the Mexica people. A painted Aztec snake carving, buried beneath the bustling streets of the modern metropolis, has been discovered, offering a glimpse into the grandeur of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Mexica civilization.

A Glimpse into the Past

Tenochtitlan, the Mexica capital, was a marvel of its time. It was perched on a raised islet in the western part of Lake Texcoco, which is now part of the historic district of Mexico City. Founded by the Mexica, a Nahuatl-speaking indigenous people, the city blossomed following the decline of the Toltec civilization. The Mexica employed a unique system called "chinampas" to transform the islet into a bustling city-state. They created rectangular plots of fertile arable land on the shallow lake beds, allowing them to cultivate crops and sustain their growing population.

As Tenochtitlan prospered, it became a pivotal component of the Triple Alliance, alongside Texcoco and Tlacopan, forming a powerful force in Mesoamerica. By the time Spanish conquistadors arrived in 1519, Tenochtitlan had reached its zenith. The city was home to an estimated population ranging from 200,000 to 400,000 residents, making it one of the largest cities in the world at the time.

The Impact of the Conquest

Tragically, the encounter with the Spanish conquistadors had devastating consequences for the Mexica people. They were exposed to diseases for which they had no natural immunity, and a devastating outbreak of smallpox swept through the population. This led to a significant population decline, with estimates suggesting that over 50% of the region's inhabitants fell victim to this deadly disease.

A Glimpse into Mexica Artistry

Recent excavations, undertaken at the former School of Jurisprudence of the UNAM, located in the Historic Center of Mexico City, have unveiled a stunning Aztec snake carving, buried 4.5 meters beneath the modern street level. The carving is an impressive 1.8 meters in length and 1 meter in height. Remarkably, it was found outside of its original context along with several architectural elements.

The excavation team was fortunate in preserving the rich colors of the carving, thanks to the unique conditions in the soil. Traces of ochre, red, blue, black, and white pigments have survived, covering over 80% of the carving's surface. To ensure the preservation of these fragile pigments, which provide insight into the Mexica's color palette for decorating cult images and temples, researchers have employed a humidity chamber. This preservation work will continue into 2024 to ensure that the painting endures for future generations to admire.

Barajas Rocha, who played a significant role in conserving the color on the monolith of the goddess Tlaltecuhtli, explained the importance of this painstaking preservation process, stating, "These pigments, which represent a typical example of the color palette that the Mexica used to decorate their cult images and their temples, are extremely fragile due to the mineral and plant materials from which they were obtained."

The discovery of this painted Aztec snake carving offers a rare glimpse into the artistry and culture of the Mexica civilization. It reminds us of the rich history that lies beneath the modern streets of Mexico City, a city that was once the magnificent capital of an empire that thrived long before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. As the preservation work continues, this remarkable artifact will continue to enrich our understanding of the Mexica people and their contributions to the world of art and civilization.

Deciphered 3500-year-old Mysterious Hieroglyphs Found in Hattusa's Yerkap Tunnel

In the heart of Turkey's Anatolian region lies a treasure trove of ancient history – Hattusa, the former capital of the Hittite Empire. This city, dating back to the Bronze Age around 2000 BC, has long fascinated archaeologists and historians with its enigmatic ruins and inscriptions. Recently, an exciting discovery has been made in Hattusa that sheds new light on this ancient civilization: the deciphering of mysterious hieroglyphs found in the Yerkapı Tunnel.

The Yerkapı Tunnel, a famous passage that every visitor traverses in the Hattusa Ruins, has been the subject of archaeological attention for years. In 2022, Associate Professor Dr. Bülent Genç, a faculty member of the Archaeology Department at Mardin Artuklu University, made a groundbreaking discovery. In the tunnel's inner walls, a total of 249 symbols, believed to be 3500 years old, were found. These symbols are Anatolian hieroglyphs, a writing system consisting of around 500 different signs.

Perhaps the most significant revelation from the deciphered hieroglyphs is the identity of the person responsible for the construction of the Yerkapı Tunnel. The inscriptions prominently feature the name "Arişadu," and his title, thus providing a glimpse into the individual responsible for this remarkable structure.

In addition to the name "Arişadu," the hieroglyphs contain references to "Tuthaliya Mountain" and "road," visible on the tunnel's western side. This combination of symbols hints at the tunnel's purpose: as a road leading to Tuthaliya Mountain.

Tuthaliya Mountain holds great significance in Hittite culture. It is considered a sacred mountain, so revered that several Hittite kings derived their royal names from it. The road symbol in the hieroglyphs suggests various interpretations, such as "the road from Tuthaliya," "the road leading to Tuthaliya Mountain," or "the road passing through Tuthaliya Mountain."

The head of the excavation, Prof. Dr. Andreas Schachner, highlights the significance of these findings: "Due to the presence of these symbols in a tunnel, my hypothesis is whether we can associate Yerkapı with Tuthaliya Mountain or if there is an artificially constructed Tuthaliya Mountain, because from the outside, especially when viewed from the plains, Yerkapı is at the highest point of Hattusa and is therefore visible from all sides. It is located in a manner befitting a sacred place."

What makes this discovery particularly intriguing is the insight it provides into the Hittite civilization's use of Anatolian hieroglyphs. Prof. Dr. Schachner notes that these hieroglyphs served as signatures or expressions of accomplishment by the individuals responsible for various structures. Unlike cuneiform script, which was more elite and state-centric, Anatolian hieroglyphs appear to have had a broader range of applications, including everyday communication, city navigation signs, and more.

This deciphering of the Yerkapı Tunnel hieroglyphs represents a significant step in understanding the Hittite era and the culture that once thrived in Hattusa. As researchers continue to explore this ancient city, we can only anticipate more revelations that will shed further light on this enigmatic civilization.

Hattusa, with its UNESCO World Heritage status, continues to be a treasure trove of historical discoveries, offering a unique window into the ancient world. The deciphered hieroglyphs in the Yerkapı Tunnel are a testament to the ongoing importance of archaeological research in uncovering the secrets of our past.

Discovered Treasure Links Coin Hoard to the 1692 Glencoe Massacre

In a remarkable archaeological discovery, a student archaeologist has uncovered a pot of ancient coins beneath the ruins of a house associated with Clan MacDonald of Glencoe, a group notoriously targeted in the 1692 Glencoe Massacre. These coins may have been hidden by a victim of the tragic event that unfolded on that fateful day. The find, consisting of 36 coins, adds an eerie layer to the already haunting tale of Glencoe's massacre.

The Glencoe Massacre: A Dark Chapter in Scottish History

The infamous Glencoe Massacre took place in February 1692 when almost 40 members of Clan MacDonald of Glencoe met a grisly fate at the hands of British soldiers. The MacDonalds were targeted because of their support for the exiled King James VII of Scotland and II of England, backing the restoration of the Stuart dynasty. They were late in delivering an oath of allegiance to the Protestant King William III, which branded them as rebels. The soldiers, who had been billeted with members of the clan, turned on their hosts on February 13, 1692, leading to a brutal attack. Some survivors tried to escape into the harsh snowstorm that had engulfed the region, including Gleann Leac-na-muidhe, where the recently discovered coin hoard was concealed.

Lucy Ankers found the coins inside a pot with a pebble lid

The discovery of the coin hoard was made by Lucy Ankers, a student on her inaugural archaeological dig. The 36 coins, sealed within a pot secured with a small round pebble as a lid, were strategically placed beneath a hearth stone slab in the fireplace of the clan chief's house. These coins are a rich tapestry of history, dating back to the late 1500s and continuing into the 1680s, spanning the reigns of Elizabeth I, James VI and I, Charles I, the Cromwellian Commonwealth, and Charles II. The collection also features coins from France, the Spanish Netherlands, and even one that seems to have originated in the Papal States. Notably, none of the coins were minted after the 1680s.

University of Glasgow excavations director Eddie Stewart with one of the coins

Clues to the Past

The University of Glasgow's archaeological team, which led the excavation, has pieced together a compelling narrative linking the coin hoard to the massacre. The presence of coins from the late 1500s to the 1680s suggests that they were deposited under the fireplace either just before or during the killings for safekeeping. What makes this discovery even more chilling is that the coins appear to have been left untouched. This could imply that the individual who buried them did not survive the massacre. It is a haunting testament to the turmoil that unfolded within the walls of that very house more than three centuries ago. Dr. Michael Given, a co-director of the archaeological project in Glencoe, expressed the significance of these findings, "These exciting finds give us a rare glimpse of a single, dramatic event. Here's what seems an ordinary rural house, but it has a grand fireplace, impressive floor slabs, and exotic pottery imported from the Netherlands and Germany. And they've gathered up an amazing collection of coins in a little pot and buried them under the fireplace."

The coins have been identified by archaeologists from the University of Glasgow

The discovery of the coin hoard beneath the ruins of a house connected to the MacDonalds of Glencoe serves as a poignant reminder of the dark and turbulent history of the Scottish Highlands. These coins offer a tangible link to the tragic events of 1692, evoking the memory of the victims and the harrowing circumstances they faced. As archaeologists continue to unearth hidden secrets in Glencoe, they paint a vivid picture of a past that continues to haunt the present.

The pot contained 36 coins

The fireplace where the coins were discovered

A memorial to the massacre in Glencoe

The Oldest Interlingual Inscriptions of Antiquity: Windows into Ancient Multilingualism

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Interlingual inscriptions—texts inscribed in multiple languages—stand as testaments to ancient multilingualism, offering unparalleled insights into cross-cultural interactions and providing scholars with the keys to unlocking long-forgotten languages.

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contents

• The Rosetta Stone

• The Letoon Trilingual Stele

• The Xanthian Obelisk

• The Behistun Inscription

• The Galle Trilingual Inscription

• The Canopus Decree (Canopus Stone)

• The Sardis Bilingual Inscription

• King Ezana’s Stone

• The Meroitic scripts of the Kingdom of Kush

• The Pyrgi Tablets

• The Bilingual Inscription of Kulamanu from Karatepe

• The Idalion Bilingual

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Societies have flourished and interacted throughout history, leaving behind artifacts, buildings, and inscriptions that serve as reminders of their past. Interlingual inscriptions, or texts written in multiple languages, are among the most remarkable of these. They have been used by researchers to interpret extinct languages in addition to serving as proof of ancient multilingualism. Let's examine some of the oldest and most well-known multilingual inscriptions.

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1. The Rosetta Stone

Unearthed near Rosetta (Rashid) in the Nile Delta region of Egypt in 1799, the Rosetta Stone is undoubtedly one of the most famous archaeological discoveries. This granodiorite slab boasts inscriptions in three scripts: Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic script, and Ancient Greek. With the known Ancient Greek as a reference, scholars, most notably Jean-François Champollion, were able to decipher the hieroglyphs in 1822, unraveling the mysteries of ancient Egyptian writing.

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2. The Letoon Trilingual Stele

Located at the Letoon Sanctuary near the ancient city of Xanthos in present-day Turkey, the Letoon Trilingual Stele offers inscriptions in three different languages: Ancient Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic. Dating back to the 4th century BC, this inscription primarily commemorates the achievements of a local prince named Arbinas. The stele has provided scholars with crucial clues for deciphering the Lycian language.

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3. The Xanthian Obelisk

Also found in the vicinity of Xanthos, the Xanthian Obelisk, or Xanthos Stele, is a tower-like monument from the 5th century BC with inscriptions in both Greek and Lycian. While less famous than the Letoon Trilingual, the obelisk was instrumental in understanding Lycian B, a variant of the Lycian language.

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4. The Behistun Multilingual Inscription

A remarkable example of an ancient interlingual inscription is the Behistun Inscription, situated in modern-day Iran. Originating from the era of Darius the Great in the 5th century BC, the inscription is monumental not only in its physical presence, carved dramatically into a cliff face, but also in its linguistic significance.

The Bisotun Inscription presents texts in three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian (a version of Akkadian). It delineates the victories of Darius the Great against the usurper Gaumāta and subsequent revolts, projecting Darius as a divinely appointed king.

The trilingual nature of the inscription was essential in deciphering cuneiform, specifically through the efforts of British army officer Sir Henry Rawlinson in the 19th century. By comparing the three parallel texts, scholars unlocked the secrets of cuneiform scripts, unleashing a deeper understanding of the various civilizations that used them. The Bisotun Inscription thus offers a vivid illustration of the pivotal role of multilingual texts in historical and linguistic research.

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5. The Galle Trilingual Inscription

Erected in 1411 in Sri Lanka by the Chinese explorer Zheng He, the Galle Trilingual Inscription contains texts in three languages: Chinese, Tamil, and Persian. It commemorates the offerings made by Zheng He to a Buddhist temple and stands as an enduring testament to ancient maritime routes and cultural exchanges.

The inscription begins with invocations to Buddhist, Hindu, and Islamic deities, reflecting the religious diversity and harmonious coexistence of multiple faiths. It exemplifies the syncretism in religious and cultural practices in both the places Zheng He visited and perhaps in his own crew, illustrating the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations.

The trilingual inscription reflects the maritime prowess of the Ming Dynasty and its diplomatic interactions with various countries. Zheng He's voyages are crucial events that mark the historical silk and spice routes, highlighting the vibrant maritime trade and cultural exchanges that took place across the Indian Ocean.

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6. The Canopus Decree (Canopus Stone)

Similar to the Rosetta Stone, the Canopus Decree is a stele that dates back to 238 BC. Found in the ancient Egyptian city of Canopus, the inscription features texts in both hieroglyphic and Greek. The decree praises Ptolemy III for his deeds and establishes a new cult in his honor.

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7. The Sardis Bilingual Inscription

The Sardis Bilingual Inscription, dating back to the 4th century BC, is a pivotal artifact in deciphering the ancient Lydian language, similar to the role the Rosetta Stone played for Egyptian hieroglyphs. Lydian was an extinct language spoken in Lydia, modern-day Turkey, during the 1st millennium BC. The inscription, discovered in 1912 in the ancient capital of Lydia, Sardis, consists of texts in both Lydian and Aramaic languages, providing a basis for comparative analysis and eventually leading to the understanding of Lydian.

Enno Littmann was one of the pioneers in decoding the Lydian language. This discovery has had a profound impact on historical linguistics, shedding light on the socio-cultural and historical context of ancient Lydia and emphasizing the importance of bilingual inscriptions in reconstructing lost languages. The Sardis bilingual inscription serves as a bridge to the past, allowing contemporary scholars to connect with the ancient Lydians through their language and history.

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8. King Ezana's Stone

King Ezana's Stone, erected in the ancient city of Axum, Ethiopia, during the 4th century CE, remains a pivotal discovery in understanding the complex matrix of language, power, and religion in the region during this era. This artifact is fascinating due to its tri-lingual nature, featuring inscriptions in Ge’ez, Sabaean, and Greek.

Ezana was the ruler of the Kingdom of Aksum, a significant trading empire that spanned territories in present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. His reign marked a transformative period in the region’s history, notably adopting Christianity as the state religion. King Ezana’s Stone reflects this epochal shift through its inscriptions, offering a royal proclamation that underscores the ruler’s might and his newfound Christian faith.

Each of the three languages on the stone provided a means of communicating with different audiences. Greek was a lingua franca of sorts across many regions due to the prior influence of the Hellenistic world. Sabaean was included due to Axum's interactions and connections with the Sabaean kingdom across the Red Sea, and Ge’ez, being the local language, represented the language of the Axumite people.

Thus, King Ezana's Stone not only offers insights into the Axumite Kingdom’s linguistic milieu but also illustrates the potent intertwining of political power and religious conversion. Additionally, it acts as a bridge connecting different civilizations through language, providing modern scholars with a tangible link to understanding the dynamics of ancient Northeast Africa and its interactions with surrounding regions. Consequently, it is a priceless artifact in the realms of linguistics, history, and the study of early Christianization in Africa.

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9. The Meroitic scripts of the Kingdom of Kush

While there was not a single inscription, the ancient African Kingdom of Kush (modern-day Sudan) used a script known as Meroitic, which appeared in both cursive and hieroglyphic forms. Occasionally, Egyptian hieroglyphs appeared alongside Meroitic texts, revealing the cultural and linguistic exchanges between ancient Egypt and Kush.

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10. The Pyrgi Tablets

Discovered in the ancient Etruscan port of Pyrgi (modern Italy) in 1964, these gold leaf inscriptions from the 5th century BC provide parallel texts in Etruscan and Phoenician. They record the dedication of a temple by Thefarie Velianas, the ruler of Caere, to the Phoenician goddess Astarte.

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11. The Bilingual Inscription of Kulamanu from Karatepe

Phoenician part of the inscription / photo Klaus-Peter Simon on Wikimedia Commons

This inscription, from the late 8th century BC, was discovered at the Hittite fortress of Karatepe in Turkey. It provides texts in Phoenician and Luwian hieroglyphics, celebrating the achievements of the local ruler, Azatiwada. It is known as KAI 26 and has served archaeologists as a Rosetta stone for deciphering Luwian glyphs.

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12. The Idalion Bilingual

The Idalion Bilingual is a significant archaeological artifact currently housed in the British Museum. It was discovered in Cyprus and played a crucial role in deciphering the Cypriot syllabary, an ancient script used from the 11th to the 4th centuries BC. This bilingual inscription contains the same text in both the well-known Phoenician alphabet and the previously undeciphered Cypriot syllabary. It provides a parallel text in Phoenician and Greek, offering an essential resource for historians and linguists seeking to comprehend the linguistic and political landscapes of ancient Cyprus.

The discovery of the Idalion Bilingual allowed scholars to decode the Cypriot syllabary by comparing corresponding words and phrases in both scripts. This breakthrough had profound implications, shedding light on ancient Cypriot history, culture, and language. It provided insights into religious practices, administrative systems, economic activities, and the linguistic evolution of the region. The Idalion Bilingual serves as a testament to the power of archaeology in unraveling the mysteries of the past and underscores the interconnectedness of human societies.

Legacy of Linguistic Bridges: The Timeless Significance of Interlingual Inscriptions

The abundance of multilingual inscriptions that have been found all across the world indicates how cosmopolitan the ancient world was. They are essential to our comprehension of linguistic evolution and historic diplomatic ties, and they emphasize the importance of cultural and linguistic interaction across civilizations. By spanning languages and civilizations, these inscriptions shed light on the universal human experience throughout time and space.

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references

1. The Rosetta Stone

   "The Rosetta Stone," by E.A. Wallis Budge, 1989

2. The Letoon Trilingual Stele

   "Lycia: History, Monuments, and Inscriptions," by G. E. Bean, 1968

3. The Xanthian Obelisk

   "The Lycians in Literary and Epigraphic Sources," by M. Z. Çalışkan, 1988

4. The Behistun Inscription

   1. "The Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great: Babylonian Version," by L. W. King, R. C. Thompson, 1907

   2. "Darius I and the Persian Empire," by Hywel Clifford, 2016

5. The Galle Trilingual Inscription

   "Zheng He's Maritime Voyages (1405–1433) and China's Relations with the Indian Ocean World: A Multilingual Bibliography," by Roderich Ptak, 2014

6. The Canopus Decree (Canopus Stone)

   1. "The Decree of Canopus: In Hieroglyphics and Greek, with Translations and an explanation of the hieroglyphical Characters," by S. Birch, 1866

   2. "Ptolemaic Egypt," by Jean Bingen, 2007

7. The Sardis Bilingual Inscription

   "Aramaic Inscriptions and Documents of the Roman Period," By Joseph Naveh (2003)

8. King Ezana’s Stone

   "Ancient Ethiopia," by David W. Phillipson (2009)

9. The Meroitic scripts of the Kingdom of Kush

   "Meroe City: An Ancient African Capital," by P. L. Shinnie, 1996

10. The Pyrgi Tablets

    "The Etruscan Language: An Introduction," by Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante, 2002

11. The Bilingual Inscription of Kulamanu from Karatepe

    "The Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions of the Iron Age," by Annick Payne, 2012.

The Sardis Bilingual Inscription: The "Rosetta Stone" of the Lydian Language

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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In the historical conundrum of deciphering ancient languages, a singular artifact often emerges as the key, illuminating the path toward understanding the words of ancient civilizations. For the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Rosetta Stone performed this pivotal role, revealing the secret of a once-lost language. Likewise, in the pursuit of comprehending the ancient Lydian language, a specific artifact—the Sardis bilingual inscription—has proven indispensable.

Background on Lydian Language and Sardis

Lydian is an extinct language that was spoken in the region of Lydia, in western Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), during the 1st millennium BC. The Lydian civilization thrived in a period that was rich in cultural exchange, economic developments, and political intrigue. Their language, written in a unique script, remained a historical mystery for centuries due to the scarcity of comprehensive linguistic material available for study.

Sardis, the ancient capital of Lydia, where lush landscapes met burgeoning urbanization, played a significant role in unlocking the enigma of the Lydian language. The city harbored an array of inscriptions, but the Sardis bilingual inscription is particularly notable due to its crucial role in decoding the language.

The Discovery of the Sardis Bilingual Inscription

The Sardis bilingual inscription, a remarkable artifact from the 4th century BC, stands as a testament to ancient linguistic exploration. This Lydian-Aramaic funerary inscription was serendipitously unearthed in 1912 during an excavation conducted by the American Society for the Excavation of Sardis.

This remarkable find proved to be the equivalent of the "Rosetta Stone" for unlocking the mysteries of the Lydian language, a monumental breakthrough in the field of linguistics. The inscription begins with an Aramaic script and meticulously records the date as the tenth year of Artaxerxes, believed to be Artaxerxes II, placing its creation in the year 394 BC. This date is a crucial anchor for historians and scholars studying this period of history.

Today, the Sardis bilingual inscription is housed in the İzmir Archaeology Museum, where it continues to captivate visitors with its historical significance. This Aramaic inscription is cataloged as KAI 260, and its comprehensive analysis was first presented to the world in 1917 by the eminent scholar Stanley Arthur Cook.

Interestingly, the inscription was discovered in a secondary location, having been repurposed during the Greek or Roman era as a building material for a robust, low wall. This wall once graced the northern slope of the Nekropolis hill, situated to the west of the Paktolos River. Alongside this bilingual marvel, several other inscriptions were discovered, hinting at the rich tapestry of history woven into this ancient site.

This artifact, inscribed with texts in both Lydian and Aramaic languages, offered a unique comparative tool for scholars aiming to decrypt the mysterious Lydian script. Unlike Lydian, Aramaic was relatively well understood by researchers, thereby providing a comparative basis to tease apart the intricacies of the Lydian language.

Decrypting the Lydian Language

A person named Enno Littmann figured out how to understand the Lydian language by studying these writings. He looked at the two versions of the text, found the letters they used, learned some basic words, tried to translate some sentences, explained how Lydian words worked, and even noticed that some of the writings had special poetry.

Eight years later, another person named William Hepburn Buckler found 51 more of these special writings. By 1986, there were 109 of them, and a person named Roberto Gusmani studied them in detail. People still find new writings like these from time to time.

Most of the Lydian writings were discovered in or around a place called Sardis, which was the capital of Lydia. However, there are not many long writings. Most of them are just a few words or incomplete. These writings are often on materials like marble or stone, and they usually have to do with burials. Some of them are like official statements, and a few seem to be poems with a special way of writing.

The writings on tombs often start with the words "this grave." The shorter writings are usually things like drawings on walls, words on coins, seals, marks from pottery, and similar things. Sometimes, the words of a Greek poet named Hipponax from a long time ago are mixed with the Lydian words, especially the slang words that people used.

Enno Littmann: A Pioneer in Oriental Studies and Exploration

Enno Littmann (1875–1958) was a distinguished German orientalist known for his significant contributions to oriental studies. He held prominent academic positions at various universities, including Strasbourg, Göttingen, Bonn, and Tübingen. Littmann's work encompassed deciphering inscriptions in ancient languages like Palmyrene and Nabataean, as well as translating historical texts from ancient Ethiopian monuments. Notably, he translated "One Thousand and One Nights" into German. Littmann's scholarly pursuits were complemented by his adventurous spirit, leading him to explore and immerse himself in cultures such as the Tigre people in Eritrea and the Aksum expedition in Ethiopia. His legacy continues to impact the fields of linguistics, translation, and cultural understanding.

The Impact on Historical Linguistics and Studies

The Sardis bilingual inscription has significantly impacted historical linguistics and the study of ancient Anatolian civilizations. By unlocking the Lydian language, researchers have gained access to a wealth of information, not only linguistically but also with respect to the socio-cultural, economic, and political contexts of ancient Lydia. This has enabled scholars to reconstruct aspects of Lydian civilization, enhancing our understanding of their society, belief systems, and interactions with neighboring civilizations.

Furthermore, the successful deciphering of the Lydian language has broader implications for the field of historical linguistics. It exemplifies the significance of bilingual inscriptions in the reconstruction of lost languages and underlines the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations through language and writing.

In conclusion, the Sardis bilingual inscription is a luminous testament to the rich, complex history embedded in the language and script of ancient civilizations. Much like the famed Rosetta Stone, it has forged a linguistic bridge to the past, allowing contemporary scholars to converse with ancient Lydians through the remnants of their language. The Sardis bilingual inscription not only unraveled the mysteries of the Lydian language but also brought to light the potent capabilities of linguistic detective work in the continual quest to comprehend our multifaceted historical tapestry.

The Rich Tapestry of Ancient Anatolian Languages

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By The Archaeologist Editor Group

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Anatolia, or Asia Minor, boasts a complex linguistic history, with its landscapes sown by numerous cultures and empires over millennia. From the Hittites to the Phrygians, this vast peninsula has been a cradle of myriad languages, some of which are Indo-European, while others hail from different linguistic families. Here’s a journey through the ancient languages of Anatolian cultures known until now.

Hattic

Antecedent to the Hittites in Anatolia were the Hatti, speaking a language we now refer to as Hattic. Hattic was maybe a non-Indo-European language and is known to us primarily through Hittite texts, where it was preserved in religious and cultic contexts. The Hittites, upon establishing themselves in Anatolia, seemingly absorbed various aspects of Hattic culture and religion, venerating Hattic deities and maintaining Hattic rituals. The language itself is known from a plethora of Hittite texts, which contain Hattic loanwords and phrases. Though Hattic was eventually eclipsed by the Indo-European Hittite language, its impact lingered in Hittite religious practice and nomenclature.

Hittite

The Hittites inhabited Anatolia from the 18th to the 12th centuries BCE, establishing a formidable empire in the region. Their language, Hittite, belonging to the Indo-European family, has been deciphered from the abundant cuneiform tablets found at the capital, Hattusa. This language provided early linguists with one of the first glimpses into the Indo-European linguistic past due to its conservative characteristics.

Luwian

Luwian was another significant language in ancient Anatolia, spoken by the Luwians, who occupied southern and western Anatolia. Luwian was inscribed in both cuneiform and an indigenous hieroglyphic script. It was contemporaneous with Hittite and was also an Indo-European language, yet it outlived Hittite, playing a pivotal role in the post-Hittite era.

The Sultanhan monument is a stele with Luwian hieroglyphic inscription; found at Sultanhan; Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara, Turkey

Palaic

Palaic was spoken in the northern region of Anatolia and is known from tablets found in the Hittite capital, indicating it was preserved for liturgical purposes. While Palaic is also of the Indo-European lineage, it is scantily attested, thus shrouding many aspects of this language in mystery.

Lydian

In western Anatolia, the Kingdom of Lydia flourished from the 15th to the 6th century BCE. Lydian, an Indo-European language, was utilized by the Lydians and is primarily known from funerary inscriptions. Notably, Lydia was renowned for its innovations in economic systems, being among the first to utilize coinage.

The Sardis bilingual inscription was the "Rosetta Stone" for the Lydian language.

Lycian

Lycia, on the southern coast of Anatolia, birthed the Lycian language, another member of the Indo-European family. Lycian is known from a number of inscriptions, revealing a society that operated a unique federation system, which is often alluded to in its texts.

Phrygian

The Phrygians, originating from the Balkans, made their home in central Anatolia and spoke Phrygian. It is an Indo-European language and has a fair amount of inscriptions that illuminate aspects of Phrygian culture, mythology, and religious practices.

Urartian

Urartu, in the eastern part of Anatolia, spoke Urartian, a language that was not part of the Indo-European family. Instead, it belonged to the Hurro-Urartian family. Urartian is known from numerous inscriptions that provide a lens into the lives, wars, and religious beliefs of the Urartians.

Carian

The Carians, who occupied the southwestern part of Anatolia, spoke Carian, a language that still puzzles linguists due to its elusive features. While considered to be part of the Anatolian subgroup of Indo-European languages, much about Carian remains to be uncovered.

Hans van Deukeren - Own work

Map showing locations where inscriptions in the Carian language have been found, in Caria proper, Egypt, or Mainland Greece. Map is based on data in I.J. Adiego, The Carian Language (Handbuch der Orientalistik) (2007).

Kashkian

The enigma that is Kashkian remains shrouded in mystery to this day. The Kashka people, believed to have lived in northern Anatolia, were persistent adversaries of the Hittite Empire. In the Hittite annals, the Kashka are frequently referenced as troublesome neighbors, perpetually launching incursions into Hittite territory. However, little is known about their language, Kashkian, due to the scarcity of direct textual evidence. The Kashkian language and its possible affiliation with any known language family, including Kartvelian, remain speculative and unclear. Many aspects of their language and culture remain speculative and hinge on future archaeological and linguistic discoveries.

Pisidian

Pisidia, situated in the mountainous region of southern Anatolia, housed a myriad of ancient cities like Termessos and Sagalassos. Pisidian, the language of this region, is relatively obscure, owing to the limited corpus of inscriptions. The inscriptions we do possess are often bilingual, offering texts in both Greek and Pisidian, which has facilitated partial understanding. Notwithstanding, Pisidian remains an elusive language. Its classification is still a matter of debate among scholars, with theories vacillating between affiliations with the Hittite-Luwian subgroup and those with the wider Anatolian language family. The understanding of Pisidian culture and language might significantly benefit from further research and archaeological findings.

Anatolia has been a vibrant mosaic of languages and cultures throughout history, bridging the East and the West. While many aspects of these ancient languages have been deciphered, countless mysteries still slumber beneath the Anatolian soil, waiting to be unearthed and explored. This rich and varied linguistic history underscores the diverse array of peoples and societies that have called Anatolia home, each contributing threads to the intricate tapestry of its historical narrative.

Temples and Celestial Tapestries: Chichen Itza’s Astronomical and Cultural Enigmas

In the verdant expanses of the Yucatán Peninsula, the stone colossi of Chichen Itza stand in testament to the boundless celestial and cultural pursuits of the ancient Maya civilization. Emanating from the massive structures and intricately carved stones is a mystique that transcends time, hinting at the cosmic tapestries woven by this once-vibrant civilization.

A Sacred Nexus of Time and Space

Nestled amidst the lush tropical forests, Chichen Itza, with its staggering El Castillo pyramid, sacred cenotes, and ethereal carvings, serves as a conduit between the terrestrial and the astronomical, reflecting the Maya’s profound understanding of cosmic cycles. The Kukulkan Pyramid, known for the serpentine "descent" of the god Kukulkan during the equinoxes, is an architectural and astronomical marvel that orchestrates light and shadow into a celestial dance.

The Maya: Stellar Navigators

The Maya were unrivaled stellar navigators and calendrical visionaries of their time. Their sophisticated understanding of the cosmos was intimately intertwined with their daily lives, religious practices, and societal organization. El Caracol, or the Observatory, with its peculiar round shape and strategically placed windows, exemplifies their intricate knowledge of Venus’s cycles and other celestial phenomena, aligning perfectly with the planet's appearances and disappearances on the horizon.

Reflections of Belief in Stone

Chichen Itza isn't merely a reflection of scientific acumen but also a stone tapestry of the spiritual and cultural values of the Maya. The Platform of Skulls, Tzompantli, paints a grisly picture of the civilization’s rituals, revealing aspects of their beliefs in life, death, and the afterlife. Similarly, the Great Ball Court echoes the symbolic resonance of the epic ball games that were far more than a sport, serving as a metaphor for the celestial battles that ruled the heavens.

A Metropolis of Power and Decline

As an epicenter of political power and spiritual pilgrimage, Chichen Itza thrived, weaving together the myriad city-states of the Maya under a common cosmological and cultural umbrella. Yet, as with all civilizations, it was not immune to decline. The reasons, lost amidst the vines and stones, may be a mosaic of resource depletion, internal strife, and climate variability. The ruins stand as silent witnesses to their rise and fall, holding tales of power, conquest, and surrender within their weathered walls.

A Continual Unraveling

Despite centuries of study, Chichen Itza retains its mystical shroud, prompting scholars and explorers to continually seek answers from its astronomical alignments, architectural marvels, and storied stones. As we walk amidst its ruins, we engage in a dialogue with our ancestors, seeking to understand their worldview, which seamlessly entwined the spiritual with the scientific.

The temples and celestial tapestries of Chichen Itza are far more than mere stone structures; they are chronicles of a civilization that looked to the stars to guide their terrestrial journey, a philosophy that melded the divine with the daily, and a culture that, even in its decline, left an indelible mark upon the canvas of human history.

In exploring and preserving Chichen Itza, we do not merely uncover the secrets of the past; we ensure that the celestial songs of the Maya continue to echo through the corridors of time, whispering ancient wisdom to generations yet unborn.

Rare Georgian Cold Bath Discovered in Bath Assembly Rooms

In a thrilling excavation project conducted by Wessex Archaeology, a hidden gem from the 18th century has been uncovered beneath the Bath Assembly Rooms - a cold bath, unlike any other. This serendipitous discovery, concealed beneath rubble since the harrowing days of World War Two, has sparked intrigue and fascination among historians and archaeologists alike.

The Bath Assembly Rooms, constructed between 1769 and 1771 by the talented architect John Wood the Younger, were a hub for social gatherings, dances, and elite meetings in the heart of Bath, a city known for its natural hot spring waters. However, this newly unearthed cold bath may shed light on a lesser-known aspect of the city's history, where cold bathing was also endorsed as a therapeutic practice.

The cold bath was buried underneath rubble until recent excavations

The cold bath, hidden under layers of debris, is believed to be a one-of-a-kind feature within an assembly room, suggesting it was intended for an "exclusive experience." Tatjana LeBoff of the National Trust commented on the find, stating, "There are many elements of this discovery that are still a mystery. It is a rare, if not unique, surviving example, and possibly it was the only one ever built in an assembly room. We are still researching records, letters, diaries, and other documents to see what more we can find out that will help us piece it all together."

This archaeological marvel provides an essential link to the past, allowing historians to delve deeper into the ways in which the people of the Georgian era embraced both hot and cold bathing for their health and well-being. During the 18th century, cold baths were recommended by medical professionals as a form of therapy, involving a brisk dip into cold water, followed by a rapid warm-up. The juxtaposition of the cold bath with the hot spring waters that Bath is renowned for adds a layer of historical context to the find.

Bath Assembly Rooms were a place for socialising in a number of ways, including dancing

The excavation revealed not only the cold bath but also a niche where a statue or sculpture would have been placed, enhancing the overall opulence of the Bath Assembly Rooms. The rubble unearthed during the excavation is likely remnants from the Luftwaffe bombings during World War Two, suggesting that the bath had remained buried and forgotten for decades. Bruce Eaton, the archaeologist overseeing the project, commented, "Although historical records indicated that there was a cold bath buried beneath the Bath Assembly Rooms, we had no idea what preservation of the bath would be like. The building suffered damage at the hands of the Luftwaffe, and the rooms were remodeled in the late 20th century."

The Assembly Rooms' history is intricately linked with the medical theories of its time. The New Bath Guide of 1778, for instance, mentioned "…a commodious cold-bath, with convenient dressing-rooms." This find emphasizes the importance of incorporating the latest health and wellness trends of the period into the design of social spaces, reflecting the fusion of medical knowledge and architectural elegance.

Many people wanting to use the cold bath would have arrived by sedan chair, like the ones on the right in this old engraving

The National Trust, now responsible for the Assembly Rooms, is committed to ongoing research to unravel the history of this remarkable cold bath. The unique archaeological evidence discovered promises to provide new insights into Georgian-era society, its devotion to wellness, and the evolution of architectural trends.

The Bath Assembly Rooms have always been a place for socializing, dancing, and elite gatherings. Now, with this newfound treasure, visitors have the opportunity to explore this rare and historical cold bath as part of behind-the-scenes tours during selected weekends in October. As historians and archaeologists delve deeper into the mysteries of this extraordinary find, the Bath Assembly Rooms continue to surprise and delight us with the untold stories of the past, reminding us of the hidden treasures waiting to be unearthed beneath the surface of history.