The Multilingual Bogazköy Archive: Over 25,000 Cuneiform Tablets Containing 8 Different Languages!

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Exploring the Polyglot World of the Hittite Empire: The Eight Languages of the Boğazköy Tablets

The Boğazköy Archive, discovered amidst the ruins of ancient Hattusa (now Boğazköy), stands as a remarkable testament to the Hittite civilization, a dominant political force in the Middle East during the 2nd millennium B.C. This vast collection of nearly 25,000 cuneiform tablets is the primary source of our knowledge about the social, political, commercial, military, religious, legislative, and artistic facets of this era in Asia Minor and the broader Middle East.

Key Contents of the Archive

The Boğazköy tablets cover an array of subjects, from royal annals, chronicles, decrees, and treaties like the famous Treaty of Quadesh with Egypt to legal codes, mythological texts, lists of rulers, diplomatic correspondence, deeds, codes of laws, court records, mythological and religious texts, astrological predictions, Sumero-Akkado-Hittite dictionaries, and even practical guides on horse breeding. This variety provides a comprehensive view of the Hittite civilization's complexity and sophistication. The overwhelming majority of texts found in the Boğazköy archive belong to the New Hittite period (14th and 13th centuries B.C.), and only a small number of them (including the early version of the laws) go back to the 17th and 16th centuries B.C.

Lion Gate, Hatussa

Archaeological and Linguistic Significance

The discovery and ongoing study of these tablets, initiated by H. Winckler together with Greek-Ottoman archeologist Theodore Makridi Bey, from 1906 to 1912, have significantly advanced our understanding of the Hittite civilization and its interactions with neighboring cultures. The linguistic findings, in particular, have revolutionized Indo-European studies, revealing previously unknown languages and dialects within this family.

The Linguistic Landscape of the Boğazköy Archive

One of the most fascinating aspects of the Boğazköy Archive is its linguistic diversity, which encompasses texts in eight different languages. This polyglot nature highlights the cultural and political influence of the Hittite Empire.

1. Cuneiform Hittite: The role of Cuneiform Hittite in the Hittite Empire cannot be overstated. As the predominant language of the Boğazköy Archive, it offers a direct insight into the administrative, legal, and diplomatic workings of the empire. This version of the cuneiform script, adapted from the earlier Akkadian system, was a vital tool for recording laws, treaties, and royal decrees, serving as the backbone of governance and order in the Hittite state. Its use in diplomatic correspondence, especially in treaties such as the Treaty of Quadesh, underscores its significance as a language of international relations in the ancient Near East.

2. Akkadian: Serving as one of the main languages of the archive, these represent the administrative and diplomatic lingua franca of the ancient Near East. Akkadian, an ancient Semitic language, originated in Mesopotamia around 2500 BC and was extensively used for administration, diplomacy, and literature. Akkadian is divided into two major dialects: Assyrian and Babylonian. It was written using the cuneiform script and is of great historical significance, providing insights into ancient Mesopotamian civilization and culture. Akkadian's influence declined around the 1st millennium BC but left a lasting impact on subsequent languages in the region.

3. Sumerian: A dead language by 1200 B.C., Sumerian's inclusion indicates its continued scholarly significance. The ancient non-Indo-European language of the Sumerian civilization was the first to develop the cuneiform script, which, although already dead at that time, was still being taught.

4. Hurrian: Neither Indo-European nor Semitic, Hurrian reflects Mitanni's influence on the Hittite Empire. It was the language of the Land of the Mitanni, to the east of the Hittite Empire, a significant cultural and political group in the region encompassing parts of modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. The language is known from texts dating from around 2300 BC to the first century AD. Hurrian played a crucial role in the cultural and political tapestry of the area, especially in the context of its interactions with neighboring civilizations like the Hittites and Assyrians. The language's structure and vocabulary remain a subject of study for linguists, offering insights into the diverse linguistic landscape of the ancient Near East.

5. Luwian: An Anatolian Indo-European language probably spoken in western Anatolia, closely related to Hittite and possibly a precursor to Lycian. The Luwian language, part of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European family, played a crucial role in the geopolitical dynamics between the Hittite Empire and the independent states of western Anatolia during the Bronze Age. As a language closely related to Hittite, Luwian served as a linguistic bridge, facilitating diplomatic and cultural exchanges between the Hittites and their western neighbors. The presence of Luwian in the Boğazköy Archive, especially in texts related to western regions, indicates its importance in maintaining relationships and asserting influence over these independent states. Luwian's use in regional administrative and diplomatic documents reflects its status as a regional lingua franca, essential for the negotiation of treaties, trade agreements, and alliances.

6. Palaic: Palaic, an ancient Indo-European language, was one of the lesser-known members of the Anatolian language family, alongside Hittite and Luwian. It was primarily spoken in the region of Pala in north-central Anatolia, now part of modern Turkey. Known mainly from cuneiform tablets of the Boğazköy Archive, Palaic's use seems to have been largely religious, dedicated to ritual and liturgical texts. The language provides a glimpse into the linguistic diversity of ancient Anatolia and the religious practices of its people, but much about Palaic remains obscure due to the limited number of texts available.

7. Hattic (Proto-Hittite): A non-Indo-European language, mainly used in ritual texts, offers a window into the religious practices and beliefs of the Hittites. It was primarily used by the Hattians, indigenous inhabitants of central Anatolia. Primarily known from Hittite texts where it is used in religious contexts, Hattic is distinctive for its unique vocabulary and structure, differing significantly from the surrounding Indo-European languages. Despite its limited corpus, Hattic is crucial for understanding the cultural and linguistic prehistory of Anatolia.

8. An Unidentified Language: The eighth language, which is different from the others, has not yet been precisely identified. The only evidence we have is that it contains some Indo-European terms that correspond to a treatise on equestrian art written in Hittite by Kikkuli, a Hurrian from the Land of the Mitanni. There is a possibility that this is the new Anatolian language that linguists have identified as Kalasma.

Anatolia's Linguistic Mosaic: Unraveling the Indo-European and Non-Indo-European Language Blend

The Anatolian languages, a group of now-extinct languages once spoken in ancient Anatolia, have long been shrouded in mystery, particularly to those outside the academic community. The 20th and 21st centuries witnessed a renaissance in the study of these languages, propelled by archaeological discoveries like the Boğazköy Archive. Prior to these findings, knowledge of these languages was limited and fragmented. The decipherment of cuneiform scripts and the unearthing of texts in Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic, among others, revolutionized our understanding of these ancient tongues. Linguists and historians have used comparative methods, drawing parallels with other Indo-European languages, to piece together their phonology, grammar, and vocabulary. This linguistic detective work has been augmented by advancements in technology, including digital analysis and database compilation, allowing for more nuanced and comprehensive interpretations.

Anatolian languages map

These efforts have not only shed light on the linguistic landscape of ancient Anatolia but also provided insights into the historical interactions, migrations, and cultural exchanges in the region. The study of Anatolian languages has thus transformed from a niche academic pursuit into a key component of understanding the ancient world's complexity.

In ancient Anatolia, a fascinating linguistic tapestry emerged from the mix of Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages. This region, a crossroads of cultures and peoples, featured Indo-European languages like Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic alongside non-Indo-European languages such as Hattic and Hurrian. This linguistic diversity reflects Anatolia's role as a melting pot of different civilizations, where a variety of ethnic and linguistic groups interacted, traded, and coexisted, contributing to the rich cultural and historical heritage of the area.

Cuneiform treaty between Hittite ruler Hattushili III and Ramses II, 13th cent. BCE; Pergamon Museum, Berlin

The Boğazköy Archive is not just a collection of ancient texts; it's a cultural and linguistic mosaic that gives us a detailed picture of the Hittite Empire and its interactions with the ancient world. The diversity of languages in the archive reflects the cosmopolitan nature of Hattusa, mirroring the complexity and interconnectedness of ancient civilizations. As studies continue, the archive promises to further illuminate the rich tapestry of human history and language.

20 Crusader Artifacts That Blew Archaeologists Minds

The Crusades were a time of conflict and treasure hunting, resulting in valuable artifacts being transported and often lost. Some of the most sought-after relics include John the Baptist's head, the True Cross, the Mandilon of Adessa, and the Crown of Thorns. The head of John the Baptist is coveted by those who hunt for Christian relics, with at least four places claiming to possess it.

The True Cross, said to be a piece of the Cross of Golgotha, has caused trouble throughout history and is likely to be a collection of fake pieces. The Mandilon of Adessa, a mythical treasure with a miraculous image of Jesus Christ's face on it, was worshipped in the Byzantine Empire until the 10th century, when it disappeared. The Crown of Thorns is believed to have been brought to Paris by King Louie in 1239 and is now housed in Notre-Dame Cathedral. Despite being a symbol of Christianity, some of these relics are contested, and their authenticity remains in question.

How Does An Oasis Form?

Siwa is an oasis located in the Egyptian portion of the Sahara Desert, isolated from the nearest big city, Alexandria, by 460 kilometers. Despite receiving only 9 inches of rainfall annually and temperatures reaching up to 118.8 degrees Fahrenheit, Siwa is home to around 33,000 people and various farms that grow dates and olives. Oases are a crucial stopping point for merchants and traders and serve as hospitable locations for resting, resupplying, and refilling water skins. Most oases have fresh water springs or ponds above the surface open to the air, allowing both people and plants to inhabit the area.

Siwa and other oases are essentially funnels for all water from surrounding areas to flow into, as there are no rivers or streams on the surface to transport water to these places. Under the surface of all land is an area where rainwater collects, called an aquifer, and if it rains a lot, the upper reaches of the aquifer, called the water table, will rise. By taking advantage of underground aquifers, things like wells and irrigation systems work. Light rains from a large enough area can flow through an underground aquifer held by gravity, forming an underground river, eventually creating a miniature ecosystem—a microcosm of rich life in an otherwise barren desert.

How Did Humans Evolve?

In this video, we will explore the question of what makes a human human, given that for almost 90% of our time on Earth, we have had close ape relatives walking alongside us. Homo sapiens, the newest species of ape, made their debut around 300,000 years ago, joining at least three other close ape relatives on Earth. While some scientists use the word human to refer only to Homo sapiens, others use it to refer to other species within the hominid family as well.

Humans share about 99% of their DNA with chimpanzees and bonobos, who are our closest living relatives. However, humans did not evolve from chimpanzees or any other living ape. Chimps and humans split from a common primate ancestor around seven million years ago, and we have each been moving along our own evolutionary branches ever since. Researchers have identified at least 20 other hominid species that have lived across the past seven million years, but how these hominids are related to each other and to us is still being worked out.

The Real North Pole: 5 Mythical Ancient Islands That Might Actually Exist

The article discusses two mythological places that were later discovered to have some truth to them. The first is Vitr Manand, also known as Great Ireland or White Man's Land, which is mentioned in ancient Norse texts and is thought to be located six days sailing west of Ireland or near Vinland in eastern North America. The native people of Vitr Manand were described as always being dressed in white and having hair and skin as white as snow. The true location of Vitr Manand is a subject of scholarly debate, with several theories proposing locations along the Eastern Seaboard of North America.

The second place is the Isle of the Demons, which appears on maps from the 16th and 17th centuries. It was believed to be uninhabited due to vicious wild beasts and evil spirits that would attack passing ships and visitors. One French ship marooned a French noblewoman and her lover on the island in the mid-16th century, and they lived there for many years, hunted wild game, and were tormented at night by countless inhuman screams. The baby they had had likely died of malnutrition, and the woman and her maid servant were eventually rescued by fishermen after two years.

7 Things You Should Always Keep Private

The ancient stoics believed in the power of discretion and the wisdom of silence. They understood that not everything we think or experience should be shared with the world. In the pursuit of wisdom and inner strength, Stoicism teaches us to keep seven things to ourselves:

1. Don't speak ill of yourself

2. Don't boast about self-improvement

3. Don't be a glutton

4. Don't share your personal information

5. Don't be quick to share your opinions

6. Don't waste time on gossip or trivial matters

7. Don't expect others to conform to your beliefs or values

By keeping these things to ourselves, we can protect our self-confidence, mental well-being, and personal growth. We should refrain from engaging in self-deprecating talk and strive to remind ourselves of our potential and capabilities. Self-improvement should be a personal journey undertaken with humility and discretion. We should practice moderation in all aspects of life, including our eating and drinking habits. We should also avoid sharing personal information, opinions, gossip, or trivial matters and expecting others to conform to our beliefs or values. By adopting these principles, we can cultivate inner strength, resilience, and wisdom.

How did Palestine get its Name?

The region now known as Palestine has been inhabited for thousands of years and has a rich history stretching back to the earliest days of civilization. The area was historically significant as it was a nexus point between multiple empires that have controlled the region throughout the centuries. Palestine largely came into existence in the 20th century, influenced by the decline and eventual collapse of the Ottoman Empire, which had controlled much of the Arab world since the 16th century. The name Palestine can be traced back to the Roman Empire, when the Roman army arrived in the region in 63BC and captured Jerusalem after a 3-month siege.

The Romans ruled Judea, now part of Palestine, with a heavy hand, and tensions escalated due to religious and cultural differences, culminating in a series of revolts that ended with the Roman destruction of the second temple in Jerusalem in 70CE. Both Jewish and Palestinian ancestries share connections to the diverse ancient tribes of the Bronze Age Levant, and their identities have been shaped by numerous additional factors over the centuries, including religion and culture. Palestinian people have been referring to themselves as Palestinians since 1964, before which they referred to themselves as Arabs.

The Magnificent Ancient Caves of Valerón

The Caves of Valeron, located on the island of Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands, are a prehispanic rock complex of honeycomb caves that were used as granaries by the indigenous Guanese people. The caves were likely in use from at least 1040 AD up until the Spanish conquest in the 15th century. The site offers natural shelter and is open on only one side, making it easier to defend. There are over 350 separate compartments, ranging from 1 to 3 meters in size, found over eight levels.

Each compartment likely had a door, although it is unclear what they were made of. D-seals were found at the site, indicating the owner of each specific store room. Archaeologists have also found idols, paintings, ceramics, human remains, and ashes at the site. The caves were likely guarded, as accounts from the Spanish conquest mentioned towers that framed the caves. The Guanese were the indigenous inhabitants of the Canary Islands, speaking their own language, which is now extinct but believed to be related to the Berber languages of Northern Africa. They arrived on the islands in the first millennium BC and were largely wiped out by the Spanish conquest. Some elements of their culture still exist in customs and traditions, such as the whistled language of La Gomera Island.

5 Most Massive Unexplained Ancient Monoliths

The Rock Ship of Massuda is a mysterious stone structure located in the Nara prefecture of Japan. The massive block of granite is approximately 36 feet in length, 26 feet wide, and 15 feet high, weighing around 880 tons. The top of the stone has been flattened, and two square holes have been carved into it with a ridge line parallel to both holes. The monolith nickname Rock Ship likely stems from its ship-like appearance and proximity to the now-drained lake Massuda. The stone surface is extremely hard and difficult to carve, leading scientists to regard the Rock Ship of Massuda as a technical marvel for its age. The true purpose for creating the Rock Ship of Massuda has been lost to history, with scholars arguing that it was intended as the marker for a large burial tomb, used as a Buddhist shrine, or for astronomical observation.

The Forgotten Stone is the largest stone ever quarried by human hands in history and was found buried next to a similarly colossal monolith known as the Stone of the Pregnant Woman in Balbec, Lebanon. The Forgotten Stone is 55 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 18 feet high, weighing at least 1650 tons. The Romans carved the Forgotten Stone, but the reason behind its abandonment is still a mystery.

The Broken Maner of Arra is a Neolithic relic located in the province of Britany, France. The maner would tower above the surrounding landscape at nearly 69 feet long, weigh around 350 tons, and be crafted in 4500 BCE. The manor is part of a site known as the L Maria K megaliths and is a thousand years older than Stonehenge. The site is a humbling monument to the abilities of our ancestors.

Eight Extinct Animals the Greeks & Romans Saw

The Roman Coliseum originally had a 9-foot barrier separating the arena from the spectators, but it was later raised to 15 feet after a tiger cleared the wall and began attacking people in the stands. The Coliseum featured many exotic animals, some of which are now extinct. The Caspian tiger, which was likely featured in Roman games, ranged from Eastern Turkey to Southeast Asia and was officially declared extinct in 2003.

The Caspian tiger had narrower stripes than other tigers and tended towards cinnamon or deep brown. Female tigers were captured by sneaking into their dens and stealing their cubs. The barber lion, which was used for entertainment and executing condemned criminals in the Coliseum, was a population of extinct Asiatic lions native to North Africa ranging from Egypt to Morocco. The barber lion differed from the African lion in that it was smaller and had a shorter, darker mane.

The Mystery of the Tenerife Pyramids: Who Built Them, When and Why?

The Pyramids of Guimar, located in the eastern part of Tenerife in the district of Chacona, have long been a source of speculation regarding their construction and age. Some have hypothesized that the pyramids were built as a transatlantic link between ancient Egypt and Central America, but archaeological excavations have shown that the pyramids were constructed no earlier than the 1800s. The pyramids are made of dry stones with no mortar, and their sharp corners include larger stones, some of which have been found to be carved. The complex includes platforms and enclosures, and stairways ascend to the top of each pyramid, where a flat summit platform is covered with gravel. The staircases are always located on the western side, possibly indicating a ceremonial purpose.

Research has shown that the long sides of some of the structures mark the direction of the solstices, and on the summer solstice, a double sunset can be witnessed from the platform of the largest pyramid. Despite these astronomical alignments, some opposing the ceremonial origins of the pyramid complex claim that they are merely terraces made from random piles of stone. However, looking from above, it is clear that there is a plan for the complex. Archaeologists from the University of La Laguna excavated the pyramid complex between 1991 and 1998 and found that the earliest state of construction for the pyramids of Guimar was no earlier than the 1800s.

12 Most Amazing Archaeological Artifacts Finds

If there's anything we like more than incredible archaeological discoveries, it's incredible archaeological discoveries that have an equally incredible story behind their discovery. An example might be an artefact that was found somewhere it shouldn't be or a discovery that was made totally by accident by a member of the public. We've got plenty of stories like that for you in this video - and the artefacts involved are astonishing!

12 Most Incredible And Mysterious Finds That Really Exist

Can you know everything there is to know about something just by looking at it? The answer to that question is, of course, no. That’s especially true of the things left behind by our ancestors, many of which were made using unknown methods or served unknown purposes. The world is full of ancient mysteries, and some of the best of them are right here in this video!

Most Incredible Underwater Discoveries

Who knows what lurks deep down in the dark waters of our oceans? Sometimes, we stumble upon some pretty incredible finds. Long-forgotten sunken ships and super-sized marine life. Troves of treasure from swash-buckling pirates. Entire ancient cities? With so much of our oceans still unexplored, it should come as no surprise that we often find some pretty surprising things. But not all underwater discoveries are created equal. So let’s ‘dive in’ to the 15 Most Incredible Underwater Discoveries.

12 Most Mysterious Archaeological Finds

What’s the best kind of archaeological discovery? Is it one that we can understand just by looking at it, or is it one that comes with a sense of mystery and wonder? For many people, it’s the latter. The human mind loves few things more than a mystery, and we have a fabulous collection of ancient and mysterious archaeological discoveries waiting for you in this video!

This Is Ethiopia: The Country Frozen In Time

In the video below we will discover Ethiopia, one of the most intriguing and unique countries in Africa and on the planet. From the heart of the Horn of Africa emerges this nation of ancient tales, stunning landscapes, and unparalleled cultural diversity.

Delving into Ethiopia's history is to travel through times when powerful emperors and ancient traditions reigned. It is the land that saw the birth of humanity, in places like the Omo Valley. Ethiopian geography offers everything from highlands to vast geological faults. With mountains and deserts, this country boasts a wide variety of climates and landscapes.

In Ethiopia, over 80 ethnic groups live, each with its own language, culture, and traditions. These ethnic groups, with their dances, music, and rituals, represent the wealth and diversity of the country's human heritage. And, of course, we cannot forget the natural wealth contained within its parks and reserves. You'll find species of animals that inhabit Ethiopian territory exclusively.

The Rise and Fall of The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, which lasted for over six centuries, was a powerful Islamic-run superpower known for its military strength, ethnic diversity, and achievements in arts and architecture. It originated as a small beylik in Anatolia, which eventually expanded to include regions such as Turkey, Greece, Egypt, Hungary, and parts of North Africa. The empire's most glorious period was under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, who was a brilliant military commander, religious leader, and political ruler. During his reign, the Ottoman Empire expanded towards Eastern Europe and invaded several big cities.

Under his rule, the Ottomans attained considerable accomplishments in domains of politics, law, culture, science, mathematics, engineering, philosophy, medicine, literature, and economics. Notable achievements during this period included the development of a secular legal system called kanun, the construction of elaborate mosques and public buildings, and advancements in the field of vaccination. The Ottomans were also pioneers in the field of science, with a sound knowledge of advanced mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, physics, geography, and chemistry. The Ottoman Empire's legacy has exerted enormous influence on countries in the region and around the world.

The Phantom Pharaoh

In this video, the host examines the claims made by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus about the legendary Pharaoh Casis, who ruled Egypt over 15,000 years ago. Herodotus claimed that Casis was the greatest king of Egypt, who conquered vast territories in the Arabian Peninsula, Syria, Palestine, Anatolia, and Ethiopia. He left pillars and stone monuments in the lands he conquered inscribed with his name and the assertion that he had vanquished them. Herodotus encountered some of these pillars during his travels, and many still exist in Palestine and Syria.

However, Herodotus's account of Casis's reign is hazy and vague, and little is known about the extent of his conquests. Nevertheless, the host argues that Herodotus's description of Casis's achievements is impressive, considering the technology and resources available in ancient times, and that his legacy is still visible in the relics scattered across the known world.

Dumb Things That Were Normal in Ancient Greece

The article explores the strangest traditions and practices of ancient Greece, including their athletic competitions and medicine. The athletes would lather themselves in oil before competitions and afterward, a group of peasants would collect the sweat, filth, and dead skin off their bodies and sell it as medicine. The lack of understanding of human ailments and the absence of definite cures in medicine is highlighted, with examples such as doctors eating ear wax and women being prescribed cattle excrement.

Even the philosopher Heraclitus, who had ideas that sit well with current knowledge of the universe, died in a bizarre way when he covered himself in cow dung to cure his dropsy, but ended up immobile and was eaten by wild dogs. The article also touches upon the strange tradition of throwing undergarments at leaders, with the tyrant Draco being so beloved that Athenians would rip off their tunics and throw them at him. These traditions and practices may seem bizarre and disgusting to modern sensibilities, but they offer a glimpse into the cultural and historical context of ancient Greece.

Who Wrote the Bible? - The Documentary Hypothesis

The Pentateuch, also known as the Torah, is the first five books of the Bible that cover the creation of the world, the ancestors of Israel, the life of Prophet Moses, and the laws revealed to him by God. Traditionally, it is believed that Moses wrote the Pentateuch under God's guidance, but there are issues with this idea. There are several narrative quirks, including doublets and contradictions, that put the whole idea of a single author into question. Theologians have tried to reconcile this problem with their beliefs regarding the authorship and authority of the Bible.

In the wake of the European Enlightenment, many biblical scholars rejected divinely inspired Mosaic authorship, and instead turned to source criticism. A consensus emerged that the Pentateuch was actually the work of multiple authors, each recording versions of traditional legends from their time and place. The most prominent model for the composition of the Pentateuch is the documentary hypothesis, which identifies four distinct voices throughout the text, each with their own narrative threads and other stylistic and thematic features that distinguish them from one another.