Discovery of 5,700-Year-Old Harappan Settlement in Kutch

In a groundbreaking archaeological discovery, a team of researchers has unearthed a Harappan-era settlement dating back over 5,000 years in Gujarat's Kutch region. The excavation, initiated after the discovery of a necropolis with more than 500 graves near Juna Khatiya village in 2018, has led to the identification of a settlement site located approximately 1.5 km away on Padta Bet.

At the Padta Bet site, archaeologists have uncovered a range of structures, including round and rectangular dwellings, along with an array of artifacts such as pots, dishes, semi-precious stones, shell fragments, and hammer stones. This discovery suggests that the settlement thrived around 5,700 years ago and was inhabited from the early to late Harappan era.

The presence of animal remains, including those of cows, goats, and a human skeleton, indicates that the inhabitants likely engaged in animal husbandry. The strategic positioning of the settlement on a hillock, offering panoramic views of the surrounding landscape and proximity to a nearby river, suggests thoughtful considerations in selecting the settlement location.

The research team, comprising universities and institutes from India, Spain, and the US, aims to further explore the connection between the burial site and the settlement. Future investigations will delve into various aspects of ancient life, including the inhabitants' lifestyle, dietary habits, economic activities, and reasons behind the sparse structures at the settlement site.

Overall, this discovery sheds new light on the ancient Harappan civilization and underscores the significance of interdisciplinary collaboration in archaeological research.

Unveiling the Legacy of Georges Dumézil: The Trifunctional Hypothesis and Its Impact

---

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

---

Georges Dumézil (1898–1986) was a French academic and comparative mythologist whose work fundamentally altered our understanding of Indo-European societies and their mythologies.

Early Foundations: Education and the Making of a Mythologist

His education commenced at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and proceeded to the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, where he specialized in classics and linguistics. Dumézil's academic journey was characterized by a deep interest in languages and ancient texts, which led him to master several European and ancient languages. His doctoral thesis on the Uzbek language and folklore marked a turning point in his career, laying the groundwork for his future contributions to comparative mythology and historical linguistics. His academic pursuits were complemented by teaching positions at various prestigious institutions, eventually culminating in his role as a professor at the Collège de France, a position that provided him with a significant platform to advance his research and theories.

Throughout his illustrious career, Dumézil was known for his innovative methodologies and interdisciplinary approaches, traversing the fields of linguistics, anthropology, and history to explore the commonalities among Indo-European societies. His scholarly work was not confined to the academic realm alone; it also took him on numerous field trips across Europe and Asia, enriching his research with firsthand observations of diverse cultures and languages. This broad exposure was instrumental in shaping his theoretical framework, allowing Dumézil to draw parallels and make connections that others had overlooked. His contributions to the academic community were recognized through various accolades and memberships in learned societies, cementing his legacy as a pioneering figure in the study of ancient civilizations and their mythologies.

Dumézil is well known for his formulation of the trifunctional hypothesis on Proto-Indo-European mythology and society. His research has had a major influence on the fields of comparative mythology and Indo-European studies.

The Trifunctional Framework: Deciphering Proto-Indo-European Society

Georges Dumézil's trifunctional hypothesis proposed a common structure underlying the mythologies and societies of Proto-Indo-European peoples, consisting of three distinct social functions: sovereignty, warfare, and productivity. This innovative framework was first introduced in the 1920s and further developed throughout his career. According to Dumézil, the first function pertains to religious and judicial sovereignty, embodied by deities and figures associated with law, order, and spiritual authority. The second function revolves around physical prowess and warrior nobility, representing the martial aspect of society. The third and final function concerns fertility, wealth, and the wellbeing of the community, often associated with craftsmen, farmers, and other productive roles. Dumézil's hypothesis was built upon a meticulous examination of myths, legends, and historical texts from various Indo-European cultures, identifying recurring motifs and characters that corresponded to these three functions.

The expansion of Dumézil's trifunctional hypothesis over the years was not just a scholarly endeavor but a monumental shift in the understanding of ancient societies. It offered a new lens through which to interpret the complexities of Indo-European mythology, suggesting a shared ancestral culture that predated recorded history. Dumézil's comparative method, which drew parallels across a wide range of Indo-European languages and traditions, from the Roman pantheon to the Norse sagas, further enhanced this perspective. His work, encapsulated in numerous publications and lectures, became a cornerstone of Indo-European studies, influencing not only mythologists but also historians, linguists, and anthropologists. The hypothesis was instrumental in fostering interdisciplinary research and dialogue, encouraging scholars to explore the interconnections between mythology, language, and social structure in ancient societies.

Georges Dumézil started to doubt the universalist viewpoints put forth by individuals like Durkheim and Lévi-Strauss as a result of reading works by his colleague Wikander. This skepticism led him to argue that the trifunctional structure was a unique attribute of Indo-European societies, distinguishing it from the social organizations of other cultures. Dumézil's engagement with the languages and mythologies of various indigenous peoples in the Americas reinforced his belief that trifunctionalism was not a widespread phenomenon. Consequently, he refined his interpretation of the Indo-European social structure, coming to view it less as a rigid system and more as a guiding ideology.

During a stint in 1955 as a visiting professor at the University of Lima, Dumézil immersed himself in the study of Quechua language and mythology, deepening his comparative analysis. Throughout the 1950s, his research explored the hypothesis of a mythical conflict among the different societal functions within Indo-European mythology. Dumézil theorized that this conflict eventually led to the assimilation of the third function by the first and second functions, highlighting a dynamic process of ideological evolution and integration within Indo-European societies.

This part of the 12th-century Swedish Skog tapestry has, possibly erroneously, been interpreted to show, from left to right, the one-eyed Odin, the hammer-wielding Thor and Freyr holding up wheat. Terje Leiren believes this grouping corresponds closely to the trifunctional division.

Navigating Criticism and Controversy: A Scholar's Legacy Reexamined

Georges Dumézil's work, and particularly his trifunctional hypothesis, have not been without criticism. Some scholars have challenged the universality of the tripartite division, arguing that it oversimplifies the complex and varied nature of Indo-European societies and mythologies. Critics have pointed out instances where Indo-European cultures do not neatly fit into the three-fold model, suggesting that Dumézil's framework may be more of an idealized construct than a reflection of historical reality. Additionally, Dumézil's methodology, which frequently involves viewing myths through the prism of his hypothesis, has come under fire for being somewhat circular and potentially causing confirmation bias in his analyses.

Dumézil faced criticism from specialists in various fields, including Indology, Iranology, and Roman studies. Prominent among his critics was Indologist Paul Thieme, who contended that the deities of the Mitanni were specifically Indo-Aryan, challenging Dumézil's interpretation of them as Indo-Iranian. This critique called into question Dumézil's broader reconstructions of Indo-Iranian religious practices. Despite such criticisms, Dumézil engaged actively with his detractors and persistently refined his theoretical framework in response to new insights and challenges.

Georges Dumézil Amid Political Criticism and Defense

Carlo Ginzburg accused Georges Dumézil of showing a preference for Nazi culture through his studies on Germanic and Indo-European religions, suggesting Dumézil aimed to undermine Judeo-Christian values. In the 1980s and 1990s, some scholars, particularly from the Marxist left, labeled Dumézil as secretly supporting fascist ideas and promoting a return to traditional European hierarchies through his academic work. They noted his connections to Pierre Gaxotte, a known supporter of the conservative Action Française, and highlighted how figures from the European New Right, such as Alain de Benoist and Jean Haudry, used Dumézil's theories to back far-right ideologies, portraying the Indo-Europeans (and by extension, white people) as superior.

Carlo Ginzburg charged Dumézil with having "sympathy for Nazi culture" for his works on Germanic and Indo-European religion, and accused Dumézil of conspiring to undermine "Judeo-Christian" values.

Despite these accusations, it's important to note that Dumézil opposed Nazism, voiced concerns about German nationalism, and never officially joined Action Française due to ideological differences. Moreover, Dumézil was a Freemason, which led to his dismissal from teaching and civil service positions by the Vichy government during World War II. Critics, including some who admired Lévi-Strauss's work, argued that the social and mythological patterns Dumézil associated with Indo-Europeans were universal, not unique. Colin Renfrew, for example, questioned the distinctiveness of Indo-European cultures beyond their language. Arnaldo Momigliano was particularly harsh, also condemning Dumézil for allegedly promoting Nazi cultural sympathies in his 1930s works on Germanic religion and for aligning his trifunctional hypothesis with fascist ideologies.

Nevertheless, Dumézil received staunch defense from many colleagues who saw the criticism as politically motivated rather than scholarly. Dumézil himself robustly refuted the accusations, clarifying that he had never supported fascist ideologies nor found the ancient Indo-European social structures appealing. He expressed a preference for a dynastic principle over the unpredictability of general elections, citing the stability of northern European monarchies as examples. This defense highlighted Dumézil's attempt to distance himself from the political controversies associated with his work.

Colin Renfrew's Archaeological and Anthropological Challenge to Dumézil's Trifunctional Hypothesis

In his critique of Georges Dumézil's trifunctional hypothesis, Colin Renfrew presents a compelling argument grounded in archaeological and anthropological evidence, challenging the historical veracity of Dumézil's model. Renfrew points out that the hierarchical societal structure described by Dumézil, characterized by three distinct social functions, is typically associated with state societies known for their complex institutions. However, Renfrew argues that the archaeological record of the 3rd millennium does not support the existence of such intricate social organizations among early Indo-European peoples. Specifically, he highlights the Kurgan cultures, which do not exhibit the characteristics of state societies, and the material culture of these people lacks evidence of the significant hierarchical distinctions found in chieftain societies. Moreover, when considering the first farmers of Europe in the 6th and 5th millennia BC, who are often suggested as the earliest Indo-European speakers, Renfrew emphasizes their societal organization as egalitarian, further contradicting Dumézil's framework.

Colin Renfrew’s Anatolian Hypothesis: Tracing The Roots Of Proto-Indo-European

Renfrew's critique extends to Dumézil's interpretation of historical reality, suggesting that Dumézil's system struggles with inconsistencies and lacks clarity on the practical implications of his tripartite divisions. This, Renfrew argues, undermines the foundational premise of Dumézil's hypothesis, casting doubt on its historical accuracy. The emergence of stratified societies and analogous social institutions in regions like India, Rome, and Gaul by the 1st century BC, according to Renfrew, does not necessarily indicate a common societal structure extending back to 2000 or 4000 BC. The absence of a clear depiction of this ancestral society, its timeline, and geographical setting poses a significant challenge to the historical foundation of Dumézil's theory.

Renfrew also critiques the assumption of a shared heroic element across early Indian, Greek, Celtic, and Norse societies, suggesting that similar social characteristics in disparate cultures do not confirm a common origin. Renfrew's references to Ernest Gellner and R.I. Page, who criticized the structuralist perspectives of Dumézil and Lévi-Strauss, support this argument. Lévi-Strauss, in particular, attributed structural similarities to more general factors rather than to a specific historical lineage, further complicating the acceptance of Dumézil's hypothesis.

Map of the spread of farming into Europe up to about 3800 BC

Adding to the debate, Renfrew cites examples that question the exclusivity and specificity of Dumézil's Indo-European model. John Brough's satirical analysis demonstrates the applicability of the tripartite system to non-Indo-European texts, such as the Old Testament, challenging the hypothesis's uniqueness. Similarly, Atsuhido Josida's (one of Dumezil's most ardent supporters and students) research into early Japanese mythology reveals structural parallels with the Indo-European three-function ideology, yet Dumézil's explanation of these similarities through historical contact between Scythian nomads and non-Indo-European populations in Korea and Japan is seen as speculative and not accepted by experts.

In essence, Renfrew's critique not only questions the historical accuracy and methodological soundness of Dumézil's trifunctional hypothesis but also emphasizes the importance of a more nuanced and evidence-based approach in interpreting the social structures of ancient societies.

New Analysis Suggests An Emergence Of Indo-European Languages Around 8000 Years Ago

Georges Dumézil's work has left an indelible mark on the fields of comparative mythology, linguistics, and the study of Indo-European cultures, embodying a pioneering spirit that sought to uncover the underlying structures of ancient societies. His formulation of the trifunctional hypothesis provided a groundbreaking framework through which scholars could analyze and compare the mythologies and social organizations of Indo-European peoples. By positing that these societies were structured around three distinct functions—sovereignty, warfare, and productivity—Dumézil offered a lens that brought into focus the shared cultural heritage and ideological underpinnings of a diverse linguistic family.

Despite the accolades and the transformative impact of his work, Dumézil's career was not without controversy. His political affiliations and the interpretations of his work in the context of broader ideological movements provoked heated debates among scholars. The criticisms leveled against him, ranging from allegations of sympathizing with extremist ideologies to questions about the universal applicability of his theories, underscore the complex interplay between academic scholarship and the socio-political milieu in which it exists. Yet, it is also clear that Dumézil engaged with these criticisms, continuously refining his theories in light of new evidence and perspectives.

The legacy of Georges Dumézil is characterized by an enduring relevance to interdisciplinary studies, inspiring subsequent generations of scholars to explore the connections between myth, language, and social structure. While debates over his methods, conclusions, and political views have certainly shaped the reception of his work, they also underscore the vibrancy and importance of critical engagement in the humanities. Dumézil's contributions extend beyond the confines of academia, challenging us to consider the depths of human cultural expression and the intricate ways in which our societies are constructed and understood. In the final analysis, Dumézil's work embodies the quest for knowledge about the past and its profound implications for our understanding of human culture and identity.

China: Well-Preserved Warring States Period Swords And Cultural Relics Discovered In Xiangyang, Hubei

The rich tapestry of China's history is once again brought to light with a recent groundbreaking archaeological discovery in Xiangyang, Hubei. Researchers have unearthed a treasure trove of artifacts from the Warring States Period, shedding new light on this pivotal era in Chinese history.

The Discovery

In the heart of China, archaeologists have excavated hundreds of tombs and relics, including a significant number of bronze swords, chariots, and other cultural objects dating back to the Warring States period [1], [5]. This period, known for its political fragmentation and warfare, was also a time of profound cultural and philosophical development.

The site in Xiangyang is particularly notable for the well-preserved state of the swords and other artifacts, offering a unique window into the craftsmanship and military practices of the time. Archaeologists believe that this excavation provides new resources for examining funeral customs and the social structure of the Xiangyang region during the Warring States period [2].

The Tombs

The archaeological team has uncovered a total of 176 tombs, with the majority dating from the Warring States period and two from the Han Dynasty. This large-scale cemetery discovery is among the most significant for this period in recent years, highlighting the importance of the region as a cultural and political center during ancient times [3], [4].

View fullsize

View fullsize

Cultural Significance

The artifacts found at the site, particularly the bronze swords, offer insights into the technological advancements and artistic achievements of the era. Additionally, the discovery of chariot burials underscores the importance of warfare and status in Warring States society. This new discovery in Xiangyang not only enhances our understanding of the martial culture of the time but also provides valuable data for studying the broader societal and cultural dynamics of the Warring States period [6].

The discovery in Xiangyang is a significant addition to our knowledge of the Warring States period, offering fresh perspectives on the social structures, warfare, and cultural practices of ancient China. As researchers continue to analyze the artifacts and data gathered from this site, we can expect to gain deeper insights into the complexities of this fascinating era in Chinese history.

This latest discovery underscores the richness of China's archaeological heritage and the potential for future finds to further illuminate the complexities of its ancient past.

100 Million-Year-Old Tapeworm Found Trapped in Amber

The discovery of the neuropeptide CGRP's role in promoting tissue healing represents a significant advancement in the field of wound treatment. The study published in Nature demonstrates how sensory neurons expressing CGRP communicate with immune cells, facilitating the healing process around injuries. Synthetic CGRP tested on mice with impaired healing, akin to diabetic patients, resulted in notable improvements in healing rates. This finding holds promise for enhancing wound treatment speed, especially for individuals with conditions like diabetes that affect wound healing.

Moreover, the proposal to name two new species of killer whales, Orcinus orca for residents and Orcinus reoppinis for transients, highlights the distinctiveness of these populations. Despite sharing the same habitat, residents and transients exhibit different diets, cultures, and genetic profiles, rarely interacting with each other. The proposal underscores the importance of recognizing and protecting the diverse lineages within killer whale populations for conservation purposes.

Both studies emphasize the significance of ongoing research in their respective fields—neuroimmune interactions for wound healing and taxonomy for species conservation. By further investigating these areas, scientists can continue to deepen our understanding of the body's healing mechanisms and the intricacies of species diversity, ultimately advancing medical treatments and conservation efforts.

Secret Tunnel Found Under The Great Sphinx Of Giza

The Great Sphinx of Egypt has long been shrouded in mystery and intrigue, with various theories attempting to unravel its enigmatic secrets. One recent theory suggests that the ancient monument may serve as more than just a statue, positing it as a hollow mortuary packed with skeletons. While this theory remains contentious, mainstream historians generally agree that the Sphinx was constructed around 2558 BC under the reign of Pharaoh Khafre, forming part of a grand funerary complex.

Archaeological excavations near the Sphinx have unearthed intriguing clues about its construction and purpose. In 1978, archaeologists discovered three massive stone blocks believed to have been abandoned during the monument's construction, shedding light on the ambitious scope of the project. Additionally, the presence of toolkits and a preserved workman's lunch at the site suggests that work on the Sphinx abruptly ceased at some point.

Over the centuries, the Sphinx has been subject to exploration and intervention by various individuals and groups. Tunnels and openings litter the monument, some created by treasure hunters seeking fabled riches hidden within its depths, while others were made by individuals attempting to restore the ancient structure. Among these tunnels, the keyhole shaft stands out as particularly intriguing, with researchers speculating that it may lead to an unfinished tomb beneath the Sphinx's body.

Legends and rumors surrounding the Sphinx abound, with tales of hidden chambers and subterranean passages fueling speculation about what lies beneath the monument. One tantalizing rumor suggests the existence of a library filled with mystical knowledge of the ancient world, purportedly located underneath the Sphinx. While such claims remain unsubstantiated, they add to the allure and mystique of one of Egypt's most iconic landmarks.

Despite ongoing research and exploration, the true purpose and significance of the Great Sphinx continue to elude complete understanding. As scholars and archaeologists delve deeper into its mysteries, the ancient monument remains a symbol of ancient Egypt's rich cultural heritage and the enduring fascination with its enigmatic past.

12 Most Mysterious Archaeological Finds

The ancient world is replete with enigmatic mysteries that continue to intrigue and baffle researchers to this day. One such enigma lies within Pavalon Cave in Wales, where the discovery of the oldest evidence of ceremonial burial in human history captivated the archaeological community in 1823. Initially believed to be a female skeleton from the Roman era, further examination revealed that the remains belonged to a male who had perished over 33,000 years ago. Among the cave's artifacts were bones adorned with red ochre, hinting at ancient rituals and beliefs.

In the annals of eccentricity, Thomas Theodore Marilyn, an English aristocrat of the 19th century, occupies a peculiar place. His former mansion, demolished in the 1960s, held a treasure trove of oddities within its basement. From a skeletal fairy with wings affixed to a display board to purported remains of aliens and mythical beasts like werewolves, Marilyn's collection bordered on the fantastical. Sketches of Jack the Ripper victims, preserved organs, and notebooks delving into discussions of quantum physics further added to the mansion's aura of eccentricity.

In the sands of Egypt, archaeologists unearthed 3,800-year-old hieroglyphs near the tomb of Pharaoh Senusret III, detailing preparations for an immense ancient naval battle. However, historical records remain silent on such an event, leaving researchers puzzled by the absence of corroborating accounts. The mystery surrounding the purported ancient naval conflict continues to elude resolution, raising questions about the accuracy of historical narratives.

Meanwhile, in the deserts of Saudi Arabia, a discovery of a 4,500-year-old highway network unveiled a testament to the advanced capabilities and interconnectedness of ancient societies. The intricate network, linking pastures and oases, speaks volumes about the social and economic dynamics of the population inhabiting the region millennia ago. The revelation of this ancient highway network sheds light on the sophistication and ingenuity of ancient civilizations, challenging contemporary perceptions of their capabilities.

As these unanswered questions from the past persist, they serve as reminders of the enduring allure and complexity of ancient history, beckoning researchers to unravel their secrets and unlock the mysteries of bygone eras.

Watch the video to find out more:

"The Prince of Egypt" and Its Portrayal of Ancient Civilizations

---

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

---

In the realm of animated films, few have dared to tread the hallowed grounds of biblical and historical narratives with the ambition and finesse of "The Prince of Egypt." Released in 1998, this cinematic jewel endeavors to recount the epic journey of Moses from a prince of Egypt to a prophet leading his people to freedom. Beyond its surface, the film is a rich tapestry interwoven with themes of faith, identity, and liberation, set against the backdrop of one of history's earliest and most enigmatic civilizations.

A Vision of Ancient Egypt

"The Prince of Egypt" distinguishes itself through its painstakingly detailed portrayal of ancient Egypt. The animation breathes life into the splendors of a civilization renowned for its architectural marvels, from the towering pyramids to the majestic Memphis. These visuals are not mere backdrops; they are integral to the narrative, encapsulating the grandeur and complexity of a society that has fascinated historians and archaeologists alike.

The film's dedication to authenticity extends beyond its architecture, delving into the cultural and spiritual life of ancient Egypt. It presents a society where gods and goddesses are interwoven into the fabric of daily life, influencing everything from governance to the arts. This commitment to portraying the richness of Egyptian civilization provides a vibrant canvas upon which the story of Moses unfolds.

Humanizing Biblical Narratives

At its core, "The Prince of Egypt" is a story of human struggle and transformation. Moses, portrayed with depth and vulnerability, embarks on a journey of self-discovery that challenges his beliefs and identity. This portrayal offers audiences a glimpse into the inner conflicts of a man chosen to lead his people to freedom, humanizing a figure often shrouded in mystique.

The narrative also offers a poignant exploration of the Hebrew people's plight, their enduring hope, and their quest for liberation. By focusing on their resilience in the face of oppression, the film pays homage to the indomitable human spirit. This careful balancing act of historical and emotional authenticity ensures that the characters' experiences resonate with audiences, bridging the gap between ancient texts and contemporary viewers.

Reflecting on Civilizations and Their Legacies

"The Prince of Egypt" transcends its role as an animated film by engaging with broader themes of power, leadership, and the dynamics of civilizations. It prompts reflections on the rise and fall of empires, the legacy of monumental achievements, and the ethical considerations they entail. Through its depiction of Moses' leadership and the eventual exodus, the film explores the complexities surrounding freedom, justice, and human rights.

Moreover, the film serves as a reminder of the timeless nature of these stories and their relevance to modern societal issues. It encourages audiences to reflect on the lessons of history, the consequences of leadership decisions, environmental instabilities, and the ongoing struggles for freedom and equality.

The Bronze Age Collapse, a mysterious period of widespread societal breakdown around 1200 BCE, saw the demise of several advanced civilizations within the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East, including the Hittites and Mycenaeans, arguably impacting the Egyptian New Kingdom's stability. This era of turmoil is characterized by a combination of factors, including, but not limited to, natural disasters, invasions by the Sea Peoples, economic hardships, and internal rebellions.

Such a concatenation of crises might have weakened the once-unassailable Egyptian dominion, making the narrative of Exodus—a tale of plagues, social upheaval, and the mass departure of a subjugated people—resonate as a thematic echo of the larger Bronze Age Collapse. The plagues and subsequent exodus can be seen as symbolic representations of the kind of widespread calamities and population movements that were occurring across the region during this tumultuous period.

Furthermore, the fall of Egyptian rule as depicted in the biblical narrative of Moses and the Exodus could reflect broader themes of change and chaos inherent to the Bronze Age collapse. As Egypt struggled with external invasions and internal disruptions, its grip on power would have naturally weakened, paralleling the struggles faced by Moses and his people in seeking liberation.

This narrative, while deeply rooted in religious tradition, also mirrors historical events where societal collapse leads to a reconfiguration of power dynamics and the emergence of new leaders. Moses’ journey from prince to prophet and leader of the Hebrew people out of Egypt can thus be viewed through a historical lens as emblematic of the larger shifts in power, leadership, and societal structures that were occurring throughout the ancient world during the end of the Bronze Age.

"The Prince of Egypt" stands as a testament to the power of storytelling, capable of bridging centuries and cultures to illuminate the human condition. Its portrayal of ancient Egypt and the biblical narrative of Moses is both a visual and emotional masterpiece, offering insights into the complexities of history and the enduring spirit of hope. As an artistic endeavor, it continues to inspire and resonate, reminding us of the richness of our shared human heritage and the timeless nature of our collective struggles and aspirations.

In the end, "The Prince of Egypt" is more than just a film; it is a portal to the past, a mirror reflecting our present, and a beacon of hope for the future, encapsulating the essence of what it means to be human across the ages.

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

Stunned Archaeologists Investigate Claims of Giant Skeletons and Enigmatic Artifacts in Nevada Caves

Archaeologists have long grappled with the mystifying accounts of a group of colossal humans, purportedly standing up to 10 feet tall, who once inhabited the southwestern United States.

The entrance to Lovelock Cave in Nevada, where two miners accidentally stumbled upon the remains of dozens of ancient people - some of whom were reportedly abnormally tall.

Over the past century, excavations within a cave in Lovelock, Nevada, have unveiled a trove of peculiar artifacts, including oversized human skulls, 15-inch sandals, and enormous handprints adorning the cave walls. These discoveries, coupled with the tales of Native Americans, have fueled speculation about the existence of the 'Giants of Lovelock'—a tribe of red-haired giants who allegedly clashed with local indigenous groups before meeting their demise in the cave.

These remains of shoes were found during excavations of the Lovelock Cave. They were made for feet that would have been the equivalent of size 29 in the US.

The narrative surrounding these purported giants originated from Native American oral traditions, describing encounters with a ferocious tribe of invaders. According to legend, these giants were eventually trapped within the cave and perished amidst a barrage of arrows and flames.

The first evidence linked to the Giants of Lovelock emerged in 1911 when miners stumbled upon over 60 human skeletons, some measuring an astounding seven to eight feet tall. Subsequent excavations in 1912 and 1924 unearthed thousands of artifacts, including mammoth sandals and oversized handprints etched into the stone.

Despite the intrigue surrounding these findings, skepticism persists among archaeologists. While some speculate about the existence of a race of giants, others attribute the anomalies to exaggeration, natural phenomena, or entrepreneurial embellishment.

Scientific analysis has shed light on some of the mysteries, suggesting that the purported giants may have been ordinary-sized individuals. Additionally, environmental factors such as desert conditions may have contributed to the red-haired appearance of the remains.

The saga of the Giants of Lovelock continues to captivate both researchers and the public, offering a glimpse into the rich tapestry of human history and folklore.

Today, artifacts from Lovelock Cave are housed in the history museum in Winnemucca, Nevada, serving as a tangible link to this enigmatic chapter of American history.

As archaeologists delve deeper into the cave's secrets, the truth behind the legend of the Giants of Lovelock remains elusive, shrouded in the mists of time.

130,000-Year-Old Stingray Sand Sculpture Unveiled on South Africa’s Coast: Potentially the World’s Oldest Animal Art

Researchers Unearth Remarkable Relic Presumed to be an Ancient Sand Stingray Sculpture

In a groundbreaking discovery, researchers have unearthed what appears to be a prehistoric sand sculpture resembling a stingray, estimated to be approximately 130,000 years old, making it a contender for the world's oldest animal art.

Located east of Still Bay, about 205 miles (330 kilometers) from Cape Town, the aeolianite rock, bearing striking resemblance to a stingray sans tail, was initially mistaken for a symmetrical rock formation. However, detailed analysis led the research team to speculate that it could be a meticulously crafted sand stingray sculpture.

Although direct dating of the stone was deemed impractical to avoid damage, optically stimulated luminescence dating of neighboring rocks indicated a creation date roughly 130,000 years ago.

The kite-shaped stone, with its uncanny symmetry and surface grooves, prompted researchers to suggest it might be a man-made replica of a local blue stingray (D. chrysonota). The cautious hypothesis, outlined in Rock Art Research, underscores the complexity of interpreting such ancient artifacts.

The blue stingray’s disc-like shape would have made it ideal for tracing. Photo: Kyle Smith

Dr. Charles Helm, lead study author and Research Associate from the African Centre for Coastal Palaeoscience at Nelson Mandela University, expressed optimism about the significance of the find, despite its speculative nature. "The chances of something like this being preserved and amenable to our interpretation are remote, so it is possible that this may be the only example ever identified," Helm stated.

The stone's peculiar features, including its stubbed base, resembling where a "tail" may have been ceremonially removed, hint at its potential ceremonial or artistic significance. Additionally, the stone's location on a beach further supports the hypothesis of it being a traced replica of a fresh specimen.

While the authenticity of the stingray sand sculpture remains subject to scrutiny, its potential implications for understanding the origins of human artistry and cultural evolution are profound. If validated, this discovery could reshape our understanding of early human creativity and shed light on the enigmatic emergence of magnificent cave art in Western Europe.

Despite the speculative nature of the findings, the purported stingray sand sculpture presents a tantalizing glimpse into our distant ancestors' artistic endeavors and their profound connection with the natural world.

300,000-Year-Old Wooden Tools Offer Rare Glimpse into Neanderthal Society

Unearthing the Best-Preserved Pleistocene Wooden Tools Provides Unparalleled Understanding of Neanderthal Life

Schöningen spears as presented at an exhibition of the Forschungsmuseum Schöningen. Only two confirmed older wooden tools have been found.

Image Credit: Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege (NLD)

An exhaustive examination of the most abundant Paleolithic wooden tool cache has shed unprecedented light on the daily lives of Neanderthals inhabiting northern Germany over 300,000 years ago.

While hominins have utilized stone tools for millions of years, the functional utility of wood likely dawned upon them around the same period. However, due to wood's limited preservation capabilities, direct evidence of early wood tool usage remains scarce, making the recent discovery of a 476,000-year-old wooden structure a monumental archaeological revelation.

The exception lies at Schöningen, where an astounding 187 wooden artifacts have been unearthed, encapsulated within the "Spear Horizon." This horizon corresponds to the era when early Neanderthals supplanted Homo heidelbergensis in Europe.

Spears and throwing sticks are a minority of the items at the site, but their size makes them stand out.

Image Credit: Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege (NLD)

These artifacts have revolutionized our perception of early human behavior, portraying Neanderthals as adept hunters rather than mere scavengers. The remnants serve as invaluable glimpses into the lifestyle of this branch of the human family tree, offering insights into how hunter-gatherer communities flourished across Europe during interglacial periods.

While the Spear Horizon's discovery dates back to 1994, the exhaustive exploration and analysis of its treasures have proceeded gradually.

In a newly published study, Dr. Dirk Leder from the Lower Saxony State Office for Cultural Heritage and his team present the first comprehensive report on the artifacts unearthed at the site up to 2008.

Contrary to popular perception, the majority of items unearthed were not hunting weapons but rather split woods with pointed or rounded ends, likely employed for domestic tasks such as processing animal hides, primarily from horses found at the site. The purpose of many other artifacts remains unidentified.

Interestingly, the analysis highlights the residents' willingness to travel considerable distances for the optimal wood materials. Despite the lakeside site's absence of spruce and pine, the majority of tools were crafted from these woods, sourced from mountains several kilometers away.

Part of the spear point of Spear V, showing the tree's annual rings and the work done to create surface facets and a flattened knot.

Image Credit: Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege (NLD)

The study unveils two distinct processes employed in crafting these tools, providing crucial insights into Pleistocene technological advancement and its correlation with cognitive abilities and social learning.

The remarkable preservation of these artifacts, owing to water-logged soil resulting from retreating ice sheets, underscores their significance in unraveling the mysteries of early human existence.

The study is freely accessible in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The Ingenious Logistics of Ancient Egyptian Monument Construction

---

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

---

The time-worn stones of ancient Egypt's grand monuments are silent witnesses to a past that has long captivated the human imagination. Among the many enigmas these structures present, one of the most persistent has been the question of how these massive stones were moved and erected. There have been many theories, ranging from alien interventions to lost technologies, frequently as a result of the lack of specific evidence describing the procedures used. However, a closer examination of the archaeological records, particularly the wall paintings from the tomb of Djehutihotep, reveals that the ancient Egyptians may have been far more practical and ingenious in their methods than previously thought.

Djehutihotep's Legacy in Stone and Paint

Djehutihotep, a prominent governor during the Middle Kingdom, left behind a tomb adorned with a myriad of scenes depicting daily life and the various labor-intensive activities of his time. One of these murals stands out because it shows a sizable group of workers hauling a massive statue. This scene, previously misinterpreted as a religious procession, is now thought to illustrate a logistical procedure.

The painting captures a moment where a laborer is seen pouring water on the sand before a large sled that carries the statue. This act, initially thought to be part of a purification rite, is now believed by some to be a representation of a clever technique to facilitate the movement of heavy loads. By wetting the sand, the workers could have significantly reduced the friction between the sled and the sand, allowing them to pull the heavy load with less effort.

Reinterpreting Ancient Methods

The scientific community's reinterpretation of this scene is a testament to the evolving nature of archaeological scholarship. Egyptologists like Professor Daniel Bonn have shifted the perspective from a ritualistic interpretation to a practical one, suggesting that the solution to the problem of moving massive stone blocks has been in plain sight all along.

Practicality Over Mysticism

The paradigm shift from a priestly to a practical interpretation of the water in the mural exemplifies the importance of interdisciplinary research in archaeology. By applying physics to the ancient problem, researchers like Bonn offer a plausible explanation that fits both the evidence and what is known of the materials and physics involved. It dismisses the need for mystical or outlandish explanations, positioning the ancient Egyptians not as practitioners of forgotten arts but as clever engineers who utilized the resources and knowledge at their disposal to overcome seemingly insurmountable obstacles.

The Enduring Legacy of Ancient Ingenuity

The recognition of the ancient Egyptians' problem-solving prowess enriches our understanding of their culture and technological capabilities. It dismisses the oft-propagated idea that we are at a zenith of knowledge, reminding us that our ancestors were not mere primitive figures in the annals of history but were, in fact, quite advanced in their understanding of the world around them.

This reevaluation of ancient Egyptian logistics does more than just provide a potential answer to a long-standing question. It invites contemporary scholars and enthusiasts alike to look back at ancient cultures with a renewed respect and curiosity, recognizing that there is much to learn from the way our predecessors approached and surmounted the challenges of their time.

In sum, the ancient Egyptians continue to teach us that solutions to complex problems often lie in a blend of observation, knowledge of natural laws, and a touch of practical ingenuity—a lesson as relevant today as it was in the era of the pharaohs.

Economic Liberty and Clean Slates: Unraveling the Dynamics of Debt Forgiveness in the Bronze Age

Whether in the realms of trade or agriculture, the operative principle was that debtors should not lose their economic liberty by being held liable for “acts of God.”

By Michael Hudson

---

When interest-bearing commercial and agrarian debt came to be incorporated into civilization’s economic structure in the third millennium BC, it was accompanied by clean slates that liberated bondservants and restored to debtors the rights to the crops and land that creditors had taken. By the second millennium BC in Babylonia, these royal “restorations of order” became customary proclamations rescuing debtors whose family members had been reduced to bondage or who had lost their land to foreclosing creditors.

Anthropologists have looked at surviving tribal enclaves for ideas of how the Bronze Age takeoff may have been managed. But no tribal communities in today’s world possess the outward-reaching dynamics of Mesopotamia during its commercial takeoff, which occurred in many ways that are alien to modern ways of thinking. The documentation describes an approach operating on different principles from those that most modern observers assume to have been primordial and universal.

The Character of Bronze Age Debt That Made Royal Clean Slates Necessary

The dynamics of interest-bearing debt are different from those of tribal gift exchange and related reciprocity obligations. Monetary credit arrangements bear a specific interest rate, and the date of payment is specified in advance rather than left open-ended. That requires debts to be recorded in writing and formally witnessed. Creditors may take foreclosure measures for non-payment, leading to the debtor’s bondage or the loss of land rights.

Civilization’s earliest written records, from Sumer in the third millennium BC, provide the best evidence for civilization’s monetized debt relations “in the beginning.” Two categories of debt existed, each associated with its own designated monetary commodity. Business obligations owed by traders and entrepreneurial managers were denominated in silver, above all those associated with foreign trade. The agrarian economy operated on credit denominated in barley units, assigned a value equal to the silver shekel in order to strike a common measure.

Money Loans and Long-Distance Trade

Rules for money loans described in scribal training exercises are found almost exclusively in the commercial sphere, especially in connection with long-distance trade. These loans were denominated in silver at the equivalent of a 20 percent annual rate of interest, doubling the principal in five years. Under normal conditions, merchants were able to pay this rate to their creditors and keep a profit for themselves. Lenders shared in the mercantile risk, taking what in effect was an equity position. If caravans were robbed or ships and their cargoes lost at sea through no fault of the merchant, the debt was voided. There is no indication that payment of such mercantile debts led to problems requiring royal intervention.

Interest-bearing debt had initially arisen in the commercial sphere, taking the form of advances of assets by large public institutions to entrepreneurial recipients, enabling them to make an economic gain in commerce and land management. But throughout all of antiquity, the most problematic debts disrupting the economy’s fiscal and social balance were in the agrarian sphere. The original objective of charging interest to sharecroppers and other cultivators, however, can hardly have been to reduce them to bondage or to expropriate them from their self-support land. Their labor was needed for the agrarian economy to function.

Agrarian Debt and Land-Rental Agreements

Rural usury and the consequent widespread forfeiture of lands seem to have derived from advances of land, animals, and tools to sharecroppers (or their manager intermediaries) by temples and palaces. Sharecropping land and agricultural inputs were advanced for a rent of one-third of the (optimistically) estimated normal crop yield 1. Interest was charged on arrears of this rent and other agrarian obligations not settled at harvest time. The interest rate charged on these carry-over debts was the same as the sharecropping rental rate: one-third. Even arrears for unpaid debts for food or credit for other needs, such as priestly social services, were charged interest at the rate of one-third of the sum owed, simply mirroring the sharecropping rental return for creditors.

Arrears on agrarian obligations must have been infrequent, given the ever-present risk of crop failure preventing anticipated crop payments from being paid. Researchers Alfonso Archi and Piotr Steinkeller show that agrarian interest rates denominated in barley are attested by the middle of the third millennium BC. Officials, collectors for the palaces and temples, and merchants often acted in their own private capacity to make interest-bearing loans to cultivators in arrears for fees owed to the large institutions.

Rural usury thus emerged as well-to-do “big men” charged for arrears owed to the palace and temples, as well as lending food and other necessities to distressed cultivators. But agrarian interest-bearing debt, especially usury charged to borrowers in need, was always denounced as socially unfair. The question therefore arises as to just how such charges originated in the first place.

Few types of barley debt involve actual loans of money. What are often called “loan documents” should more literally be termed “debt records” or simply “notes of obligation.” Even in the commercial sphere, with its debts denominated in silver, textiles, and other handicrafts, temple and palace workshops consigned to merchants for trade were recorded as debts. And when contractual work was to be performed, craftsmen gave customers tablets of obligation when they were given materials to make into a finished product.

The basic contractual formulas were well established by the end of the third millennium BC. Debt tablets state the sum owed, the due date, and the names of witnesses, with the appropriate seals. Additional stipulations might include the pledges involved, guarantees by individuals who stood surety, and the interest rate to be charged (often to accrue only if the debt were not paid on time). Some documents were given a title citing the reason why the debt was established.

Agrarian debts mostly arose on rental agreements on land advanced by public institutions to intermediaries, who then subleased it to sharecroppers. Near East researcher Johannes Renger describes how land and workshops were administered directly by palace officials in Ur III (2111–2004 BC), but by the Old Babylonian period (2000–1600 BC), the palace franchised the management of its fields and date orchards, herds of sheep, brick-making workshops, and other handicrafts to “entrepreneurs” as Palastgeschäfte, “royal enterprises.” These managers were entitled to keep whatever they could produce or collect above and beyond the amount stipulated by their contract with the palace, but if the sums they collected fell short, their arrears were recorded as a debt and they were obliged to pay the difference out of their own resources.

The rate of interest payable by cultivators on such debt arrears was, as described above, one-third, being the same as the rate charged for advances of sharecropping land. Cultivators were also charged this one-third rate of interest for unpaid arrears of charges for advances to buy food or beer or meet emergency needs on credit. If they lacked the means to pay out of whatever assets they had, they had to work off the debt charges in the form of their labor service or that of their family members (daughters, sons, wives, or house-slaves), and ultimately they had to pledge their land rights.

How Agrarian Debt Transformed Land Tenure

Barley debts had an annual character reflecting the crop cycle, falling due upon harvest. The accrual of such debts did not reflect a parallel growth in the cultivator’s ability to pay out of their harvest. Creditors obtained work at harvest-time by extending loans whose interest was paid in the form of labor service, as labor-for-hire was not generally available in this epoch.

In addition to their labor, debtors were obliged to pledge their family members as bondservants, followed by their land rights. Self-support land had traditionally been conveyed from one generation to the next within families, not being freely disposable outside of the family or neighborhood. Land transfers did occur when families shrank in size and transferred their cultivation rights to distant relatives or neighbors. But starting with rights to its crop usufruct, subsistence land was pledged and relinquished to outsiders after 2000 BC.

Debtor families initially were left on the land after they lost their crop rights but were forced off the land as the new appropriators turned to less labor-intensive cash crops such as dates. Debtors often ended up as members of rootless bands or mercenaries after the middle of the second millennium BC. Instead of crop and land rights being lost only temporarily—being returned to their original owners by royal edicts that restored the status quo ante2—such forfeitures became irreversible by the first millennium BC, especially in Greece and Italy to the west.

The Logic of Canceling Rural Debts and Reversing Land Forfeitures

An inability to meet obligations was inherent in the risks to which agrarian life was subject throughout antiquity: drought, flooding, infestation, or an outbreak of disease, capped by military disruptions. The problem confronting rulers was how to prevent debts from mounting up to the point where they threatened to expropriate the community’s corvée labor and fighting force, dooming debt-ridden realms to defeat by outsiders. If the indebted rural citizenry were to survive along customary lines, priority could not be given to creditors.

Mesopotamian rulers countered the rural debt problem not by banning interest outright but by annulling barley debts. To restore the means of self-support, rulers issued edicts “proclaiming justice,” decreeing economic order and “righteousness.” These proclamations date from almost as early as interest-bearing debt is attested, starting in Sumer with Lagash’s rulers, Enmetena circa 2400 BC and Urukagina circa 2350 BC. Much as commercial debts were forgiven when the merchandise was lost through no fault of the merchant, Hammurabi’s laws (§48) provided that cultivators would not be obliged to pay their crop debts if the storm-god Adad flooded their field and the crop was lost. The operative principle was that debtors should not lose their economic liberty by being held liable for “acts of God.” And inasmuch as most barley debts were owed to the palace or royal officials, it was easy for rulers to cancel them. Letting officials and merchants keep the crops and labor of debtors would have deprived rulers of their ability to collect the customary royal fees and land rents for themselves and to obtain corvée labor and military service.

There was no modernist thought that the dynamics of interest-bearing debt might be self-stabilizing by letting “market forces” proceed unimpeded. There was no thought of Adam Smith’s Deist god designing the world to run like clockwork, with checks and balances automatically maintaining equilibrium without any need for intervention by kings or priestly sanctions. Not even the wealthy voiced the ideology of modern free-market fundamentalism, arguing that society’s wealth and revenue would be maximized by letting them pass into the hands of the richest and most aggressively self-serving individuals, reducing hitherto free families to bondage.

---

1. Although not clear from the records, it seems likely that agricultural inputs were advanced as part of a “package” with the land for a total rental of one-third of the crop.↩

2. The classic studies of these edicts are F.R. Kraus, Königliche Verfügungen in altbabylonischer Zeit (Leiden, 1984); Jean Bottéro, “Désordre économique et annulation des dettes en Mesopotamie à l’époque paléo-babylonienne,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 4 (1961): pp. 113-164; J.J. Finkelstein, “Ammisaduqa’s Edict and the Babylonian ‘Law Codes,’” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 15 (1961): pp. 91-104; “Some New misharum Material and Its Implications,” in Assyriological Studies, no. 16 (1965); Studies in Honor of Benno Landsberger on His Seventy-Fifth Birthday: pp. 233-246; “The Edict of Ammisaduqa: A New Text,” Revue d’Assyriologie et d’Archéologie Orientale, vol. 63 (1969): pp. 45-64; and the works of Igor Diakonoff and Dominique Charpin.↩

---

Michael Hudson is an American economist, a professor of economics at the University of Missouri–Kansas City, and a researcher at the Levy Economics Institute at Bard College. He is a former Wall Street analyst, political consultant, commentator, and journalist.

This article was produced by Human Bridges.

5 Unexplained Out-of-Place Ancient Artifacts

In this intriguing video, we explore the fascinating phenomenon of ancient artifacts traversing continents, often hinting at cross-cultural exchanges that challenge established historical and anthropological narratives. Among these remarkable finds are several artifacts discovered far from their origins, intriguingly linked to ancient China.

In July 2014, just north of Atlanta, Georgia, an astonishing discovery unfolded: a jade sword emerged, partially revealed by a gentle stream and concealed by roots, nestled about two meters beneath the earth's surface.

The jade votive sword, measuring nearly 30 cm in length and 6 cm in width at the handle, weighing close to half a kilogram, appeared untouched for countless years, perhaps even millennia.

Its craftsmanship immediately signaled its distant origins, boasting intricate carvings and motifs distinctly foreign to American soil. The blade, fashioned akin to other ancient Chinese swords, bears a weighted tip for formidable strikes and features imagery resonant with Chinese cultural symbols, including a silkworm, a dragon, and a feathered crown.

Initial analyses revealed the sword's composition as lizardite, likely a singular creation of its kind. Surface characteristics suggest its antiquity, with a small section composed of an unidentified material.

Though the sword's precise age remains undetermined, initial assessments, as detailed in the discovery's published findings, hint at a potential origin during the Chunqiu period, stretching back thousands of years.

The presence of this Chinese votive sword in Georgia lends credence to theories of pre-Columbian contact with the Americas and challenges the timeline of intercontinental trade, suggesting earlier and broader connections than previously acknowledged.

While ongoing investigations seek to unveil the sword's secrets, including the origin of its unique composition, the full narrative behind its improbable journey may forever elude us, leaving us to ponder the enigmatic tale of this artifact embedded in a distant bank of mud.

The Mysterious 11,000-Year-Old Kilisik Sculpture of Ancient Turkey

In this captivating video, we delve into some of the remarkable ancient discoveries from Pre-Pottery Neolithic Turkey, and among them shines the Kilisik sculpture, unearthed in Adiyaman, southeastern Turkey, in 1965.

Before the uncovering of the famed T-shaped pillars at Nevali Cori in the 1980s, the Kilisik Sculpture stood as an intriguing archaeological anomaly, as noted by Jens Notroff in an insightful article referenced below.

Estimated to be approximately 11,000 years old, this limestone masterpiece stands at a modest 80cm in height. Its features include a broad, curved back, an oversized head with a slim face and prominently emphasized nose. Notably, its peculiarly shaped head has invited comparisons to the iconic xenomorphs from the Alien film franchise.

While some may speculate about extraterrestrial origins, the Kilisik sculpture is firmly rooted in the artistic styles of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period, synthesizing various elements of art and sculpture into a singular, rare artifact. Dive deeper into its enigmatic story by watching our video.

Archaeologists uncover 8,200-year-old site at Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico.

At New Mexico's Holloman Air Force Base, members of the 49th Civil Engineer Squadron recently made a remarkable discovery: an 8,200-year-old archaeological site nestled within the base's boundaries. Buried beneath nearby white sand dunes, this site offered a window into the ancient past of the region, yielding approximately 70 artifacts that shed light on the lifestyles of New Mexico's early inhabitants.

Among the findings were flake stones and a rare example of early ground stone, offering valuable insights into past human activities. Additionally, the excavation uncovered a series of hearths containing remnants of mesquite charcoal, a significant discovery in itself, providing clues to the Paleo-Archaic communities' subsistence strategies.

The term "Paleo-Archaic" denotes the transitional phase when human communities in the area shifted from specialized hunting and gathering to broader agricultural practices. Such intact sites from this period are rare due to the erosive nature of desert environments, making the preservation of Gomolak Overlook particularly significant.

Named in honor of the former cultural resources manager, J.R. Gomolak, the site adds to the more than 400 archaeological sites within the base's confines. Scott Dorton, the 49th CES Environmental Chief, highlighted the unintentional but crucial role of the Department of Defense in safeguarding these archaeological treasures, emphasizing the importance of stewardship in protecting these invaluable resources for future generations.

Ancient Roman villa with peculiar artifacts found at Bronze Age site in England.

Archaeologists have unveiled a spectacular find in Grove, Oxfordshire, England: an exceptionally adorned Roman villa complex discovered within the Brookside Meadows during excavations.

The complex, boasting buildings dating back to the late first and second centuries, features four colossal columns or post bases, marking among the largest from Britain's Roman era. Adorned with intricately painted plaster and mosaic floors, the site showcases fragments of a grand hall-like structure, suggesting internal colonnades and expansive interiors. Among the unearthed artifacts are peculiar items such as miniature axes and scrolls, potentially indicative of ritualistic practices.

A collection of empty rolled-up lead scrolls, which may have been curse scrolls. Photo: Red River Archaeology Group.

Louis Stafford, a senior project manager at Red River Archaeology Group (RRAG), remarks on the significance of the find, emphasizing the dominance of the villa complex within the local landscape.

The villa's central hall, believed to precede adjacent structures, likely evolved as the owners' prosperity grew. Francesca Giarelli, the site director, notes the multi-level construction of one building, hinting at the site's evolving architectural complexity.

A horse-head brooch or belt buckle uncovered at Brookside Meadows. It was dated to AD 350-450 Photo: Red River Archaeology Group.

Artifacts recovered from the site offer a glimpse into Roman life, ranging from elaborate painted plaster and mosaic tiles to hypocaust box flue tiles, coins, and jewelry. Notably, a horse-headed belt buckle dating from 350-450 C.E. sheds light on interactions between late Romans and early Anglo-Saxons, underscoring the site's historical importance.

Giarelli explains that Roman villas served as more than mere residences, often overseeing agricultural activities and infrastructure maintenance. Repurposed areas, like an oven crafted from melted Roman materials for cereal and hops drying, exemplify function over opulence.

The complex comprised numerous structures, with one likely featuring multiple stories. Photo: Red River Archaeology Group / SUMO GeoSurveys.

The discovery of tightly wound lead scrolls resembling Roman "curse tablets" adds another layer of intrigue, hinting at potential ritualistic practices within the estate.

Campbell Gregg, the development company's managing director, expresses hope that ongoing research will enrich local understanding of the region's rich historical tapestry.

A medieval castle dating back 640 years was found beneath a hotel in France.

Archaeologists recently made a captivating discovery beneath the grounds of Hotel Lagorce in Vannes, France: the remnants of a 14th-century castle, confirmed as the Château de l’Hermine, constructed in the 1380s under the patronage of John IV the Conqueror.

The extensive excavations, conducted between spring and autumn last year, were spearheaded by the National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research (INRAP). Unveiling the grandeur of the past, the meticulous work revealed the castle's ground floor layout, showcasing a majestic ducal house measuring 42 meters in length and 17 meters in width, fortified with walls of remarkable thickness.

Designed as the dwelling for dignitaries like John IV, the castle's structure remains surprisingly well-preserved, a testament to its enduring architectural integrity. Embraced by a surrounding moat, its defensive prowess is evident, further underscored by the presence of a stout 'square tower' on its western flank.

Staircase leading to the technical room of the mill, to the east of the house.Rozenn Battais, Inrap

The precision and artistry of the castle's construction astounded researchers, who noted the meticulous management of resources evident in the uniformity of materials and construction modules. Reflecting a singular phase of construction, the project attests to the significant financial and human investment orchestrated by John IV, who spared no expense in engaging the finest engineers and craftsmen of the era.

Among the remarkable discoveries were several staircases, including a remarkably preserved ceremonial staircase adorned with intricate decorations and a cushioned window, indicative of the castle's opulent grandeur. Evidence suggests the castle boasted three or four floors, evidenced by the discovery of latrines and drainage systems associated with upper levels.

A trove of artifacts sheds light on the castle's vibrant past, including coins, jewelry, and cooking utensils dating back to the 15th and 16th centuries. Remarkably, the humid environment preserved wooden items such as bowls and barrel fragments, offering a vivid glimpse into daily life within the castle walls.

Deep exploration of the moat yielded a rich assortment of artifacts, from clothing accessories to inscribed slabs, providing invaluable insights into the castle's history and its occupants' lifestyles.

Series of objects discovered in hydromorphic levels.

Emmanuelle Collado, Inrap

The Château de l’Hermine, once a favored residence of Duke Jean IV, thrived for nearly a century before falling out of favor in the late 15th century, eventually succumbing to abandonment in the 17th and 18th centuries. Despite centuries of neglect, the recent excavation has reignited interest in this historical treasure, enriching our understanding of medieval life and architecture in France.

Chickens were commonly raised in southern Central Asia since 400 BC, according to new research.

New research conducted by the Max Planck Society unveils a significant chapter in the history of chicken domestication, shedding light on their widespread cultivation across southern Central Asia as early as 400 BCE. This breakthrough challenges previous assumptions and provides a clearer understanding of the origins and diffusion of these vital animals in ancient times.

Published in Nature Communications, the study, authored by an international team comprising archaeologists, historians, and biomolecular scientists, presents compelling evidence for the intentional rearing of chickens for egg production. It suggests that the loss of seasonal egg laying played a pivotal role in the expansion of domestic chickens throughout Eurasia and northeast Africa.

An eggshell fragment from the site of Bash Tepa, representing one of the earliest pieces of evidence for chickens on the Silk Road. Credit: Robert Spengler

By analyzing eggshell fragments recovered from 12 archaeological sites spanning 1,500 years, researchers demonstrate that chickens were extensively raised in Central Asia from around 400 BCE to 1000 CE, likely propagated along the ancient Silk Road. The abundance of eggshells indicates that these birds were laying eggs out of season, a trait that appealed to ancient societies and facilitated their widespread adoption.

Employing a biomolecular analysis technique called ZooMS, which identifies species from protein signals in animal remains, the team confirmed the presence of chicken eggs in the archaeological record. This method, more efficient and cost-effective than genetic analysis, proved instrumental in unraveling the historical interactions between humans and animals.

Dr. Carli Peters, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology and lead author of the study, emphasizes the potential of ZooMS in illuminating past human-animal relationships. The identification of chicken eggshell fragments and their prevalence across sediment layers underscores a significant departure from the seasonal egg-laying patterns observed in their wild ancestors.

The breathing pore of an ancient eggshell fragment from the medieval site of Tashbulak in Uzbekistan under high power SEM magnification. The morphology of these breathing pours helps with the identification. Credit: Robert Spengler

According to Dr. Robert Spengler, leader of the Domestication and Anthropogenic Evolution research group, this finding represents the earliest evidence of the loss of seasonal egg laying in the archaeological record. It offers valuable insights into the process of domestication and the evolving dynamics between humans and animals.

In essence, this research provides a crucial piece of the puzzle regarding the domestication of chickens, highlighting the pivotal role of prolific egg laying in shaping their global significance as an economically vital species. The interdisciplinary approach employed in this study exemplifies the potential of collaborative efforts and innovative methodologies in unraveling ancient mysteries and enriching our understanding of the past.

Ipswich's Medieval Significance Revealed by Remarkable Viking Combs

Archaeologists are astounded by a recent discovery in Ipswich, Suffolk, where a trove of Viking combs has been unearthed. Described as "extraordinary and unique in the UK," these combs, crafted from antler and bone, were found during a series of excavations spanning two decades.

Experts Ian Riddler and Nicola Trzaska-Nartowski, authors of a comprehensive analysis of over 1,300 finds and 2,400 fragments, highlight the exceptional nature of these combs. They assert that the collection presents an unparalleled sequence of Viking combs, shedding light on the presence of Vikings in Ipswich during the late 9th century.

Most of the combs were made from red deer antler, although some were made from bone

The significance of these artifacts extends beyond local borders. Riddler and Trzaska-Nartowski emphasize the European connections, suggesting links to regions such as northern France, Frisia, and southern Scandinavia.

These combs not only signify Ipswich's ties to broader trade networks but also provide insight into local craftsmanship. While some combs were imported from Scandinavia, others were locally made, displaying distinctive forms unique to Ipswich. Additionally, the excavation revealed various other items, including brooch molds, pins, and gaming pieces, underscoring the town's diverse medieval activities.

Melanie Vigo di Gallidoro of Suffolk County Council highlights the cumulative impact of these excavations, painting a vivid picture of Ipswich's medieval role. Similarly, Will Fletcher of Historic England emphasizes the fascination and importance of this discovery, portraying it as a window into Ipswich's medieval past and its connections across the North Sea.

The most Impossible to Reach places on Google Earth

In this captivating video, we unveil ten of the most incredibly difficult or seemingly impossible places to reach that have been discovered on Google Earth. These locations, shrouded in mystery and intrigue, are characterized by their extreme remoteness, inaccessibility, or the perilous lengths required to access them. As the author plans a daring expedition to one of these enigmatic sites, they have already ventured as close as possible to one of these elusive destinations.

1. The Most Difficult Place to Reach in the World: The ultimate challenge awaits at this undisclosed location, known only for its unparalleled remoteness and formidable obstacles.

2. The Nuclear Square Mile in New Mexico: Nestled within the desolate expanse of New Mexico lies a restricted area known as the Nuclear Square Mile, cloaked in secrecy and inaccessible to all but the most intrepid explorers.

3. Capote Falls, Texas: Hidden within the rugged terrain of Texas, Capote Falls remains a tantalizingly unreachable destination, its cascading waters beckoning from afar.

4. The Massive Ice Canyons of Auyuittuq National Park: Journey to the frigid expanses of Auyuittuq National Park, where towering ice canyons carve through the landscape, defying attempts at exploration.

5. The Most Isolated Chunk of the Colorado Plateau in Utah: Deep within the heart of Utah's Colorado Plateau lies a solitary expanse, isolated from the reaches of civilization and accessible only to the most daring adventurers.

6. The Eye of the Sahara in Mauritania, Africa: Behold the enigmatic Eye of the Sahara, a geological marvel veiled in mystery and accessible only to those willing to brave the unforgiving desert sands of Mauritania.

7. The Giant Footprint Visible from Space in Utah: A colossal footprint etched into the Utah landscape captivates the imagination, its origins shrouded in myth and legend, yet its remote location remains a challenge for all who seek to uncover its secrets.

8. The Marum Crater in Vanuatu: Delve into the depths of the Marum Crater, a fiery abyss concealed within the volcanic archipelago of Vanuatu, where the earth's fiery fury poses a formidable barrier to exploration.

9. The Abandoned City of Pripyat, Ukraine: Step into the eerie silence of Pripyat, a haunting reminder of humanity's folly, where the shadows of Chernobyl's tragedy loom large, deterring all but the boldest of adventurers.

10. The Abandoned Military Base on the Kola Peninsula in Russia: Explore the desolate remnants of a bygone era at the abandoned military base on Russia's Kola Peninsula, where echoes of the past mingle with the harsh winds of solitude.

Each of these remarkable locations holds its own allure and challenges, from restricted access and treacherous landscapes to the mysteries that lie hidden within. As the author prepares to embark on their quest, they stand on the precipice of discovery, ready to unravel the secrets that await in the world's most remote and inaccessible places.