10 Important Facts About Aristotle: Only 31 of His 150 Works Survived

Aristotle’s Philosophy

From ethics to metaphysics, Aristotle not only laid the foundation for Western philosophy but also created a framework for human understanding that continues to spark debate today.

Born in 384 BCE, this master of logic mapped the universe with the precision of a surgeon, offering ideas that continue to challenge and inspire us. However, within the deep wisdom he imparted, there lies an intriguing truth: out of the 150–200 works Aristotle wrote, only 31 have survived the ravages of time, like precious relics of a lost civilization.

1. Aristotle (384 BCE – 322 BCE) – One of the most important philosophers in Western thought – was born in Stagira, Chalkidiki, in 384 BCE. His father, Nicomachus, was the royal physician to King Amyntas III, and his mother, Phaestis, was a midwife.

2. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was around 13 years old. The Proxenus of Atarneus briefly took the young orphan in before sending him to Plato's Academy in Athens, where he would study diligently for 20 years.

3. From logic to rhetoric, Aristotle wrote on a wide range of topics. Despite the vast scope of his writings, only 31 of his 150 works are still circulating today.

4. Aristotle's teaching method was certainly unique. Rather than standing before his students and giving lectures, he walked around the grounds of his school, teaching as his students followed him. This is why his school was called the “Peripatetic School.”

5. One of Aristotle’s most famous ethical principles is known as the Golden Mean. According to this system of thought, one operates best when living between two opposite extremes. Simply put, it’s about achieving perfect balance.

6. Aristotle devoted much time to examining what makes a person truly good. One of his suggestions was that all good people knew how to converse. The qualities of good conversation, according to his philosophy, were quick-wit and a great sense of humor.

7. He believed that goodness arises from habit. If someone is morally flawed, we shouldn’t punish them for their deficiencies but instead offer better teaching and guidance.

8. Aristotle believed there were three categories of friendship: friendships based on mutual benefit, friendships based on pleasure, and true friendship based on mutual love.

9. Aristotle invented rhetoric, the art of persuasion. His general advice to public speakers and writers was to recognize the emotions of their audience. In doing so, you form a connection with them. After that, make your points and then illustrate them, guiding the audience on how to properly apply what they’ve learned.

10. In 322 BCE, Aristotle died in Chalkida, suffering from digestive issues. He requested to be buried next to his wife, Pythia. His works would remain nearly forgotten, stored in a cellar for almost two centuries. His philosophy would be revived around 100 BCE and would significantly influence medieval thought.

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Manolis Andronikos: Remembering the Archaeologist Who Discovered the Royal Tombs of Vergina The Significant Discovery of King Philip II's Tomb in Vergina

Who Was Manolis Andronikos?

Manolis Andronikos was born on October 23, 1919, in Bursa, Asia Minor. After the Greco-Turkish War and the subsequent Greek Catastrophe of 1922, he and his family relocated to Thessaloniki.

He studied archaeology at the Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Thessaloniki (1936-1940), earning his doctorate in 1952 with his dissertation "Plato and Art."

In 1941, Andronikos worked as a teacher in Didymoteicho, but he soon escaped to the Middle East, where he participated in military operations against the Axis forces. After the war, he worked as a philologist at the Aglaia Schina girls' schools in Thessaloniki and was appointed to the Archaeological Service in 1949.

Between 1954 and 1955, Andronikos pursued postgraduate studies at Oxford University under the famous professor John Beazley, a leading figure in Greek vase-painting.

In 1957, he was appointed assistant professor of archaeology at the University of Thessaloniki, with his dissertation on Laconian Reliefs. By 1961, he became a professor of Classical Archaeology at the same institution, where he worked until 1983.

His archaeological work spanned various regions in Northern Greece (Veria, Kilkis, Halkidiki, Thessaloniki), but his most significant excavation project took place in Vergina, where he initially worked as an assistant to his mentor Konstantinos Romaios (1938-1940). From 1952, he conducted his own research, leading to the discovery of the royal tombs of Macedonia in 1977, including the probable tomb of King Philip II.

Andronikos' Account of the Discovery of King Philip II’s Tomb in Vergina

“I took the small trowel I’ve carried with me since 1952, bent over the pit, and began to dig stubbornly and anxiously under the archway's key. My collaborators were gathered around me. (…) I continued to dig and soon I was certain. The stone of the western wall was in its place, untouched, firm. (…) 'It’s undisturbed! It’s sealed!' I was deeply happy. I had found the first undisturbed Macedonian tomb. At that moment, nothing else mattered. That night – as every night afterward – I couldn’t sleep more than two or three hours. Around midnight, I took my car and went to make sure the guards were in their positions. The same happened at 2 and 5 a.m. I was thinking, there must be a wonderful surprise hidden inside the sarcophagus.

The only difficulty we encountered was when we lifted the lid. We clearly saw its contents, and we had to remain composed to continue our work, despite our eyes being dazzled by what we saw and our hearts racing with emotion. Inside the sarcophagus was a golden coffin. On its lid, an imposing relief star with sixteen rays, and at its center, a rosette. With great care and even more emotion, I lifted the lid with the star by grasping it at the two front corners. We all expected to see the burnt bones of the deceased inside. But what we saw when it opened took our breath away, blinded our eyes, and filled us with awe: indeed, inside the coffin, there were the charred bones. (…) But the most unexpected sight was a golden wreath of oak leaves and acorns, carefully folded and placed on the bones. I had never imagined such an incomprehensible image. I can vividly recall the reaction I had as I thought to myself: 'If your suspicion is true, that this tomb belongs to Philip, and the golden coffin only confirms this suspicion, then you hold in your hands the coffin with his remains. It is an incredible and terrifying thought, completely unreal.' I don’t think I have ever felt such turmoil in my life, nor will I ever again.”

Excerpt from Manolis Andronikos' book “The Chronicle of Vergina” published by the Educational Foundation of National Bank of Greece...

Contributions Beyond Archaeology

In addition to his archaeological and academic endeavors, Andronikos was deeply involved in education, literature, and the arts. He published studies and articles in numerous magazines and newspapers, many of which are collected in two volumes: "Education or Sleep-Education" and "History and Poetry." His scholarly works on archaeology include many publications in both Greek and international journals and standalone volumes. He also taught and gave lectures at universities across Europe and the United States.

Andronikos was a lifelong member of the Archaeological Society of Athens, a regular member of the Society for Macedonian Studies, the German Archaeological Institute of Berlin, AICA (International Association of Art Critics), “Art” of Thessaloniki, the “Explorer’s Club” of New York, an honorary member of the Spanish Society for Classical Studies Pastor, and the Society for Greek Studies in London. He served as president of the Archaeological Council (1964-1965), the State Theatre of Northern Greece (1974-1975), and vice president of the National Foundation for Research.

In 1980, the Academy of Athens elected him as an honorary member, and in 1982, he received the “Olympia” prize from the Onassis Foundation. In 1992, he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Phoenix by President of the Republic, Konstantinos Karamanlis, who had supported his work during his early years as Prime Minister following the restoration of democracy.

Manolis Andronikos was married to philologist Olympia Kakoulidou. A permanent resident of Thessaloniki, he passed away on March 30, 1992, at the age of 73.

Why Were Julius Caesar’s Last Words in Greek?

A striking painting captures the dramatic moment of Julius Caesar’s assassination—surrounded by Roman senators in flowing togas, their daggers raised in chaotic unison. According to historical accounts, Caesar’s last words were spoken not in Latin but in Greek: "Kai sy, teknon Brute?"—"You too, child Brutus?" But why did he choose to speak Greek in his final moments?

The Assassination of Julius Caesar

On March 15, 44 BCE, Julius Caesar entered the Senate for what would be his final meeting before departing for military campaigns. Ancient historians, particularly Plutarch and Suetonius, describe the dramatic sequence of events leading to his death. As he arrived, the conspirators split into two groups—one standing near him and the other positioned by his seat.

Tillius Cimber, supported by several senators, approached Caesar under the pretense of pleading for his exiled brother’s return. When Caesar refused, Cimber aggressively grabbed his toga—a signal for the attack to begin. Casca struck first, stabbing Caesar in the neck, though the wound was not fatal. Shocked, Caesar reportedly grabbed Casca’s knife and asked, “What are you doing?” Panicked, Casca called for help, and the other conspirators took turns stabbing Caesar.

Brutus, whom Caesar likely regarded as a son, delivered the final blow—a deep stab to the groin. According to the physician Antistius, who later examined the body, only one wound—the stab to the chest—was fatal. Plutarch adds that Caesar collapsed at the base of Pompey’s statue, a deeply symbolic moment, as Pompey had been his greatest political rival. Some believe Caesar deliberately fell there, while others suggest he was dragged by the conspirators.

Brutus and Julius Caesar: A Complex Relationship

Caesar had once been romantically involved with Brutus’ mother, Servilia, who was married at the time. Historians such as Suetonius and Appian confirm this relationship, and Plutarch even suggests that Caesar may have believed Brutus to be his illegitimate son, given their close bond.

Brutus had been a trusted protégé of Caesar, who not only pardoned him after the civil war against Pompey but also granted him prestigious positions, including the governorship of Cisalpine Gaul. Despite his initial opposition to Caesar, Brutus eventually became part of his inner circle.

However, Brutus ultimately led the conspiracy to assassinate him, believing that Caesar’s rising power—culminating in his appointment as dictator for life—posed a threat to the Roman Republic. In his mind, he was defending the ideals of democracy against what he saw as the looming danger of monarchy.

Caesar’s Last Words and the Role of Greek Culture

The phrase "Kai sy, teknon Brute?" has come to symbolize an unexpected betrayal by someone deeply trusted. Shakespeare later popularized the Latin version, "Et tu, Brute?", forever associating those words with Caesar’s death.

While Shakespeare’s version became widely known, earlier sources—including Suetonius—suggest that Caesar actually spoke in Greek: "Kai sy, teknon?" ("You too, my child?"). This phrase conveys a profound sense of personal betrayal.

Suetonius speculated that Caesar’s choice of Greek was intentional, emphasizing the emotional weight of Brutus' betrayal. Greek was the language of the Roman elite, commonly used in philosophy, diplomacy, and literature. For a man of Caesar’s intellect—who was fluent in Greek—it would have been a natural choice for expressing his deepest emotions in his final moments.

What Happened in Santorini When the Volcano Awoke? The Day That Changed Everything!

The Eruption of Santorini’s Volcano: When Fire and Ash Consumed a Thriving Civilization

How the Great Eruption of Thera Reshaped the Aegean World and Echoed Through Myth and History

A Sleeping Giant Beneath the Sea

Long before whitewashed domes and sunset-chasers arrived in Santorini, the island was home to a flourishing Bronze Age civilization known today as the Minoans. Back then, around 1600 BC, the island wasn’t even called Santorini—it was known as Thera, a thriving hub of trade and culture in the southern Aegean Sea.

But beneath this vibrant world lay a monstrous force: a volcano, quiet for centuries, building pressure deep below. One fateful day, that sleeping giant awoke—and what followed was one of the most cataclysmic volcanic eruptions in human history.

The Day the Sky Turned to Fire

The eruption of Thera, dated between 1627–1600 BC (based on radiocarbon dating), was no ordinary volcanic event. It was colossal, estimated at VEI 6 or 7 (Volcanic Explosivity Index), putting it on par with Krakatoa and possibly even stronger.

It began with a series of massive earthquakes—shaking the foundations of Minoan settlements. Panic likely gripped the people of Akrotiri, Thera’s bustling port town. The ground cracked. The sea may have drawn back ominously. Then came the explosion.

What erupted was not just lava—it was a fountain of fire, ash, and pumice that spewed more than 30 cubic kilometers of volcanic material into the sky. The island itself tore apart, forming the caldera we see today.

Within hours, darkness fell over the Aegean as ash clouds reached heights of 30 to 35 kilometers, blocking the sun. Tsunamis—some possibly 15 meters high—radiated outward, devastating nearby coasts, especially northern Crete, the heartland of Minoan civilization.

Akrotiri: The Minoan Pompeii

Beneath the ash, something remarkable survived: the city of Akrotiri.

Unlike Pompeii, where human remains were found in abundance, Akrotiri reveals a strange silence. The city’s streets were empty when the ash fell. No skeletons. No panicked bodies. This suggests the residents had early warning and evacuated—perhaps in the days of tremors before the final blast.

Thanks to the volcanic preservation, Akrotiri offers a rare glimpse into Bronze Age life: multi-story homes, elegant frescoes, paved streets, indoor plumbing, and vibrant art. This wasn’t a crude village—it was an advanced society lost in time.

A Disaster Felt Across the Ancient World

The effects of Thera’s eruption weren’t limited to the island itself. Ash fell as far as Anatolia, Cyprus, and even Egypt. Sunlight dimmed. Crops failed. Climatic disruption followed.

Most dramatically, it weakened the Minoan civilization. Whether it was the tsunamis that hit Crete’s northern shores or the economic devastation from lost trade routes, the once-dominant Minoans declined soon after. Within a few generations, the Mycenaeans of mainland Greece rose to power, absorbing Minoan influence but replacing their dominance.

Atlantis, Echoes in Myth?

Could this cataclysm be the real story behind the legend of Atlantis?

Many scholars believe Plato’s tale of a great island civilization destroyed in a day and a night might be a mythologized memory of Thera. The sudden disappearance of a prosperous, sea-faring culture… swallowed by the sea… sounds eerily familiar.

Though Plato placed Atlantis beyond the “Pillars of Heracles,” some argue he was drawing on older, garbled tales passed down through Egyptian sources—tales that could trace their roots to the volcanic fury of ancient Thera.

Santorini Today: Beauty Born of Fire

Modern Santorini is a place of stark contrasts—black sand beaches, white villages clinging to cliffs, and a still-active caldera at its center. Tourists sip wine and watch the sun dip below the volcano’s rim, often unaware they’re gazing into the heart of a cataclysm that changed the course of history.

Santorini’s beauty today is the direct legacy of that terrible day when the volcano awoke.

Conclusion: The Day That Changed Everything

The eruption of Thera wasn’t just a geological event. It was a turning point—a cultural, political, and environmental shockwave that altered the trajectory of the Aegean world. It likely contributed to the fall of the Minoans, reshaped Mediterranean trade, and echoed down through legend and myth.

When the volcano awoke, it did more than destroy an island—it reshaped a civilization and left behind a haunting beauty that still captivates the world.

Did the Ancient Greeks Invent Football? What FIFA Says and What the Evidence Shows

The origins of football trace back to various ancient civilizations, each contributing in its own way to the evolution of the game we know today. Among them, the Ancient Greeks played a notable role with their ball game known as Episkyros.

Episkyros: An Ancient Greek Ball Game

Episkyros was a team-based game played between two groups of 12 to 14 players. It was highly physical and allowed full contact, with players using both their hands and feet to control the ball. A central white line, known as the skyros, separated the two teams, and the objective was to throw the ball over the opposing team's heads. While the game was primarily played by men, historical evidence suggests that women occasionally participated as well.

FIFA's View on Football’s Origins

The International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) acknowledges Episkyros as an early form of football. However, it officially recognizes the Chinese game Cuju as the first documented version of the sport.

Cuju (translated as “kick ball”) dates back over 2,000 years and is mentioned in military manuals from the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). The game involved kicking a leather ball through a small opening in a net and was widely practiced as a form of military training.

Greece vs. China: Two Distinct Games

Although both Episkyros and Cuju involved a ball and required teamwork, their gameplay and objectives differed significantly:

• Episkyros was more like a mix of rugby and football, allowing hand use and physical contact.

• Cuju, on the other hand, strictly prohibited hand use and focused on kicking skills, aligning more closely with modern football rules.

Did the Ancient Greeks Invent Football?

While the Ancient Greeks contributed to the early history of ball games, FIFA credits Cuju as the first true form of football. Therefore, even though Episkyros bore some similarities to the modern sport, it does not qualify as its direct ancestor.

How Was Santorini Formed? The 4 Volcanoes That Shaped It

Santorini, the stunning island of the Cyclades, owes its very existence to a series of volcanic eruptions and seismic activity spanning hundreds of thousands of years.

This dramatic geological evolution sculpted the island’s unique landscape, characterized by its towering caldera cliffs, vibrant beaches, and a breathtaking central lagoon.

Early Volcanic Activity

Approximately two million years ago, submarine volcanoes west of what is now Santorini began erupting, gradually accumulating lava and forming the island’s landmass.

Over time, successive volcanic eruptions and lava flows overlapped and expanded, creating a complex volcanic structure—the foundation of the Santorini we know today.

The Formation of the Caldera

Santorini’s striking landscape is the result of at least four major volcanic eruptions, each of which played a role in shaping its famous caldera:

1. Southern Caldera (180,000 years ago) – This was the earliest and most significant eruption, forming a massive depression in the island’s southern region.

2. Skaros Caldera (70,000 years ago) – A later eruption further reshaped the island’s terrain, creating what is now known as the Skaros caldera.

3. Akrotiri Caldera (21,000 years ago) – Another significant eruption contributed to the island’s modern geological structure.

4. The Minoan Eruption (3,600 years ago) – One of the most powerful volcanic eruptions in recorded history, it ejected vast amounts of magma and rock, causing the collapse of the island’s central region and forming Santorini’s present-day caldera.

The Minoan Eruption: A Catastrophic Event

Around 1600 BCE, the Minoan eruption dramatically altered Santorini’s landscape. This massive explosion expelled an estimated 28–41 cubic kilometers of volcanic material, burying the island under thick layers of pumice and ash.

The eruption led to the collapse of Santorini’s central landmass, giving rise to the modern caldera. Many historians believe that this event contributed to the decline of the Minoan civilization, as the resulting tsunamis and climatic changes had far-reaching consequences.

Post-Minoan Volcanic Activity

Volcanic activity didn’t stop after the Minoan eruption. It continued primarily in the Kameni islands, located within the caldera. Historical records document several eruptions, the most recent occurring in 1950.

These eruptions gradually expanded the Kameni islands and influenced the region’s geothermal features, shaping the Santorini we see today.

Would you like to witness the island’s volcanic history for yourself? Watch the video below to explore Santorini’s fascinating geological past!

Would You Be Considered Attractive in Ancient Greece? 15 Fascinating Facts

Ancient Greece
What was considered beautiful in Ancient Greece? What do historical texts reveal about beauty standards of the time? Would you have been seen as attractive back then?

Here are 15 intriguing facts to help us unravel the mystery of ancient Greek beauty ideals.

1. Beauty Was Highly Valued

In Ancient Greece, beauty was important for both men and women. But who actually met the era’s beauty standards, and how different were they from today’s?

2. A Subject of Art and Philosophy

The emphasis on physical beauty is evident in the extensive artistic depictions of the human form and the philosophical discussions about aesthetics in ancient texts.

3. Beauty and Morality Were Intertwined

Ancient Greeks believed that physical beauty was closely linked to inner virtue. It was commonly thought that attractive individuals were also morally good, while those deemed "ugly" were assumed to have a flawed character.

The Concept of Beauty in Ancient Greece

4. The Ideal Man: "Kalos Kagathos"

In Greek society, attractive individuals—especially men—were often described as "kalos kagathos", a term combining kalos (beautiful) and agathos (virtuous or good).

5. Female Beauty: A More Complex Matter

For women, beauty came with complications. In Greek mythology and literature, exceptionally beautiful women were often portrayed as morally ambiguous or even dangerous.

6. Helen of Troy: The Ultimate Example

Helen of Troy, said to be the most beautiful woman in the world, is a prime example. Despite her legendary beauty, ancient texts do not always portray her in a favorable light, as her elopement with Paris led to the Trojan War.

7. The "Beautiful Evil"

The Greek poet Hesiod famously described the first woman, Pandora, as "kalon kakon"—a "beautiful evil"—in his work Theogony, highlighting the suspicion surrounding female beauty.

8. The Science of Beauty

Ancient Greek philosophers, mathematicians, and artists studied beauty extensively. Pythagoras, for instance, introduced the Golden Ratio, linking symmetry to aesthetic appeal.

Ancient Greek Beauty Trends

9. The Unibrow: A Mark of Perfection

Symmetry was so prized that even a unibrow was considered a sign of beauty. Those lacking one often used soot or charcoal to fill in the gap.

10. Beauty Standards That Still Resonate

While some ancient ideals (like the unibrow) may seem odd today, others—such as a preference for symmetrical facial features—remain relevant.

11. Ancient Beauty Contests

Beauty competitions, known as "kallisteia", were common in Ancient Greece, mainly for men. However, records suggest that women also participated in such contests on the islands of Lesbos and Tenedos.

12. Beauty and the Olympic Games

These contests were often linked to the Olympic Games, either coinciding with them or taking place in the same venues.

What Did the Ideal Greek Look Like?

13. The Perfect Man

The Greek ideal for men emphasized a well-proportioned, muscular physique with toned muscles and minimal body fat. Red-blond hair, full lips, and sun-kissed skin were also considered attractive traits.

14. The Perfect Woman

For women, curvier figures were preferred, including fuller hips and a slight belly—a small pouch of fat below the navel was even seen as a desirable feature.

15. Fair Skin and Natural Cosmetics

Despite Greece’s sunny climate, pale skin was prized. Women used white makeup (often containing lead, despite its toxicity) to maintain a fair complexion. Natural ingredients like beetroot and berries were used for blush and lipstick, while blue eyes and red-blond hair were especially admired for their rarity.

Ancient Greek beauty ideals may seem distant from modern standards, yet some elements—like symmetry, toned physiques, and radiant skin—continue to define attractiveness today. Would you have been considered beautiful in Ancient Greece?

Ornate 3,000-Year-Old Dagger Discovered on the Polish Coast

A beautifully decorated dagger from the Hallstatt period—an era renowned for its advanced metalworking—was uncovered on Sunday by members of the St. Cordula Association for the Saving of Monuments.

Jacek Ukowski, the association’s president, described the find as his most valuable discovery, emphasizing that it was purely accidental. “The cliff had collapsed, and the block must have fallen from above. I entered the area with a metal detector because it started beeping,” he explained.

The weapon, estimated to be around 2,800 years old, dates back to the early Iron Age. Spanning 24.2 cm in length, the handle and blade are adorned with intricate decorations, according to a report from the Polish news site Interia.

Following its discovery, the dagger was donated to the Museum of the History of Kamień Land in northwestern Poland.

A Masterpiece of Ancient Craftsmanship

“A true work of art! The craftsmanship is of extremely high quality, and the ornamentation is exquisite. Every engraved detail is unique,” said Grzegorz Kurka, the museum’s director. “As far as discoveries in Poland go, I have never encountered a dagger like this.”

Although the find was made along the western part of the Polish coast, Kurka declined to disclose the exact location.

A Link to a Solar Cult?

“The blade is decorated with linear crescents and crosses resembling stars. A central design possibly symbolizing constellations runs along the middle of the blade, while diagonal lines complete the intricate pattern,” Kurka shared on social media.

These engravings may indicate a connection to a solar cult, suggesting that the dagger held ritual significance. Alternatively, it could have belonged to a high-ranking warrior. Either way, the artistry reflects an impressive level of metallurgical skill.

“It may be an imported piece, cast in a workshop in southern Europe,” Kurka speculated.

He also emphasized the dagger’s historical importance: “This discovery stands as a testament to the remarkable history of the region and Western Pomerania, spanning thousands of years.”

40 Women Mathematicians in Ancient Greece – Why Don’t We Know Them?

When we think of women in mathematics from ancient times, the name Hypatia often comes to mind. However, mathematician Evangelos Spantagos has identified 40 women mathematicians who lived in Ancient Greece, yet remain largely unknown today.

One such figure is Aethra, best known as the mother of Theseus, who was also a teacher of arithmetic. Similarly, Theano, the companion of the famed mathematician Pythagoras, is credited with contributions to the theory of the golden ratio. These women are just two examples of the many female mathematicians from Ancient Greece whose contributions have been overlooked for over 31 centuries. Their rediscovery and recognition within the scientific community is largely due to research conducted by mathematician and author Evangelos Spantagos, as reported in Ta Nea (October 30, 2007).

Rediscovering Forgotten Scholars

Spantagos began his research after a student asked if there were any female mathematicians from Ancient Greece apart from Hypatia mentioned in geometry textbooks. Over four years, alongside his daughter Roula, also a mathematician, he identified 40 such women from various regions of ancient Greece. Many of them had advanced education, and those associated with the Pythagorean School faced fewer barriers since Pythagoras admitted women into his academy. Interestingly, some, like Lasthenia of Arcadia, may have attended Plato’s Academy disguised as men due to societal restrictions. Surprisingly, very few of these women were married or had children.

A promising avenue for further research is the exploration of Arabic manuscripts, which preserved many ancient Greek works lost with the destruction of the Library of Alexandria.

13 Notable Women Mathematicians of Ancient Greece

Pythagorean Women

Hypatia (4th–5th century CE)

The most famous female mathematician of antiquity and the first recorded female scientist. She made significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics but met a tragic fate at the hands of religious fanatics.

Themistoclea (6th century BCE)

Also known as Aristoclea or Theoclea, she was a Delphic priestess who influenced Pythagoras’s ethical principles and introduced him to numerology and geometry. The philosopher Aristoxenus (4th century BCE) claimed she taught mathematics to visitors at Delphi. Legend holds that she adorned Apollo’s altar with geometric figures, impressing Pythagoras, who later welcomed women into his school.

Theano of Croton (6th century BCE)

A devoted follower of Pythagoras, Theano is believed to have contributed to the theory of the golden ratio. She played a crucial role in Pythagorean number theory and, after Pythagoras’s death, led the scattered Pythagorean community. Along with her daughters, she helped spread Pythagorean teachings across Greece and Egypt.

Aethra (10th–9th century BCE)

Daughter of Pittheus, ruler of Troezen, and mother of Theseus, Aethra was also a teacher of arithmetic. She based her teachings on the complex Cretan-Mycenaean numbering system, which lacked the concept of zero and required frequent repetition of symbols.

Phintis (6th century BCE)

A student of the Pythagoreans from Croton, Phintis taught at the Pythagorean School. The Roman writer Boethius cited her as an inspiration for the concept of numerical equality in Pythagorean triplets.

Polygnota (7th–6th century BCE)

A mathematician cited by the historian Lobon of Argos as a student and companion of Thales. She simplified numeric symbols through the acrophonic system, where letters represented numbers (e.g., Δ for ‘ten’ and Χ for ‘thousand’). According to Vitruvius, she was the first to formulate and prove the theorem stating that an angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.

Melissa (6th century BCE)

A student of Pythagoras, Melissa studied regular polygons. Lobon of Argos mentions her work The Circle and the Nature of Inscribed Polygons.

Timycha (6th century BCE)

A Spartan-born Pythagorean who wrote about ‘amicable numbers,’ as recorded by Iamblichus. After the Pythagorean school was destroyed, she fled to Syracuse, where the tyrant Dionysius tried to extract Pythagorean secrets from her. She reportedly bit off her tongue rather than reveal anything.

Ptolemais (6th century BCE)

A Neo-Pythagorean philosopher, musician, and mathematician mentioned by Porphyry in Harmonics of Ptolemy.

Diotima of Mantinea (6th–5th century BCE)

A Pythagorean teacher mentioned in Plato’s Symposium. Xenophon noted her expertise in Pythagorean numerology and geometry.

Vitalis (6th–5th century BCE)

Also known as Vitala or Bistala, she was the granddaughter of Pythagoras and specialized in Pythagorean mathematics. Her father entrusted her with preserving his philosophical writings before her death.

Perictione (5th century BCE)

A Pythagorean philosopher and mathematician, some sources identify her as Plato’s mother. She is said to have played a key role in his early exposure to mathematics and philosophy. Stobaeus noted her expertise in geometry, arithmetic, and their relation to the divine.

Lasthenia of Arcadia (4th century BCE)

A mathematician and philosopher who studied at Plato’s Academy. After Plato’s death, she continued her studies with his nephew Speusippus and later became his partner.

The Legacy of Pythagorean Women

Iamblichus’s On the Pythagorean Life (6th–5th century BCE) preserved the names of 17 women who excelled in Pythagorean philosophy and mathematics. Among them were:

• Ryndaktor

• Okkelo and Ekkelo (sisters from Lucania)

• Chilonis (daughter of Chilon the Lacedaemonian)

• Cratesicleia (wife of Cleonarus of Lacedaemon)

• Lasthenia of Arcadia

• Ambrotelia (daughter of Ambrotelus of Tarentum)

• Echekrateia of Phlious

• Theano (wife of Metapontine Brontinus, not to be confused with Pythagoras’s wife)

• Boi of Argos

• Babylika of Argos

• Cleachma (sister of Autocharis the Lacedaemonian)

• Nisthiadousa

The remarkable contributions of these women demonstrate that female scholars played a vital role in the advancement of mathematics in the ancient world. Their rediscovery reshapes our understanding of history and serves as a reminder that knowledge and innovation were never limited by gender, even in societies that placed barriers on women’s education and recognition.

8 Reasons You Wouldn't Survive in Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece gave birth to the foundations of modern civilization and science. However, as the saying goes, "Every beginning is difficult," and the romanticization of this era can be quite misleading. Don't be fooled!

If a time capsule had been invented and you could visit Ancient Greece, would you want to go? If your answer is "Yes," then think again—life back then was incredibly tough, and there's a good chance you wouldn’t make it even for a month!

While medieval Europe may have been worse than Ancient Greece, it’s clear that they didn’t have the theory of germs, modern medicine, or a full understanding of human anatomy. It was an era marked by constant wars, plagues, and public executions, where beauty treatments and weather conditions posed serious survival threats.

Here are eight reasons why surviving in Ancient Greece would have been nearly impossible:

1. Primitive Medical Knowledge
Ancient Greek medical practices were closely tied to religion and superstitions. For example, epilepsy was attributed to the lunar goddess Selene, and treatments involved rituals, sacrifices, and prayers. The healing god Asclepius and his Asclepiads believed they offered cures through dreams, often involving baths, fasting, and cleansing with purgatives. While psychologically beneficial, the lack of scientific foundation meant these treatments could have fatal consequences for serious illnesses.

2. Famine
Between 1200 and 800 BCE, during the Greek Dark Ages, evidence suggests a population decline due to drought, famine, and conflict. Severe droughts at the end of the Bronze Age led to reduced agricultural productivity, contributing to social unrest and the collapse of societies like the Mycenaeans. Ancient Greece, heavily reliant on local production, lacked the international aid, advanced irrigation, and early warning systems we have today.

3. Deadly Beauty Practices
The pursuit of beauty in Ancient Greece involved deadly practices. White lead, a toxic substance, was used for pale skin, while rouge made from plant roots or crushed mulberries mixed with urine posed infection risks. Kohl, used for darkening eyebrows, was made from lead, antimony, and burnt almonds, which could cause a range of health issues.

4. Surgery Was a Huge Risk
Without modern anatomical knowledge, Ancient Greek surgeons faced significant challenges. Anatomy, while studied by Herophilus, the father of anatomy, was frowned upon in society, leading to risky surgical practices. Battlefield injuries were treated without an understanding of sterilization, and cauterization, the burning of wounds, could result in extreme pain and permanent damage.

5. Unexplained Deadly Plagues
The Plague of Athens (430-426 BCE) claimed many lives, and its cause remains debated. Mysterious plagues, such as those during the time of Marcus Aurelius, left the ancient Greeks vulnerable, as they had no understanding of their origins or effective treatments.

6. A “Cure” Could Be Worse Than the Disease
Bloodletting, a common practice based on the theory of the four humors, was often fatal. It led to severe blood loss, weakness, and shock. Even figures like Hippocrates endorsed bloodletting, causing harm instead of healing.

7. Life in Sparta Was for the Few
Life in Sparta, known for its military strength, was incredibly harsh. Boys underwent brutal training, strict discipline, and a war-oriented society that glorified death in battle. The physical demands and social expectations would be overwhelming for the average modern person.

8. Strict Legal System
Ancient Greek laws were harsh, with punishments like death for minor offenses. Draco’s laws in Athens, known as the Draconian laws, included death for theft or even idleness. In Sparta, punishments led to a life of shame, seen as a failure, and Greek executions were brutal, including poison, stoning, crucifixion, or being thrown off a cliff.

Life in Ancient Greece was undoubtedly shaped by hardship and peril. The harshness of medicine, the threat of famine and disease, and the relentless military focus make it clear that survival in this time would have been a monumental challenge.

What Would It Be Like to Be a Woman in Ancient Greece: Restrictions, Rights, and the Phenomenon of Sparta

In Ancient Greece, women faced significant limitations compared to male citizens, as they were not allowed to vote, own land, or inherit property. Their social role was primarily confined to the domestic sphere, with a focus on raising children. However, it is crucial to recognize the general nature of this description and consider the incomplete and biased nature of historical sources discussing Greek women.

The available information, often provided by male authors, primarily details the position and role of women in Athens, leaving other city-states underrepresented. It’s worth noting that Sparta treated women differently, offering them unique privileges for the time, such as physical exercise, land ownership, and the consumption of wine.

Certain categories of women, such as those practicing professions or working as prostitutes and courtesans, have less documented information, making it difficult to fully understand the social rules and customs governing them.

Notable women in Greek society, including poets like Sappho of Lesbos, philosophers like Arete of Cyrene, leaders like Gorgo of Lacedaemon, and physicians like Agnodice of Athens, transcended social boundaries and gained lasting recognition.

Despite their limited roles in reality, women held significant positions in Greek mythology and religion. Goddesses like Athena, Demeter, and Persephone, associated with fertility, were prominent figures, but women were often depicted in literature as sources of pain or obstacles in the plans of male heroes.

The Education of Women in Ancient Greece

Regarding education, girls received a similar education to boys, with an emphasis on dance, gymnastics, and music. However, the primary goal was to prepare them for family roles rather than fostering intellectual development. Women were more likely to be abandoned than males, reflecting the prevailing male dominance in ancient Greek culture.

In numerous male-dominated, agrarian societies, the likelihood of parents abandoning female infants was higher than that of male infants. Citizens' children attended school to gain basic skills like reading, writing, and arithmetic. Once they had mastered these fundamentals, they moved on to more advanced studies such as literature (e.g., Homer), poetry, and music, with a focus on the lyre. Sports held the same importance in the education of young men.

Marriage

Marriage for young women was typically arranged by fathers or guardians, with an emphasis on family duty rather than romantic love. Married women were responsible for household duties, raising children, and adhering to strict social norms, limiting their interactions outside the family. Legally, they were under the authority of their husbands, and accusations of adultery could lead to exclusion from public religious ceremonies.

Women and the Law

Although women could inherit property in some cases, their ability to make wills was limited, and their husbands often became the beneficiaries after their death. Marriage could be dissolved through repudiation, with the woman leaving her family home or at the father’s request to take his daughter back. Widows were expected to marry close relatives to preserve the family’s wealth.

Courtesans and Slaves

In other social classes, such as slaves or those engaged in business, women played various roles. More information is available about prostitutes, who were distinguished as working in brothels and courtesans. Some women participated as priestesses in religious cults, with certain restrictions based on their virginity or post-menopausal status.

The roles and lives of women in Ancient Greece were complex, influenced by social norms, legal restrictions, and individual circumstances, reflecting the multifaceted nature of their contributions to Greek society.

Evidence of Human Sacrifice Discovered in Ancient City – Why Teenage Girls from Lower Social Classes Were Chosen

As humanity stood on the threshold of written history, with the first civilizations beginning to solidify in Mesopotamia and Anatolia, the world was undergoing radical changes in social structures, economy, and culture.

Secrets Hidden in the Royal Cemetery

Basur Höyük, an ancient royal cemetery discovered in eastern Turkey, is one of the most revealing findings from this period of profound transformation. A recent study highlights that this archaeological site provides critical insights into the origins of inequality during the Early Bronze Age, at the edges of Mesopotamia.

Located in the Şırnak province of modern-day Turkey, Basur Höyük has been recognized as a significant settlement during the third millennium BCE.

The archaeological research revealed the existence of monumental tombs belonging to the local elite. These tombs contained exceptional grave goods, including weapons, prestigious objects, and offerings, pointing to a clear social differentiation among the inhabitants of the region.

The study, based on excavations and detailed archaeological analysis, suggests that Basur Höyük was a center of local power with strong ties to the major cities of Mesopotamia. While not part of the great empires of the time, this enclave became a hub for wealth and prestige, reflected in the tombs of its ruling elite.

Evidence of Human Sacrifice

The site of Başur Höyük on the Upper Tigris. Photo: D. Wengrow et al.

One of the most striking findings at Basur Höyük is the presence of evidence for human sacrifice, a practice observed in other ancient cultures as well.

In some of the tombs, archaeologists found the remains of several individuals who were apparently buried alongside the rulers in a ritual symbolizing the transition to the afterlife and the maintenance of social order even after death.

Such practices were common in highly hierarchical societies, where leaders used these ceremonies not only as displays of power but also as mechanisms to reinforce both faith and the structure of authority.

Teenage Girls Chosen for Sacrifice

Bioarchaeological analyses reveal that the victims of these sacrifices were primarily teenage girls, selected deliberately.

The grave goods uncovered at Basur Höyük further support the evidence of growing inequality in the region during the Bronze Age. The elite tombs contained bronze daggers, spear points, cylindrical seals, intricately crafted gold and silver jewelry, and other luxury items, all pointing to privileged access to goods and advanced technologies for the time.

Systematic Social Inequality

Collection of metal artifacts made of copper from Başur Höyük. Photo: D. Wengrow et al.

These findings support the hypothesis that social inequality did not arise spontaneously but was rather the result of a gradual process driven by the need to solidify power, control resources, and institutionalize class differences.

The analysis of this royal cemetery contributes to a better understanding of how human societies transitioned from egalitarian systems to strict hierarchical structures. Basur Höyük’s position between the cities of Mesopotamia and the tribal populations of Anatolia played a key role in the dissemination of ideas, technologies, and power structures.

From the study of this site, researchers have identified patterns similar to those observed in other parts of the world, where emerging elites used war, trade, and religious rituals to establish dominance over the rest of the population.

Archaeological evidence shows that inequality was not an unintended consequence of civilization’s development, but a deliberate mechanism for organizing power.

A 13th-Century Manuscript Featuring One of the Earliest Cartographic Depictions of Cyprus

A remarkable book, the oldest surviving manuscript of Claudius Ptolemy's Geography, was recently brought out of the Vatopedi Monastery on Mount Athos and made its debut in Cyprus. It was presented at the exhibition Cyprus Island – History – Memory – Reality, organized by the Cultural Foundation of the Bank of Cyprus in Nicosia. The exhibition offers a modern and interactive portrayal of life in Cyprus from ancient times to the present, with a central message about the island's unbreakable unity.

"By focusing on time, place, and people, relationships emerge and narratives are formed that highlight aspects of Cyprus' history and contemporary reality, which have contributed to shaping the unified Cypriot island identity," said Yiannis Toumantzis, director of the Cultural Foundation of the Bank of Cyprus and the first Deputy Minister of Culture of Cyprus. He, along with Dimitra Ignatiou, curated this unique exhibition. Interestingly, the original plan was for the exhibition to remain open until June, but due to its immense popularity, it has been extended until early 2026, as predicted by the President of the Republic of Cyprus, Nikos Christodoulides, during the opening ceremony.

When Ptolemy Depicted the Geography of the Greek World

The Vatopedi manuscript, known as Codex 655, consists of 296 parchment leaves, dates back to the 13th century, and is part of a small group of surviving secular manuscripts kept in the libraries of Mount Athos monasteries. Undoubtedly, it is one of the rarest manuscripts stored on the Holy Mountain.

The manuscript includes Ptolemy's Geographical Synopsis, the famous Greek philosopher and naturalist who lived in Alexandria during 127-151 AD, Strabo's Geographica and his Chrestomathy from the Geographical. Many of the texts in the manuscript are copies of other manuscripts, following lost originals.

The Ptolemaic Maps of the Known World

According to archaeologist Dimitris Liakos from the Department of Antiquities of Halkidiki and Mount Athos, "The most impressive and noteworthy element of the manuscript is the maps from the 8th book of Geographical Synopsis, each depicting one or more countries from the known world of the 2nd century AD. The first map is of the Oikoumene (the known world), followed by 10 maps of Europe, four of Africa, and twelve of Asia. Of the 27 bifolium maps that were originally included in the manuscript, 24 are still intact, and three are half-preserved, as they were later detached in various ways." Ptolemy's Geography collected all the geographical knowledge of his time and enriched it with nautical descriptions, offering a relatively accurate portrayal of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and the Arabian Peninsula. Among these is one of the earliest cartographic depictions of Cyprus, a martyr island.

The Vatopedi manuscript was created between the late 13th and early 14th centuries, and the 42 maps are so meticulously drawn that they allow for the identification of mountains, plains, seas, and a vast number of place names. A second, similar manuscript was created in the 15th century for Cardinal Bessarion and is now held at the Marciana Library in Venice.

A Manuscript with a Rich History

The manuscript has a unique history. It was most likely created in Constantinople by two scribes and, according to scholars, circulated in "high spiritual circles and scholarly circles." It reached the Athonite community after the Fall of Constantinople. In 1841, Minas Minoyidis, a representative of the Greek Enlightenment, acquired seven original leaves and sold them to the National Library of Paris. A few years later, in 1853, the paleographer and calligrapher Konstantinos Simoniadis sold another 21 leaves to the British Museum. It has since been confirmed that six more leaves are missing, believed to be entirely lost.

For the Vatopedi Monastery, the manuscript is a significant historical treasure. During his recent visit to Nicosia, Abbot Ephraim of the monastery presented the manuscript, which contains one of the earliest depictions of Cyprus, along with other invaluable ecclesiastical, Byzantine, and post-Byzantine treasures, such as monumental paintings, portable icons, ecclesiastical silverware, manuscripts, and rare prints. He highlighted the monastery's historical ties to Cyprus.

The Manuscript's Return to Mount Athos

Last week, the precious manuscript returned to Mount Athos—it had been transferred to Cyprus for the first phase of the exhibition, and for reasons of protection and security, it could not stay longer. The head of the Department of Antiquities of Halkidiki and Mount Athos, Giorgos Skiadaresis, archaeologist Dimitris Liakos, and conservator Athanasios Chouhoutas traveled to Nicosia to carefully arrange the valuable exhibit, which was then handed over to Abbot Ephraim by Christodoulos Chatzichristodoulou, the director of the Cultural Foundation of the Bank of Cyprus.

An Exhibition in Five Acts

The exhibition organized by the Cultural Foundation of the Bank of Cyprus is structured into five sections and is organized in celebration of the Foundation's 40th anniversary and the 50th anniversary of the Turkish invasion. Through artifacts and rare archival material from the Foundation's collections and private sources, the history of Cyprus is depicted from antiquity to the present. The exhibition also highlights the continuities and discontinuities that emerge and are absorbed over time in Cyprus's historical path, sometimes dominating and other times fading from historical memory.

One section of the exhibition is dedicated to the "difficult years" of the Cyprus Republic, from 1963–1964 to the tragic consequences of the 1974 Turkish invasion. The exhibits include antiquities, folk culture objects, works of contemporary art, historical maps, rare editions, manuscripts, engravings, printed and digital archival material, as well as digital applications.

The exhibition is accompanied by a special publication and parallel activities such as roundtable discussions, experiential educational programs, lectures, guided tours, presentations, and specially designed activities based on the sensory museum program "Sensations" of the Cultural Foundation for people with disabilities.

Scientists Discover Strange Creature "Beyond Imagination" in 99-Million-Year-Old Amber

A recently identified parasitic wasp that buzzed and flew among dinosaurs 99 million years ago developed a bizarre mechanism to trap other creatures and force them to host its larvae, according to new research.

Paleontologists studied 16 samples of the tiny wasp, preserved in amber dating back to the Cretaceous period, which were previously excavated in Myanmar.

The unknown species, named Sirenobethylus charybdis, had a structure resembling a "Venus trap" in its abdomen, which likely allowed it to capture other insects, the researchers reported Thursday in the journal BMC Biology.

"When I first looked at the sample, I noticed this extension at the end of the abdomen and thought it must be an air bubble. We often see air bubbles around specimens in amber," said study co-author Lars Vilhelmsen, a wasp specialist and curator at the Natural History Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.

"But then I looked at other samples, and then I went back to the first one. That was part of the animal."

Vilhelmsen and his collaborators from Capital Normal University in Beijing discovered that the structure was movable because it was preserved in different positions across various samples.

"Sometimes the wing is open, and sometimes it's closed," Vilhelmsen explained. "It was clearly a movable structure, and something that was used to capture something."

The closest comparison found in nature today is the Venus flytrap, a carnivorous plant with leaves that close when prey flies inside, according to the new study.

"There’s no way to know how an insect that died 100 million years ago lived," Vilhelmsen said.

"And there really wasn’t any analogy within insects. We had to look outside the animal kingdom to the plant kingdom to find something remotely similar."

However, the researchers believe that the wasp likely didn’t intend to kill with its strange structure.

Egypt: Awe in Abydos – Archaeologists Discover Massive Tomb of Unknown Pharaoh Buried in the Sand

Earlier this month, a massive tomb belonging to an unknown Pharaoh was discovered in Egypt. Today, researchers from the Penn Museum shared further details about this remarkable find.

A monumental tomb of an unknown Pharaoh has been discovered by archaeologists in Egypt. As announced today, Thursday, by the researchers, this marks the second royal tomb discovery of the year.

Dr. Josef Wegner for the Penn Museum

According to a report by The New York Times, the team of Egyptian and American archaeologists located the tomb nearly 23 meters below the surface, in Abydos, one of the oldest cities of Ancient Egypt. The tomb is believed to be around 3,600 years old. Located about 480 kilometers south of Cairo, Abydos was historically a burial site for the earliest Pharaohs, resulting in the development of a necropolis on the Anubis mountain to the south of the city.

The researchers revealed that the tomb was found at the base of a high rock in the desert, where strong winds have carried bursts of sand. In fact, in some areas, the sand has buried the structures up to a depth of 5.5 meters!

The Impressive Tomb of the Unknown Pharaoh

Dr. Josef Wegner for the Penn Museum

The burial chamber features a decorated entrance, multiple rooms, and tall vaulted ceilings made of mud bricks. It overshadows a tomb discovered in Abydos a decade ago, which was hailed as the first physical evidence of a "lost" dynasty of kings.

"This is a new chapter in the exploration of this dynasty," said Josef Wegner, curator at the Penn Museum in Philadelphia and head of the American side of the excavation, in an interview.

Earlier this month, Egypt's Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities briefly described the findings in Abydos, but the Penn Museum researchers provided more details about the discovery on Thursday.

The similarities between the newly discovered tomb and one found in 2014, which belonged to a king named Seneb-Kay, led the archaeologists to conclude that the unknown Pharaoh might be an earlier member of the so-called Abydos dynasty.

In the newly discovered tomb, painted scenes on the plastered walls decorate the entrance of the limestone burial chamber, depicting the goddess Isis and her sister Nephthys, who were often paired together in funerary rituals.

"This tomb and the tomb of Seneb-Kay are the first surviving royal tombs that actually have painted decoration inside them," said Wegner.

In the Abydos tomb, no recognizable skeletal remains were found, and much like another tomb discovered this year near the Valley of the Kings, it has suffered significant damage over the years.

It is worth noting that the tomb was likely looted by tomb robbers, as a large recess in the burial chamber for the canopic jars—vessels for organs, usually stored in a gilded box—was found empty. However, the archaeologists discovered pottery and inscriptions around Abydos indicating that, during the late Roman period—around 1,700 years ago—people dug into the tombs to extract the limestone, granite, and quartzite materials within.

Whose Tomb Is It?

Although the name of the ruler in the recently excavated tomb was once visible on the yellow strips of hieroglyphic text, the actions of ancient tomb robbers had rendered it illegible.

"They did enough damage to the decoration that we only have the base of what would have been the columns of the identifying text," Wegner remarked.

Kathryn Howley, an archaeologist at New York University, commented, "This is a truly significant find. It sheds light on a period when ancient Egypt was fragmented between competing powers, leaving fewer material remains for researchers to study today," adding, "In other words, we don’t have a huge volume of primary material to work with, which makes a new discovery like this so exciting. It really has the potential to rewrite the history of ancient Egypt."

Wegner, noting that the skeleton of Seneb-Kay suggests he may have died in battle, said the period seems to represent "a phase of warrior Pharaohs fighting."

However, the new findings suggest that the Abydos dynasty was not "some sort of flash in the pan, where we have a handful of kings breaking away from the original territory to which they belonged."

Wegner stated there are several candidates for who could have been buried in this tomb, including two kings named Senaiib and Paentjeni, who dedicated monuments in Abydos. He added that the team plans to manage and protect the site, with plans to continue excavating in search of other sites and tombs.

"It’s always our dream to find one that’s intact or partially intact. There may still be such tombs out there," concluded Wegner, curator at the Penn Museum.

While Digging for a Water Pipeline, Fossils of a Prehistoric Beast Were Discovered

While digging for a water pipeline in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia, workers uncovered the remains of a previously unknown dinosaur species, belonging to the Therizinosaur group. These dinosaurs, known for their distinctive features, stood on two legs and had small heads, chubby bodies, wings, and long necks.

The newly discovered species, which lived approximately 90-95 million years ago, has been named Duonychus tsogtbaatar, or "Tsogtbaatar's Duonychus," in honor of Mongolian paleontologist Khisigjav Tsogtbaatar. The creature was around three meters long, weighed approximately 250 kilograms, and sported claws measuring 30 centimeters in length.

An artistic rendering of Duonychus grazing on trees (Masato Hattor)

Therizinosaurs, which lived in both Asia and North America, were known for their long claws. However, Duonychus is the only known member of this group to have only two fingers, rather than the usual three.

Additionally, one of its claws still retains a layer of keratin—the protein from which human nails are made. Unlike our nails, however, dinosaur claws contained bone material inside.

The preservation of keratin "is extremely rare and provides us with fascinating new insights into how these dinosaurs may have used their hands," said Yoshitsugu Kobayashi, a researcher at Hokkaido University in Japan, who led the study published in iScience.

The claw at the top of the image still holds a layer of keratin (Kobayashi et al/iScience)

The research team suggests that Duonychus likely used its curved claws to grasp branches while foraging for vegetation. A modern-day comparison would be the sloth, which uses its sharp claws to cling to branches.

However, it’s also possible that Duonychus used its claws for defense.

The skeleton, which does not include the head or the back legs, likely belongs to a juvenile individual.

This dinosaur lived in a semi-desert environment alongside other therizinosaurs and an early ancestor of the tyrannosaurus known as Alectrosaurus.

While tyrannosaurs were also bipedal and had sharp claws, these were used for hunting, not defense. Tyrannosaurs, which belonged to the theropod group, were carnivores, in contrast to the herbivorous therizinosaurs.

An artistic depiction of Duonychus' claws (Masato Hattor)

Lost Manuscript of the King Arthur Legend Hidden Inside Another Book

For over four centuries, a priceless piece of Merlin's history remained hidden deep within an Elizabethan registry, used simply as a book cover. Today, thanks to advanced imaging techniques and the dedication of researchers from the University of Cambridge, a 700-year-old fragment of the Suite Vulgate du Merlin has come to light, revealing new and exciting details about the famous wizard and the court of King Arthur.

The fragment, written in Old French, is one of fewer than 40 surviving copies of a rare medieval version of the Merlin story. It had remained unrecorded and overlooked for centuries, initially thought to contain the story of Gawain. However, a team of researchers at Cambridge recognized its significance, and using cutting-edge technology, they were able to "unfold" and read it for the first time in centuries.

The Ancient Greeks Who Impressed Audiences in the Colosseum and Defeated Their Opponents with Pankration – They Became Famous and Rich

The finest athletes of ancient Greece were already trained in hand-to-hand combat.

There are indications that Greek athletes, particularly pankratiasts and boxers, participated as gladiators in Roman arenas, either for money, or because they were captured or forced into it.

When Rome conquered Greece, the Romans were amazed by the Greeks’ martial arts, especially pankration (a brutal form of wrestling-boxing). Some former Olympic champions or Panhellenic athletes were recruited or persuaded to become gladiators due to their fame and strength.

The Roman writer Juvenal mentions that "Greek athletes, who gained glory at Olympia, ended up fighting as gladiators for the entertainment of the Romans."

Pankration was so violent that it was often compared to gladiatorial combat. The Romans adopted this martial art and trained gladiators in similar techniques.

Some pankratiasts and boxers were either captured and forced to fight, or persuaded by the Romans to join the arenas as professional gladiators, offered money and fame.

The best athletes of ancient Greece were already trained in hand-to-hand combat, which made them ideal candidates for the gladiatorial games.

Callias of Rhodes is cited as one of the toughest pankratiasts, who likely participated in Roman arenas.

Cleitus of Rhodes is rumored to have been called to compete in a Roman arena after his victories in Greek competitions.

Reports suggest that Roman gladiators were trained by Greek pankratiasts because of their expertise in unarmed combat.

AI Uncovers a 5,000-Year-Old Civilization Beneath the Arabian Desert

Artificial intelligence (AI) has long been a subject of debate, but a groundbreaking archaeological discovery proves its remarkable potential in unveiling the past. Researchers from Khalifa University in Abu Dhabi have identified traces of a 5,000-year-old civilization hidden beneath the sands of one of the world's largest deserts—thanks to a new AI-driven approach.

High-Tech Archaeology in the "Empty Quarter"

The findings, published in the journal Geosciences, reveal evidence of an ancient civilization buried beneath the sands of Saruq Al-Hadid, an archaeological site located in the Rub al-Khali Desert. Also known as the "Empty Quarter," this vast desert spans over 650,000 square kilometers across the Arabian Peninsula, making it the largest continuous sand expanse on Earth.

The extreme environment has historically made archaeological exploration nearly impossible. However, by combining Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) technology with AI-powered analysis of satellite images, researchers were able to automate the detection and mapping of the site—a feat that would have been unthinkable using traditional methods.

“Because of the climate and the vast desert landscape, ground inspections were incredibly difficult,” explains Diana Francis, head of the Environmental and Geophysical Sciences Lab at Khalifa University. “That’s why satellite data was crucial. We also needed technology capable of ‘seeing’ beneath the sand.”

Precision Mapping & 3D Reconstruction

The AI-driven method boasts an impressive accuracy of up to 50 centimeters, enabling the creation of detailed 3D models of the structures buried beneath the desert. These digital reconstructions provide valuable visual data for further study, offering archaeologists an unprecedented view of ancient settlements.

Future Excavations & Expanding Research

Following the study’s publication, Dubai’s Cultural Authority—which oversees the region’s archaeological sites—has approved physical excavations at the location. Scientists are optimistic that these AI-powered techniques can be refined and scaled up for use in larger areas with similar conditions.

"These regions remain largely unexplored, yet we know they hold cultural history," says Francis.

This breakthrough marks a major advancement in archaeological research, demonstrating how AI and remote sensing can revolutionize the way we uncover lost civilizations—even in the harshest environments on Earth.

Did Homer Really Exist? What Scientific Research Reveals

Unraveling the “Homeric Question”: Investigating Homer’s Existence

The enigmatic figure of Homer, traditionally credited with composing the epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, has been the subject of scholarly debate for centuries.

This discussion, known as the “Homeric Question”, examines the authorship, composition, and historical authenticity of these monumental works. The central issue remains: Was Homer a single poet, or are these epics the culmination of a collective oral tradition?

Historical Perspectives and Scholarly Debates

In antiquity, Homer was revered as the sole genius behind The Iliad and The Odyssey. However, during the 18th and 19th centuries, scholars began to challenge this idea. The groundbreaking work of Friedrich August Wolf, Prolegomena ad Homerum (1795), argued that the epics were not the creation of a single author but rather an evolution of smaller, independent songs passed down orally for centuries before being compiled into the texts we know today.

This theory gave rise to two major schools of thought:

• The Analysts, who believed the epics were composed by multiple poets.

• The Unitarians, who argued that a single poet must have been responsible for their cohesive structure and artistic unity.

Oral Tradition and Milman Parry’s Contribution

In the early 20th century, a paradigm shift occurred with Milman Parry’s pioneering research on oral composition. Parry identified repeated phrases and epithets within Homeric texts, suggesting that these were hallmarks of oral storytelling techniques.

His work demonstrated that the epics were products of a long-standing oral tradition, in which bards relied on formulaic expressions to aid memorization and the recitation of extensive narratives.

Linguistic and Archaeological Insights

Linguistic studies have provided further context to the debate. Research using evolutionary language models has dated the composition of Homeric epics to approximately the 8th century BCE, aligning with traditional estimates.

Archaeological discoveries have also played a role. The excavations of Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlik (ancient Troy) uncovered evidence suggesting that events similar to those described in The Iliad may have a historical basis. However, these findings do not conclusively prove Homer’s existence as a historical figure.

The Question of Homer’s Historicity

Despite his legendary status in Western literature, no definitive biographical evidence confirms Homer’s existence. Ancient sources offer contradictory accounts:

• Herodotus placed Homer around 850 BCE,

• Others assigned him to different centuries or even denied his existence altogether.

The so-called Lives of Homer, written centuries after his supposed time, mix myths and speculation, with various Greek cities competing to claim him as their own. Modern scholars generally regard these narratives as more mythical than factual.

As Mary R. Lefkowitz argues in The Lives of the Greek Poets (1981), these biographies reflect the imagination and cultural values of later generations rather than historical reality. Furthermore, there are no inscriptions, contemporary records, or archaeological findings that confirm Homer’s existence.

From this perspective, many scholars view “Homer” not as a historical individual, but as a symbolic name—possibly representing a guild of bards or the culmination of a poetic tradition.

Modern Scholarly Consensus

Today, most researchers agree that The Iliad and The Odyssey emerged from a rich oral tradition, refined over generations before being committed to writing. While the idea of a singular poet named Homer remains a subject of inquiry, there is no concrete evidence supporting his existence. Instead, the epics likely represent a collective storytelling tradition, capturing the cultural and historical consciousness of Ancient Greece.