Peru: Archaeologists Uncover 2,500-Year-Old Secret Chamber Used for Elite Drug Rituals

Archaeologists in Peru have unearthed a sealed chamber dating back 2,500 years, believed to have been used for secret drug rituals by the elite of a pre-Inca civilization. The discovery, made at the ancient site of Chavín de Huántar, sheds new light on the spiritual and social practices of one of the Andes’ oldest cultures.

The chamber contained 23 intricately carved artifacts made from bone and shell. Chemical traces on these objects revealed residues of nicotine and DMT—the powerful hallucinogen found in ayahuasca. The discovery was detailed in a study published Monday in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

Traces of a Psychedelic Past

This marks the first time scientists have been able to identify specific psychoactive substances used in Chavín rituals, which scholars had long suspected involved mind-altering substances. Chemical and microbotanical analysis of the tools showed that six of them contained organic compounds from tobacco and vilca (Anadenanthera colubrina), a plant whose seeds and leaves are rich in DMT.

Researchers believe the materials were likely dried, ground into powder, and then inhaled through the nose. “We think the tubes were used as inhalers for snuffing the material nasally,” said archaeologist Daniel Contreras of the University of Florida in an interview with Live Science.

To make the imagery even clearer, Contreras added, “The tubes are essentially like the rolled-up banknotes you see high-powered characters snorting cocaine with in the movies.”

Rituals of Power and Exclusivity

The inhalers—likely crafted from hawk feather bones—were found in a sealed underground passage that was closed off around 500 BCE. The restricted access suggests the rituals were highly exclusive, reinforcing the idea that drug use among the Chavín was not recreational, but ceremonial and deeply tied to social hierarchy.

As the researchers noted, such practices likely served to reinforce spiritual and political authority, separating the elite from the laborers who built the site’s monumental stone architecture. “One way inequality was justified or naturalized was through ideology—by creating awe-inspiring ritual experiences that made people believe this system was a good idea,” said Contreras.

A Glimpse Into Ancient Social Transformation

The study’s authors suggest these findings offer important insight into how ritual drug use may have helped support broader social transformations in the Andes. Practices like those seen at Chavín may have paved the way for more stratified societies such as Tiwanaku, Wari, and eventually the Inca Empire.

This discovery not only brings us closer to understanding ancient Andean belief systems, but also highlights how ritual, spirituality, and power were deeply intertwined—even in the distant past.

The Skeleton in the Vergina Tomb Isn’t Philip II’s, Father of Alexander the Great, New Study Finds

What radiocarbon dating revealed, according to the research director at the Demokritos National Center for Scientific Research

A long-held belief about one of ancient Greece’s most significant archaeological discoveries has now been called into question. A new scientific study argues that the skeleton found in one of the royal tombs at Vergina does not belong to Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, as previously thought.

The findings come from a recent study led by Dr. Giannis Maniatis, Director of Research at the Laboratory of Archaeometry at Greece’s National Center for Scientific Research “Demokritos.” Using advanced radiocarbon dating methods, his team concluded that the remains found in Tomb I at the Great Tumulus of Vergina date to between 388 and 356 BCE—decades before Philip II’s known death in 336 BCE.

This revision significantly challenges past claims. Ever since the discovery of the vast burial complex at Vergina—believed to be the royal necropolis of the ancient Macedonian capital Aigai—archaeologists have debated the identities of the remains in the tombs known as Tombs I, II, and III. These had been tentatively linked to Alexander’s half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus, his son Alexander IV, and his father, Philip II himself. The actual tomb of Alexander the Great remains unknown.

Last year, a team led by Professor Antonios Bartsiokas of the Democritus University of Thrace claimed to have finally settled the debate, asserting that the remains in the tombs definitively belonged to Alexander’s family—Philip II among them.

But Dr. Maniatis’s new study presents compelling counterevidence. Not only does the radiocarbon dating preclude the possibility that the male remains belong to Philip II, but analysis also revealed that the man died between the ages of 25 and 35—considerably younger than Philip, who was around 45 years old when assassinated.

Another major blow to the previous identification is the discovery of infant bones in the tomb. Contrary to earlier assumptions that these belonged to a single child (possibly Philip’s and Cleopatra’s infant), the new study found remains from at least six different infants.

Even more striking: these infant remains date to the Roman period (150–130 BCE)—more than 200 years after the adult’s death. Researchers believe Roman-era parents may have buried their deceased infants in the preexisting tomb through an opening left by Celtic tomb raiders in the 3rd century BCE. That opening remained accessible well into Roman times.

In light of this new evidence, Dr. Maniatis and his colleagues conclude that the previous theory—linking the remains in Tomb I to Philip II, his wife Cleopatra, and their infant—is no longer scientifically tenable.

The true final resting place of Philip II of Macedon, the man who laid the groundwork for Alexander the Great’s empire, remains a mystery.

Scientists Discover the Explosive Origins of Gold — And the Answer Is Truly Stellar

A groundbreaking new study has shed light on one of the universe’s most captivating mysteries: the origin of gold and other heavy metals essential to our daily lives.

According to research reported by The Washington Post, elements heavier than iron — including uranium and gold — may have formed in dramatic explosions from a rare type of star known as a magnetar. These magnetars, which existed long before the birth of our solar system, could have been one of the earliest sources of precious metals on Earth, as detailed in a study published in the Astrophysical Journal.

This discovery is crucial, as life on Earth would not have flourished without heavy metals, even with water and oxygen in place. Everything from our smartphones to Earth’s core — and even the functioning of the human body — depends on these elements.

“If you think about the fundamental components everything is made of — neutrons, protons, and electrons — the real question becomes: how does nature forge these simple particles into the complex matter that surrounds us?” explained Anirudh Patel, lead author of the study and a doctoral researcher at Columbia University.

The Recipe for Heavy Metals

Over the years, scientists have identified two key conditions for the creation of heavy metals:

1. A dense environment filled with abundant neutrons and protons.

2. A much higher number of neutrons than protons — otherwise, the protons would repel each other, preventing stable element formation.

Neutron Stars: The Usual Suspects

The prime candidate for such conditions has long been neutron stars, the densest known objects in the universe. These stars are formed when a massive star explodes in a supernova and collapses into an incredibly compact core — a neutron star.

“If you disturb a neutron star, you’re releasing the densest matter in the universe — essentially pure neutrons,” said Eric Burns, co-author and astrophysicist at Louisiana State University.

In 2017, scientists observed two neutron stars merging, confirming for the first time that such collisions produce vast quantities of heavy elements. The gold formed in that single event was several times more massive than Earth.

“That was the first observational proof that merging neutron stars can create heavy elements,” said Patel. But as he pointed out, neutron star mergers alone couldn’t account for all the metals in the universe.

A Missing Piece: Magnetar Explosions

For one thing, neutron star mergers happen too late in cosmic history to explain why even the earliest stars contained heavy elements. For another, they’re rare — occurring roughly once every 100,000 years — and couldn’t be the universe’s only source of such materials.

That’s where magnetars come in — a subtype of neutron stars with the most extreme magnetic fields in the cosmos. The research team suspected that a magnetar explosion, or "giant flare," might unleash enough energy to forge huge quantities of heavy elements.

“You take the densest object in the universe, the strongest magnetic fields, and you break it apart,” said Burns. “The energy release is absolutely colossal.”

Rare but Powerful Events

Magnetars are rare, but they explode frequently enough and are believed to have existed in the early galaxy. Still, it wasn’t until recently that scientists were able to test whether one of their flares could indeed create heavy metals.

Only three such “giant flares” have been recorded in the past 60 years, but one extraordinary event in 2004 changed everything. A magnetar erupted with such force that it disturbed Earth’s ionosphere — despite being located 30,000 light-years away.

A Flash That Matched the Model

“That a flare from across the galaxy could impact Earth so strongly is incredible,” said Brian Metzger, co-author and astrophysicist at Columbia University. “It may have been the brightest electromagnetic event we’ve ever observed outside our solar system.”

The flare not only emitted a blinding burst of light, but also ejected material from the neutron star’s surface. As this material expanded and cooled, the protons and neutrons recombined into heavier elements — such as gold, platinum, and uranium.

These elements were initially radioactive and unstable, but they later decayed into their stable forms, releasing energy in the form of gamma rays.

Patel’s team modeled which elements would likely be formed and how much gamma-ray energy would be released as they decayed. When they compared their predictions with actual gamma-ray data from the flare, the match was surprisingly accurate.

The flare produced more heavy elements than the mass of Mars — a staggering cosmic output.

A New Chapter in Cosmic Chemistry

“This is a very exciting development,” said Hsinyu Chen, an astrophysicist at the University of Texas at Austin who was not involved in the study. Scientists had long suspected multiple mechanisms for the creation of heavy elements, she added, “but they couldn’t definitively prove it until now.”

Anna Frebel, a professor of physics and head of astrophysics at MIT, echoed this view, noting that the findings help explain how heavy metals could have formed in the early universe — in ways neutron star mergers alone couldn’t.

On a more personal note, Frebel said, “We can now say with some confidence that our gold and platinum jewelry probably came from stellar explosions and neutron star mergers that happened around a billion years before the Sun was born.”

Vikings Were Far More Violent Than We Thought, Bone Analysis Reveals

A recent study of human remains from Norway is reshaping what we thought we knew about Viking society—revealing a level of violence that may have far exceeded earlier assumptions. Nearly 40% of the skeletons examined by researchers showed signs of violent death, including fractured skulls, sword wounds to the back and legs, and embedded arrowheads.

The research was led by Lisa Mariann Strand, an osteologist and PhD candidate at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), who remarked:

“Violence was widespread—even within the relatively small sample of remains we had available.”

Not All Vikings Were Equally Violent

The popular image of the Viking as a bloodthirsty warrior, obsessed with glory in death and the promise of Valhalla, may need revising. While history paints Vikings as brutal conquerors who ravaged parts of Britain, Iceland, and Greenland, the study highlights striking regional differences in how violence manifested across Scandinavia.

For example, remains found in Norway showed clear signs of close combat and ambush-style attacks. In contrast, skeletons in Denmark were overwhelmingly marked by signs of execution, especially decapitation.
“Beheadings aren’t something you do in the heat of battle,” explained Strand. “They require time, control, and authority.”

Executions in Denmark Suggest a Centralized Power Structure

According to sociologist David Jacobson from the University of South Florida, mass executions point to a highly organized and centralized authority. On the other hand, the more chaotic and sporadic violence seen in Norwegian remains suggests a society that was either decentralized or frequently in internal conflict.

The Gokstad Ship and the Rarity of Elite Burials

Among the most iconic archaeological finds from the Viking Age in Norway is the Gokstad ship, now on display at Oslo’s Viking Ship Museum. This exceptionally well-preserved vessel has been the focus of intense research by archaeologist Jan Bill, who also supervises Strand’s doctoral work.

The man buried in the Gokstad ship appears to have died in battle. The grandeur of his burial and the wealth of accompanying artifacts suggest he was a figure of high status—perhaps a king or warlord.

But burials of this kind are extremely rare. As Bill points out, while such graves provide impressive archaeological snapshots, they offer only limited insight into the broader social and political structures of the Viking Age.

Graves and Weapons: A Deeper Look at Viking Violence

To gain a fuller understanding of the violence reflected in skeletal remains, researchers turned to another enduring source of information: grave goods. These included not just weapons, but also jewelry, tools, and everyday items—each offering clues about the deceased’s identity, role, and standing in their community.

Jan Bill noted a striking disparity between Norwegian and Danish burial practices.
“In Norway, weapons in graves are extremely common,” he explained. “In Denmark, they’re rare.”
In fact, when adjusted for population, weapons were found up to 50 times more frequently in Norwegian graves than in Danish ones.

Iron, Warfare, and Cultural Divergence

The abundance of iron in Norway likely played a crucial role. Easier access to materials for crafting weapons may have contributed to a more militarized society. Bill compares Viking swords to modern firearms:

“They served no purpose other than to kill—or to threaten death.”

From the Battlefield to the Heart of Society

These findings don’t just change how we understand Viking deaths—they offer valuable insight into how Viking societies functioned. They reveal layers of social structure, legal practices, and power dynamics that challenge the simplistic stereotype of the uniformly savage Viking warrior.

Instead, what emerges is a complex mosaic of differing cultures and political systems across Scandinavia—some considerably more violent than others.

Peristeria Archaeological Site: Aerial Views of the "Mycenae" of Western Peloponnese

Perched on a hill in a strategic location just 8 kilometers northeast of Kyparissia and 5 kilometers from the northwestern coast of Messenia, the archaeological site of Peristeria offers a window into one of mainland Greece’s most important Mycenaean centers. Thanks to the excavations led by renowned archaeologists Spyridon Marinatos and Georgios Korres during the 1960s and 1970s, the site earned the nickname “The Mycenae of Western Peloponnese.”

A Flourishing Mycenaean Hub

Peristeria reached the peak of its development during the early Mycenaean period (17th–16th century BCE) and continued to thrive until the 15th century BCE. During this time, the southern side of the hill was fortified with defensive walls, habitation increased, and a powerful local center emerged. This settlement was ruled by influential elites who controlled the region’s wealth and demonstrated openness to new cultural influences of the era.

Their status and authority are reflected in the abundance of luxurious grave goods—crafted from gold and other precious or semi-precious materials—unearthed mainly in the site’s monumental tholos (beehive) tombs.

Layers of History Beneath the Hill

The earliest constructions on Peristeria’s hill date back to around 2200 BCE, particularly around the large, reconstructed tholos tomb. Among the most significant finds is a small, gold-rich tomb—named for the large number of gold objects discovered within. Nearby, in a multi-room building adjacent to the tomb, archaeologists uncovered a variety of household items, giving insight into daily life in the settlement.

A Glimpse into Life and Death in Mycenaean Times

To the west of the hill lies the third tholos tomb, the smallest of the three, with a diameter of 6.9 meters. Although only a two-meter-high section of its dome survives, the tomb dates to around 1200 BCE and contained some striking artifacts: a 13.5 cm tall golden cup, numerous gold leaves, and ornate gold jewelry. The discovery of military equipment in the tomb points to the warrior status of at least one of its occupants.

A fourth tholos tomb, located about 100 meters south of the main archaeological area, stood out for a different reason. Unlike the others, it contained no metal objects but had been used for over 15 burials. Archaeologists believe this was the cemetery for the general population of Peristeria. This finding is particularly significant, as it suggests that even ordinary people had access to this monumental burial style.

He Lived in the Parthenon with the Most Famous Courtesans—And the Athenians Loved Him

No one else ever dared to live inside the Parthenon. But Demetrius the Besieger did—and he did so in style, surrounded by the most famous courtesans of his time. And rather than condemning him, the people of Athens adored him.

A City Past Its Prime, Still Radiating Power

By 295 BCE, Athens was no longer the formidable city of Pericles. Yet it still held a magnetic charm for kings, generals, and philosophers alike. When Demetrius Poliorcetes entered the city, the Athenians didn’t treat him like a foreign conqueror—they welcomed him. They opened the gates of the Acropolis, and Demetrius moved right into the Parthenon itself.

This wasn’t just a military occupation—it was a personal statement. The temple once dedicated to Athena, home to her legendary statue, was transformed into Demetrius’s private residence. And he wasn’t alone. By his side was Lamia, the most celebrated courtesan of the Hellenistic era. She followed him like a queen in all but title.

A Scandalous Spectacle—or a New Ideal?

As shocking as it might sound today, the image of Demetrius turning the sacred heart of Athens into his personal palace didn’t provoke outrage. On the contrary—the city fell in love with him. They named him Savior, erected statues in his honor, and showered him with accolades surpassing those given to their most distinguished statesmen. Why? Perhaps because he brought with him wealth, charisma, and a sense of security during turbulent times.

No one before him had dared to inhabit the space built for the gods themselves. And yet Demetrius was embraced. For a moment in history, the Parthenon—Athens’s eternal symbol of divine power—became the residence of one of the most theatrical figures of the Hellenistic world. The sacred center of worship briefly became a center of earthly authority.

Lamia: More Than a Courtesan

Lamia, with her intelligence, courage, and independence, embodied a new era. In this shifting world, women of the court could be more than companions—they were icons of influence. Lamia didn’t hide in the shadows. She stood in plain view, proud of her place beside power. And the Athenians? They didn’t recoil at her presence—they admired her boldness.

Demetrius didn’t hold Athens forever, but his legacy lingered. No one else dared to do what he did—live inside the Parthenon. If that temple once belonged to the goddess Athena, for a brief moment, it belonged to the man who dared to sleep among its columns.

Artificial Intelligence Helps Solve One of Archaeology’s Greatest Mysteries

For over a century, the Nazca Lines of Peru have baffled archaeologists. These vast geoglyphs—created by the Nazca people between 200 BCE and 650 CE—stretch across the desert, depicting animals, plants, and tools in patterns so enormous they’re only fully visible from the air. The purpose behind these intricate designs has remained elusive—until now.

Thanks to a groundbreaking collaboration between archaeologists and artificial intelligence (AI), 303 new geoglyphs have been identified in just six months—doubling the number previously known. This remarkable achievement, reported by Science Focus, marks a major leap forward in unraveling one of archaeology’s longest-standing enigmas.

The Power of AI in Archaeological Research

Led by Professor Masato Sakai of Yamagata University’s Nazca Institute, researchers partnered with IBM scientists to train AI systems capable of scanning vast aerial image datasets. This allowed them to detect geoglyphs that had long gone unnoticed. As Sakai explains, “The ability to conduct such intensive research in such a short period of time was only possible with the help of AI.”

AI isn’t just helping archaeologists find more geoglyphs—it’s transforming the way ancient cultures are studied. By analyzing aerial photographs, AI can spot subtle patterns that the human eye might miss, offering a faster and more precise way to map and interpret ancient sites.

And this is only the beginning. The same technology is now being applied at archaeological sites around the world, from ancient burial mounds to long-lost shipwrecks.

A New Era in Understanding Ancient Civilizations

The Nazca Lines are now considered one of the most successful early case studies for AI in archaeology. Created by scraping away the top layer of desert soil to reveal lighter material beneath, these lines showcase the Nazca people’s advanced understanding of geometry and proportion.

German mathematician and astronomer Maria Reiche dedicated decades of her life to studying the lines, often emphasizing their “perfect” symmetry. Today, AI is helping researchers uncover even more of these designs, providing fresh insight into their possible meanings and uses.

Traditionally, archaeologists relied on ground surveys, photography, and manual mapping to study ancient sites. But as Dr. João Fonte of ERA Arqueologia notes, “Archaeology is truly at the forefront of innovation” when it comes to embracing digital tools.

In addition to AI, archaeologists are now using photogrammetry and remote sensing technologies to study expansive areas with unprecedented speed and accuracy.

Decoding the Purpose of the Nazca Lines

One of the most exciting outcomes of this AI-powered discovery is the growing understanding of why the Nazca Lines were created. Professor Sakai’s team believes many of the newly uncovered geoglyphs were part of ceremonial pathways—routes people walked to interact with the land and communicate with their gods. This supports the idea that the lines weren’t just artistic expressions but served spiritual and cultural purposes.

AI’s ability to identify and map these geoglyphs has opened new possibilities for exploring how the Nazca people connected with their environment, and how their knowledge of spatial planning and astronomy shaped their world.

Looking Ahead: The Future of AI in Archaeology

While AI has already revolutionized the study of the Nazca Lines, its potential in archaeology is far-reaching. Dr. Alexandra Karamitrou, an AI and archaeology specialist at the University of Southampton, is developing tools that could help identify a broader range of ancient sites.

Her research shows that AI can go beyond detecting visible features like geoglyphs—it can analyze complex relationships between these sites and environmental factors such as water sources or topography.

AI applications now extend well beyond South America. In 2023, researchers in the United Arab Emirates used AI to analyze satellite data from Saruq Al Hadid, a copper-smelting site dating back to 1270–800 BCE. The system provided insights into how artifacts were distributed across the site and helped prioritize excavation efforts.

This same technology could soon be used to study sunken shipwrecks, buried cities, or even how climate change has impacted ancient settlements.

Caution and Potential: The Limits of AI in Archaeology

Despite the promise of AI, it’s not without its challenges. Professor Sakai’s team still had to manually verify dozens of AI-generated suggestions for each newly discovered geoglyph. “AI isn’t perfect—especially in archaeology,” admits Dr. Karamitrou. “But in a few years, we could be developing highly accurate algorithms that save researchers time, energy, and money.”

As AI tools continue to evolve, they are expected to become even more precise—allowing archaeologists to explore larger regions with fewer resources. Automating the detection of ancient sites could dramatically increase the speed and scope of archaeological research, revealing hidden treasures and unlocking the secrets of long-lost civilizations.

The Ancient Greek Ports Swallowed by the Sea

In ancient times, the sea level was significantly lower. Today, some of the bustling ports of ancient Greece lie submerged beneath the waves. These once-thriving coastal hubs—centers of trade, life, and naval power—have been consumed by the sea, leaving behind only traces of their existence. Let’s explore the cities that have been literally swallowed by the water.

The image of a port as a place of life, commerce, connection, and shelter is deeply ingrained in Greece’s historical identity. Yet many ports that once hosted triremes, merchants, and generals now rest underwater, either submerged or vanished entirely—silent casualties of a changing seascape. These aren’t myths, but real places that highlight how dramatically landscapes can shift over the millennia.

During the Late Bronze Age, around 1200 BCE, sea levels were generally 1 to 2 meters lower than today. This means ancient ports were often located farther inland than one would expect now. Some now sit completely underwater, a testament to how time and nature have redrawn coastlines.

In the Argolid region, the ancient city of Asine once had a port that is now beneath the sea. Mycenaean structures in the area are still visible to divers—stone walls and roads lying quietly underwater. Here, the sea didn’t destroy history; it covered it, preserving fragments of the past beneath its surface.

On the island of Samos, the area around the Heraion (Sanctuary of Hera) was once protected by an artificial breakwater from the Archaic period, now submerged. Archaeological findings show the port was active in the 6th century BCE, while the current shoreline lies well inland compared to its ancient position.

In Piraeus, the ancient military harbors of Zea, Mounichia, and Kantharos have shifted significantly in relation to today’s coastline. Excavations and research have revealed highly advanced shipbuilding facilities for their time, complete with dry docks and warehouses—many now buried under modern constructions or lying underwater.

In Antikyra, Boeotia, the ancient harbor now lies several meters out to sea. Where ships once moored, only submerged lines of stone walls and foundations remain, visible only from the air or on especially clear days.

Off the western coast of Crete, in the Gulf of Kissamos, diving expeditions have uncovered submerged roads and building foundations, evidence that the shoreline of the Roman-era city was displaced due to seismic activity and gradual sea-level rise.

These changes aren’t due to rising seas alone. Earthquakes and land subsidence often played a role, triggering sudden and dramatic shifts in terrain. One striking example lies outside Greece but within the Hellenic world—Alexandria, Egypt. Large portions of this ancient Greek-founded city are now underwater, a powerful reminder of nature’s ability to reshape human settlements.

Back in the Argolid, the port of Epidaurus Limera also succumbed gradually to the rising sea. Once a bustling harbor, its facilities now form a popular diving site, where submerged ruins offer a glimpse into the past.

Ancient climate shifts, seismic events, and the complex geology of the Mediterranean have transformed Greece’s coastal landscapes. Where we now see sea, there may once have been a market, a temple, or a pier. Greece, renowned for its castles and sculptures on land, also hides a submerged world—an underwater history waiting to resurface, if only in the imagination of those who uncover its story.

Alistrati Cave: A Hidden Underground Wonder Guided by the Robot Persephone

Tucked away in the region of Serres, Northern Greece, the Alistrati Cave has welcomed more than a million visitors—both Greek and international—into its breathtaking depths. Often described as one of the planet’s underground marvels, it showcases extraordinary geological formations sculpted inch by inch over millions of years. These natural masterpieces leave guests awe-struck, especially when they discover that their journey through the cave begins not with a traditional guide, but with Persephone, the world’s only cave-based robot guide, fluent in 33 languages—including Ancient Greek and the regional dialect of Pontic Greek.

A Journey of Patience and Geological Artistry

The process of a single drop of water transforming into a stalactite or stalagmite is one of nature’s most poetic expressions of patience and persistence. Shaped by the slow passage of time and subtle geological forces, these formations often take centuries—even millennia—to develop. As Professor Nikos Kartalis, the cave’s scientific director and an economist at the University of Western Macedonia, puts it:

Nikos Kartalis, Scientific Director at the Alistrati Cave, pictured with Persephone, the robot tour guide
Photo: AMNA/Achilleas Chiras

“Every stalactite and stalagmite tells a story—one that reminds us of nature’s quiet yet relentless ability to create beauty.”

According to Kartalis, it takes about 40 days for a single drop of water to travel from the 40-meter-thick cave ceiling down to the ground. And to grow just one centimeter of a stalactite or stalagmite? That can take anywhere from 50 to 500 years.

Inside the Cave: A Living Museum Beneath the Earth

A Lego-built robot is programmed to give a tour on a tabletop map of the Alistrati Cave, as part of the site’s guided experience
Photo: AMNA/Achilleas Chiras

Located just six kilometers from the town of Alistrati, the cave stretches roughly three kilometers in length, with one kilometer accessible to visitors on guided tours lasting about an hour. The temperature inside remains a steady 18°C year-round—refreshingly cool in summer and comfortably warm in winter.

The cave is adorned with large stalactites and stalagmites in a range of colors, but what truly sets it apart are its eccentrics or helictites—rare formations that defy gravity with their twisting, seemingly impossible shapes.

“What makes the Alistrati Cave truly unique in Greece is its wide variety of eccentric formations,” notes Kartalis.

The cave is also home to microscopic life forms, including Alistratia Beroni, a one-of-a-kind isopod species measuring just 3 millimeters.

Persephone: The Robot Revolutionizing Cave Tours

Guiding visitors through the first 100 meters of the cave is Persephone, a robot developed by the Foundation for Research and Technology – Hellas (FORTH). Built entirely in Greece, both in hardware and software, Persephone can answer over 30 pre-set questions, providing a high-tech, multilingual introduction to the wonders of the cave. Its creation is part of the "i-cave" initiative—one of five steps in a broader digital transformation funded by the EU’s Interreg program.

But Persephone is just the beginning.

Stalactites inside the Alistrati Cave
Photo: AMNA/Achilleas Chiras

Visitors can now scan QR codes placed throughout the cave to access detailed geological information and even listen to the myth of Persephone’s abduction by Hades—in Ancient Greek, no less. The cave also offers 3D visualizations of its unique cave-dwelling species (including local bats and Alistrati Beroni), and a digital portrayal of its mythical inhabitant, the goddess Persephone.

Virtual Reality and the Future of the Alistrati Experience

The digital transformation doesn’t stop there. The Alistrati Cave is embracing Virtual Reality (VR), allowing visitors to explore areas of the cave that are inaccessible in person. There are also plans for educational robotics workshops where students can build and program miniature tour-guide robots to simulate Persephone’s path through a specially designed area.

Coming soon is a holographic installation of the goddess Demeter, Persephone’s mother, at the cave’s entrance. As visitors pass through the tunnel leading into the cave, the hologram will narrate the myth of Hades’ love for Persephone and her descent into the underworld—foreshadowing the ancient secrets hidden within the cave itself.

Nikos Kartalis, Scientific Director, presents an interactive virtual reality tour of the Alistrati Cave using a VR headset, as part of the site's guided experience in Alistrati
Photo: AMNA/Achilleas Chiras

A Model for Innovation and Sustainability

“With these developments, Alistrati Cave is not only a model of innovation and digital transformation for Greece’s caves—it’s setting an example for the world,” says Kartalis.
He emphasizes that technological advancements ensure both the site’s preservation and its ongoing appeal to new generations of explorers.

The Angitis Gorge Train: A Journey Through Prehistoric Art

Adjacent to the cave is the Angitis Gorge, once served by a tourist train that winds through the dramatic landscape. Though currently paused for infrastructure upgrades, it is set to resume in 2026. This unique experience begins and ends at the cave, taking passengers past prehistoric rock carvings that depict human activity and animal life from over 2,500 years ago. Along the way, guests may glimpse some of the gorge’s rare flora and fauna, including eagles, hawks, herons, and grey herons.

The Most “Blasphemous” Tapestry in the World? Historians Can’t Agree: 93 or 94 Penises?

The Bayeux Tapestry is one of the most celebrated works of medieval art, a nearly 70-meter-long embroidered masterpiece depicting the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England in 1066. Yet among its 70 intricate scenes and countless details of 11th-century life, a rather unexpected academic debate has emerged: does the tapestry feature 93 or 94 penises?

That’s right—penises. Some human, most animal. And historians are divided over the exact count.

First created just after the Battle of Hastings, the tapestry is believed to have been commissioned by Bishop Odo, the half-brother of William the Conqueror. It has been on display since 1983 at the Centre Guillaume le Conquérant in the French town of Bayeux and was added to UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register in 2007.

Despite its esteemed reputation, the tapestry’s surprising abundance of genitalia has sparked both curiosity and controversy.

93 or 94? The Penis Count Debate

In 2018, Oxford University professor George Garnett stated that the number totals 93 male genitals — 88 on horses and five on men
Source: Wikipedia

In 2018, Oxford University professor George Garnett made headlines by declaring that the tapestry depicts 93 penises—88 on horses and five on human figures. However, tapestry specialist Christopher Monk has argued that one more penis deserves recognition. He points to a soldier in the lower part of the tapestry whose unusually prominent anatomy is visible beneath his tunic.

“I have no doubt it’s a depiction of male genitalia,” Monk said in a recent episode of the HistoryExtra podcast.

Garnett, however, remains unconvinced. He believes the supposed penis is actually a sheath or weapon case, noting a golden orb at the tip that resembles the brass cap of a handle. “None of the other penises in the tapestry have a yellow spot on the end,” he explained.

This peculiar disagreement has reignited calls for a fresh analysis of the work. While a censored 18th-century copy exists in the Reading Museum in the UK—with most genitalia discreetly removed due to the era’s moral standards—it offers little help in settling the debate.

Why So Many?

So why are there so many penises in the first place? As with the exact number, the explanation isn’t entirely clear.

Medieval art is full of symbolism—from animals to flowers to colors—and the Bayeux Tapestry is no exception. Some historians believe the frequent depiction of genitalia may represent virility, power, or masculinity. A particularly notable example is the horse gifted to William the Conqueror, which is drawn with an especially large penis—a possible symbol of his legitimacy and strength as ruler.

However, tapestry expert Christopher Monk believes that one more penis deserves special attention
Source: Wikipedia

Others suggest these features may be playful or satirical, rooted in Aesopian fables or popular medieval folklore. “There are many interesting theories,” said historian David Musgrove on HistoryExtra, “but to be honest, we don't know for sure. What we do know is that these anatomical details are fascinating.”

Not Just a One-Off

Professor Garnett’s original findings—93 total penises, most on horses—were detailed in a 2018 paper that quickly went viral. “My academic colleagues had a good laugh,” Garnett admitted. “One of them even said, ‘You’re not just a historian—you’re a historian of masculinity!’”

He clarified that while the majority are simple anatomical details, three horses seem to have been drawn with particular attention to their genitalia. These horses are connected to key figures in the narrative, such as King Harold II of England and Duke William of Normandy, who are each shown riding stallions with distinctly exaggerated features.

“William’s horse has by far the largest penis,” Garnett observed. “And that is absolutely intentional.”

A Broader Artistic Tradition

The depiction of male genitalia in medieval art isn’t limited to the Bayeux Tapestry. As Garnett notes, similar motifs appear in sheela-na-gig carvings—grotesque female figures displayed on churches in the British Isles. The most famous example is found at Kilpeck Church in Herefordshire.

Interestingly, the Bayeux Tapestry includes no clearly rendered female genitalia—except in one ambiguous case, where a figure displays unusually dense pubic hair.

The depiction of human genitalia in medieval art is not unique to the Bayeux Tapestry
Source: Wikipedia

Whether it’s 93 or 94, the penis count in the Bayeux Tapestry may seem like a humorous academic footnote. But it opens up broader questions about how medieval artists used the body to convey power, identity, and satire—and how modern historians are still decoding those messages nearly a thousand years later.

The Rare Flower Found Only on the Acropolis of Athens

High above the city of Athens, nestled among the ancient stones of the Acropolis, a tiny botanical marvel quietly thrives. Known as Micromeria acropolitana, this exceptionally rare and endemic plant grows exclusively on the Sacred Rock of the Acropolis — and nowhere else in the world.

For more than a hundred years, this small perennial herb was thought to be extinct, both in Greece and worldwide. It was first discovered in 1906 by two French botanists and formally described in 1908 by Austrian botanist Eugen von Halácsy. After that, it seemingly vanished from existence.

Its remarkable rediscovery came a century later, in 2006, thanks to Greek biologist Grigoris Tsounis and his son, Lambros. Since 2004, Tsounis had been observing the area’s rich ecosystem while working on his book Around the Acropolis. During one of their walks near the site, the two stumbled upon the elusive plant. “As soon as I saw it from a distance, I said, ‘That’s a Micromeria’ — its small leaves gave it away. But which Micromeria exactly?” Tsounis recalls.

The mystery was solved in 2009 when Danish botanist Dr. Kit Tan, professor at the University of Copenhagen, confirmed that the plant was indeed the legendary Micromeria acropolitana.

This discovery confirmed that the species had not disappeared after all. Instead, it had survived in its original habitat — the Acropolis of Athens, home to the Parthenon, one of the most iconic monuments in the history of Western civilization.

The Micromeria acropolitana is a modest plant, growing between 5 and 30 centimeters tall. It blooms between May and June, producing tiny pink flowers. It typically grows in rock crevices and shallow soil, favoring spots with an eastern exposure.

Today, this plant is recognized as an important symbol of Greece’s natural heritage and biodiversity. It is protected by Greek law, as it faces multiple threats: human activity, tourism, uprooting, and even routine cleaning of the archaeological site can all endanger its fragile existence.

To safeguard the species, the exact location where it thrives remains a closely guarded secret. While the plant can be found in several areas of the Acropolis, one discreet spot allows this endangered species to grow undisturbed, away from the bustle of curious visitors.

In the shadow of ancient history, this delicate bloom stands as a living testament to resilience — a rare and beautiful reminder that nature endures even in the most historic of places.

Unusual Mummification Method Revealed in Austrian Clergyman from 1746

The remarkably preserved body of an Austrian clergyman who died in 1746 is shedding light on a little-known mummification technique that has intrigued modern scientists.

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Discovered in the crypt of St. Thomas Church in Blasenstein, Austria, the mummy offers rare insight into embalming practices of the time. Unlike many mummies found in the region, this one is exceptionally well-preserved, prompting researchers to investigate the method used.

A Secret Mummification Technique

According to a study published in Frontiers in Medicine, the body belongs to Franz von Roseneck, a local priest. What makes his mummification unique is the method used: scientists found that preservative materials were inserted into the abdominal and pelvic cavities via the rectum—a technique rarely documented.

By analyzing the remains, researchers discovered that the materials used included fir and spruce wood shavings, small branches, and fabrics like linen, hemp, and flax. These were likely chosen because they were readily available at the time and effectively absorbed bodily moisture, helping to preserve the corpse.

As reported by IFLScience, this approach contrasts with traditional embalming methods, which typically involve making incisions in the body to insert preservatives. Despite the unconventional technique, von Roseneck’s body—especially the chest and abdomen—showed minimal decomposition.

Identification and Insights from the Mummy

The mummy’s excellent condition also made identification possible. Scientific analysis confirmed the man died between 1734 and 1780, at around 35 to 45 years old—consistent with historical records of von Roseneck. Isotopic analysis revealed he had a high standard of living, eating grains native to Central Europe along with meat and fish, and showing minimal signs of physical labor—matching the expected lifestyle of a priest of his time.

Interestingly, traces of long-term tobacco use and signs of tuberculosis toward the end of his life were also found.

Researchers believe the body was prepared for long-term preservation, possibly in anticipation of being transported to his monastery. However, for reasons unknown, this transfer never occurred. It’s worth noting that the mummy was previously examined in 2000 using a portable X-ray device at the University of Vienna, but that early scan failed to detect the organic materials within, leading to the incorrect assumption that the priest had been poisoned.

Mummification as a Window into the Past

Scientists emphasize that unusual preservation techniques like this one provide valuable insight—not only into how people died, but also into how the living sought to honor and protect the dead. These discoveries help us better understand the rituals, resources, and beliefs of past societies.

Ancient Greece: Danish Historian Uncovers Scented Secrets of the Gods’ Statues

A new revelation by Danish historian Cecilie Brøns could reshape our understanding of how the gods were worshipped in ancient Greece and Rome. According to Brøns, statues of the gods were not only revered—they were perfumed and adorned with fragrant flower crowns and garlands.

Writing in the Oxford Journal of Archaeology, Brøns—curator at the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen—explains that evidence from ancient sources reveals people didn’t just perfume themselves, but also the statues of their deities housed in temples. These sacred scents were typically made with fat or oil as a base, creating a cream-like texture. Rose was a particularly popular fragrance across the Mediterranean.

According to dw.com, decorating the statues with floral wreaths and garlands created a multisensory, immersive experience for ancient worshippers. While the original scents have long faded, depictions and replicas made from metal, terracotta, and gold offer valuable clues about this ancient practice, known as "kosmesis"—a term referring to the ritual adornment of statues. This process also included dressing the figures in textiles and jewelry.

Brøns also notes that the statues were often treated with olive oil or beeswax to give them a luminous finish and to preserve their painted surfaces.

Importantly, the pure white marble statues we see in museums today are a far cry from how they originally appeared. Ancient sculptures were frequently made of wood, terracotta, or stone, and were almost always painted in vivid colors—challenging our modern perceptions of classical art.

Remnants of Colossal Statues Unearthed at Rediscovered Apollo Sanctuary

Archaeologists have rediscovered a long-lost sanctuary dedicated to Apollo in the Frangissa Valley near the ancient city-kingdom of Tamassos, Cyprus—an important site originally excavated in 1885 by German archaeologist Max Ohnefalsch-Richter but whose exact location had been forgotten.

Since 2021, teams from the Universities of Frankfurt and Kiel/Würzburg have been working to relocate the original excavation, which had been backfilled following its completion. Their efforts paid off in 2024, when they identified the sanctuary near the village of Pera Orinis. Excavations have since uncovered architectural foundations and a courtyard used for dedications.

According to a press release from the Republic of Cyprus, archaeologists have found more than 100 statue bases, including several colossal pedestals that once supported enormous votive limestone statues from the Archaic period (7th–6th centuries BC).

“It was an unexpected find—not only the bases for votive statues, but also numerous statue fragments in the 19th-century backfill,” noted the Department of Antiquities. “It seems these fragments were not recognised as significant during the original 1885 dig.”

Among the discoveries are two inscribed bases—one bearing Cypro-Syllabic script, and the other referencing the Ptolemies, the Hellenistic dynasty that ruled Egypt and Cyprus.

These findings suggest the sanctuary was a prominent religious hub well beyond the Archaic period. A large peristyle courtyard, likely used for ceremonial banquets, points to the site's continued use during the Hellenistic era.

Unusually for sanctuaries of this period, archaeologists also found votive objects not typically associated with Hellenistic worship, including marbled glass beads and Egyptian faience amulets.

Tourist Touches Parthenon Marble After Being Asked to Do So on TikTok – A New Low for Challenges

The craze around TikTok challenges has gotten out of hand.

It is illegal to touch the Parthenon, as it is an archaeological monument of utmost importance, strictly protected by both Greek and international law. Visitors are allowed to admire the Parthenon up close, but it is explicitly prohibited to touch it, climb on it, write on it, or take any pieces from it—even if someone asks them to do so for a TikTok challenge…

This ban is not just for reasons of respect, but also to protect the fragile materials (mainly marble) and prevent damage. Offenders could face fines or even criminal penalties, depending on the severity of the act.

The Incident

Despite this, a tourist in Greece was asked by someone if they could touch the Parthenon, and the tourist complied, even posting a video of the act on TikTok. This sparked outrage among those who saw the video.

Watch the video here: https://www.reddit.com/r/GreeceTravel/s/ElwmOE1jck

Here are some of the comments:

• u/MrTheta: “Thanks. Now we’re all collectively dumber for having watched this.”

• u/justforfun75: “What an idiot. Too bad what he touched was the new marble filling and not an original stone.”

• u/Awkward-Papaya7698: “I was hoping the ‘old stones’ would slap him in the face instead of the other way around.”

• u/therealnickb: “It’s clear that his style is ‘be so annoying that people watch out of curiosity.’ Just don’t watch him. It’s better. Even saying ‘don’t watch him’ just makes them watch more.”

• u/Toutetrien777: “I was there a few weeks ago and had an amazing time. The museum was fantastic. What a beautiful country. It’s sad that some people don’t show respect.”

• u/ortcutt: “Athens, please bring back the punishment for idiots like this.”

• u/Karmeleon86: “I hate that stupid camera on his tooth.”

• u/GandalfYodaSisko: “Has anyone told him that most of the stones are already very old?”

• u/WorldBiker: “He’s the type of tourist we don’t want in Greece.”

• u/Snoo_51149: “Totally an idiot.”

• u/Spirited-Ad-9746: “‘I touched some very old stones.’ You know, all the stones are kind of very old…”

• u/charizmattik: “I’m going there for the first time in 2 weeks, and I’ll make sure not to touch the ‘old stones.’”

• u/PimsriReddit: “Oh my God, no! I hate tourists like this so much. They’re the type who think rules don’t apply because they’re on vacation. I live in a tourist area in Bangkok, and I constantly see people climbing into Buddha statues’ laps or trying to ‘ride’ mythical creatures in temples. Fines need to be stricter.”

• u/The-Last_Man_On_Mars: “What an absolute jerk.”

• u/vanoitran: “I lived near Yellowstone before moving to Greece. Every year we’d hear about one or two idiots who ignored the signs and either got killed by a buffalo they wanted to pet or boiled by a lake they thought was just a hot spring. People like this really make me wonder about human nature.”

The Caryatids of Amphipolis Revealed in Full (PHOTOS)

Incredible in beauty and detail, the 2.27-meter-tall statues of the Caryatids at Amphipolis have been fully uncovered.

With the removal of three layers of porous stone from the sealing wall, located in front of the second partition wall, the Caryatids were revealed in all their splendor. They wear clinging chitons and long, fringed garments with rich pleating. The statues are adorned with kothorni, decorated in shades of red and yellow, and their toes are depicted with exceptional detail.

The figures stand upon marble pedestals, each 1.33 meters long and 0.68 meters wide, with the exposed height currently around 0.30 meters. The appearance of the pedestals features crowns and orthostates, following the style of marble wall cladding used throughout all the chambers. The distance between the two pedestals is 1.68 meters, the same width as the doorway of the first partition wall featuring the Sphinxes. Notably, the surface of the eastern Caryatid’s pedestal shows traces of red color. During the removal of the sandy fill near the Caryatids, parts of their hands were also found.

Geotechnical Analysis and Excavation Progress

In the third chamber, geotechnical sampling was carried out using a manual drill at pre-selected locations, leading to the discovery of a marble doorway, with an opening of 0.96 meters, on the northern wall.

In the same area, measurements of the air content inside the chamber were taken, revealing that levels of oxygen and carbon monoxide are within normal ranges. The only anomaly is the relative humidity (87%), while the temperature remains steady between 21.5°C and 22.7°C.

These microclimatic conditions do not pose any issues for the workers inside the chamber.

Ongoing Technical Work

Access to the third chamber of the monument for support installation and the continuation of excavation work is being systematically prepared with parallel ongoing actions.

The interdisciplinary team has decided not to enter the third chamber through the hole at the upper western part of the third partition wall, but through the ancient entrance. Therefore, before any other work begins, the fill in the second chamber will be removed, the fallen part of the lintel will be cleared, and the doorway between the second and third chambers will be supported using wooden elements.

Additionally, the support structures in the second chamber will be reinforced at a lower level to bear the additional external earth pressures following the removal of the fill. A working floor will be prepared by removing earth from the second chamber to facilitate the entry of large metal support structures for the third chamber. Furthermore, extra stones will be removed from the sealing wall in front of the Caryatids to make way for the conveyor belt used to remove soil and a crane to transport stones from the third chamber.

In the first chamber, soil will be removed up to a depth of 1 meter (almost down to the floor), and the support structure will be extended due to changes in the internal fill level.

Future Work and Planning

Work to lower the fill around and directly above the monument will take place after the first phase of temporary support installation in the third chamber. The full removal of the fill will follow after this initial phase.

A study is underway to define the support and propping measures for the third chamber, determining the quantities and placement of the support elements as well as the phases of their installation, coordinated with the ongoing excavation process.

To address the rainwater runoff around the monument, a drainage pipe is planned to be placed along the large trench outside the enclosure.

A geotechnical survey is also being conducted in the area to assess the composition and geotechnical properties of the surrounding materials. This survey will include a sufficient number of boreholes and laboratory tests.

Ancient Figurine Discovered in Cave Tells the Story of a Lost Civilization — and the Mystery of Its Missing Face

An 8,000-year-old figurine discovered in a cave is shedding light on a pivotal moment in human history. Found in present-day Azerbaijan, this small sandstone sculpture—remarkable for its lack of facial features—is believed to be the oldest known piece of art in the region.

A Glimpse into the Mesolithic-Neolithic Transition

The Damjil Cave.
Photo: Sciencedirect

In a recent study published in Archaeological Research in Asia, a team of archaeologists from Japan and Azerbaijan analyzed the figurine using advanced technology to uncover details that trace the cultural evolution from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic era.

"This artifact captures a transitional period," the researchers note. "Its stylistic features are visibly distinct from Neolithic human representations in the area, offering valuable insight into the symbolic expressions of a society shifting from Mesolithic to Neolithic life in the South Caucasus."

SEM analysis of samples from Damjili and Tell Kosak Shamali.
Photo: Sciencedirect

The figurine was discovered in Damjili Cave, a site first explored by scientists in 1953. Layers within the cave show continuous habitation from the Middle Paleolithic through to the Neolithic period, with evidence of long-term settlement during the latter.

Stone Mesolithic figurine from the Damjili Cave.
Photo: Sciencedirect

From Discarded Stone to Cultural Treasure

Initially, the figurine—later designated "Unit 5.2"—was nearly discarded as a nondescript stone. Found embedded in sediment along the Kura River, the object appeared to be nothing more than a smooth, oval-shaped piece of sandstone. Fortunately, one keen-eyed researcher noticed faint carvings on its surface—markings that revealed it to be a deliberate and intricate work of art.

A microscopic examination confirmed that the lines were intentional carvings—the only human modification to the stone.

"The overall design strongly suggests a stylized human figure," the authors wrote.

X-ray fluorescence of the figurine.
Photo: Sciencedirect

Dating and Analytical Techniques

Radiocarbon dating places the figurine between 6400 and 6100 BCE, solidly within the Mesolithic period. To better understand its significance, researchers employed CT scanning, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). These methods helped differentiate the piece from similar artifacts of the Neolithic era and assess its cultural context.

A Figurine Without a Face

X-ray fluorescence of the figurine.
Photo: Sciencedirect

One side of the sculpture features more detailed carvings, likely identifying it as the front of the figure. Measuring approximately 5.08 cm long, 1.25 cm wide, and 0.8 cm thick, the figurine demonstrates an impressive level of craftsmanship using only stone tools.

Vertical lines etched into the top may represent hair, while a clearly marked horizontal line across the "head" might depict a headband—or perhaps the edge of a hat—particularly since the top of the head is left unadorned.

Notably, the figure lacks any facial features, and it’s impossible to determine whether it was meant to represent a male or female form.

Microscope images of the figurine from the Damjili Cave at a 500 μm scale.
Photo: Sciencedirect

The lower half is more sparsely decorated, but includes three horizontal lines interpreted as a belt, and vertical lines that may depict a skirt or apron. The team also detected reddish areas rich in iron, suggesting that red pigment might have originally been used as part of the figurine’s design.

Computed tomography images show the varying intensity of the carvings on the figurine.
Photo: Sciencedirect

Fine Craftsmanship with Subtle Symbolism

Microscopic imaging revealed that the engravings were carefully crafted, though the depth and intensity of the incisions vary across the surface. This suggests both a skilled hand and possible shifts in the carving technique. The deepest cuts are located on the front of the head—highlighting the importance placed on this area by the creator, even though no facial details were included.

Mesolithic stone figurines from the Kaniza rock shelter, Gobustan (adapted from Rustanov, 1986).
Photo: Sciencedirect

“The incisions appear to have been executed with deliberate care, reflecting the artisan’s high skill level,” the study states. “The varying carving patterns point to a complex symbolic intention.”

A Unique and Rare Find

Selected petroglyphs of anthropomorphic figures from Gobustan (adapted from Farajova, 2011).
Photo: Sciencedirect

In addition to the figurine, archaeologists discovered remains of stone hearths, animal bones, and flaked stone tools, though sculpted stone objects such as this are exceedingly rare.

Neolithic clay objects/figurines from the Middle Kura Valley.
Photo: Sciencedirect

“Unit 5.2 is a remarkable discovery,” the team concludes. Its stylistic elements suggest a local artistic tradition, with potential influences from Southwest Asia. What makes it truly exceptional, however, is its uniqueness in the prehistoric record of the southern Caucasus.

The World’s Oldest Bridge — An Architectural Gem from a Lost Civilization Still Standing in Greece

Nestled in the rolling hills of Argolis in Greece lies a remarkable relic of the ancient world: the Kazarma Bridge. Built more than 3,300 years ago, this Mycenaean marvel remains not just intact—but still in use.

A Hidden Masterpiece of the Mycenaean World

Tucked away in the undulating landscape of the Peloponnese, near the village of Arkadiko, the Kazarma Bridge—also known as the Arkadiko Bridge—is a subtle yet awe-inspiring testament to ancient engineering. Believed to be the oldest bridge in the world still in operation, it dates back to around 1300 BCE, during the Mycenaean era. This Bronze Age relic transports us to a time when the Achaeans, ancestors of the Greeks, were building mighty citadels and carving out trade routes across the Mediterranean.

Far from being a forgotten ruin, the Kazarma Bridge stands as enduring proof of the ingenuity and foresight of a long-lost civilization.

A Mycenaean Bridge Still in Use

Today, the Kazarma Bridge is one of the few surviving ancient structures that remains in practical use. Its architecture perfectly showcases the advanced construction techniques of the Mycenaeans. Built using Cyclopean masonry—a style named after the mythical Cyclopes, whom the Achaeans believed were master builders—it consists of enormous, unworked limestone boulders stacked with such precision that no mortar was needed. This seemingly simple yet incredibly effective technique has allowed the bridge to endure for millennia.

The bridge measures 22 meters in length, 5.6 meters in width, and 4 meters in height. Its pointed arch, just over one meter wide, was designed to allow rainwater and small streams to pass beneath. The road surface, about 2.5 meters wide, was broad enough for the passage of Mycenaean war chariots—the primary mode of transport for aristocrats of the time.

One Bridge Among Many

The Kazarma Bridge is not an isolated feat. It forms part of a well-planned network of Mycenaean roads in the Peloponnese. Archaeologists have identified at least four other similar bridges in the Arkadiko area.

Among them is the Petrogephyro Bridge, which is still used today by pedestrians and livestock. It features a slightly higher arch than Kazarma’s. Another bridge near the village of Lykotroupi stands out for its stone curbs—crafted to guide chariot wheels and prevent accidents, showing an impressive understanding of safety in transport design.

These architectural achievements highlight the precision and skill of Mycenaean builders. Long before the invention of concrete or modern engineering, the Mycenaeans had already mastered the fundamentals of durable infrastructure. Their network of bridges supported military movements, enabled trade, and connected distant city-states—forming the backbone of a sophisticated and far-reaching civilization.

Archaeological Mystery: A Civilization Left Its Writing Everywhere, But Scientists Can’t Find a Trace of Its DNA

Despite laying the foundations for many modern alphabets, the Phoenician civilization—famed for its seafaring prowess and cultural influence—appears to have left behind little to no genetic footprint. A new genetic study has puzzled scientists by revealing a striking disconnect between the widespread cultural legacy of the Phoenicians and their biological presence in the populations they once touched.

The Civilization That Changed the Mediterranean

The Phoenicians emerged around 3,000 years ago in the region of modern-day Lebanon. Descendants of the biblical Canaanites, they rapidly developed into a dominant maritime and commercial power. Trading in gold, silver, copper, and tin, they navigated vast Mediterranean trade routes and established hundreds of coastal colonies across Europe and Africa.

Until recently, scholars assumed that these settlers—known as the Punic peoples in later eras, such as the Carthaginians—would carry a clear genetic signature from their Levantine origins. It seemed logical that their descendants would bear DNA linking them back to the Eastern Mediterranean.

A Genetic Twist: Sicilian and Aegean Origins

But new genetic research has upended that belief. Population geneticist Harald Ringbauer and his team analyzed ancient DNA from the remains of 210 individuals unearthed at archaeological sites across the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe. The findings, recently published in Nature, were surprising.

"Most Punic individuals showed no Middle Eastern ancestry," the researchers wrote. "Instead, their genetic profile aligned more closely with that of ancient Sicilians and Aegean populations."

The genomes also revealed significant heterogeneity, suggesting that Punic populations were more of a cultural construct than a direct biological continuation of the original Phoenicians.

From Name to Identity

Interestingly, even the term “Phoenician” wasn’t their own—it comes from the Greek word phoinix, likely referring to the luxurious purple dye (Tyrian purple) they produced and traded extensively. The Phoenicians themselves referred to their identity as Kena’ani, or Canaanites, preserving a connection to their ancestral roots.

Carthage’s Expanding Role

The study also highlights the increasing genetic influence of North Africa on Punic populations, particularly through the rise of Carthage. Founded by Phoenician settlers, Carthage grew into one of the ancient world’s most powerful political and commercial hubs. Yet the DNA of its inhabitants doesn’t show a strong link to their Levantine founders.

Instead, it reveals extensive intermixing—evidence of centuries of cultural exchange and integration across the Mediterranean.

In Spain, a tomb at Villaricos revealed a family with genetic ties to Sicily and the Aegean, alongside grave goods like ostrich egg decorations and an ivory plaque—artifacts that reflect a vibrant and diverse cultural milieu.

While researchers noted Greek-style craftsmanship on the ivory plaque, such as the use of Ionian techniques, they caution that this doesn’t necessarily imply Hellenization. The Phoenicians were highly skilled artisans themselves, especially in ivory carving.

Cultural Survival Without Genetic Legacy

The team suggests that Phoenician cultural influence spread not through inheritance but through assimilation. Their language, technologies, and commercial practices were adopted by local populations—even as the Phoenicians’ genetic presence faded over time.

Adding to the mystery, the researchers note that prior to 600 BCE, the Phoenicians practiced cremation—a funerary custom that makes DNA recovery from earlier periods particularly challenging.

A Lasting Legacy Through Language

Although the name “Phoenician” stems from the Greek phoinix, possibly tied to their famous purple dye, the people themselves called their civilization Kena’ani. Their alphabet not only influenced the Greek writing system but also formed the basis of Latin, passing through the Etruscans before reaching the Romans.

Their DNA may have faded, but their influence—etched into scripts, trade routes, and craftsmanship—endures to this day.

Major Discovery: Researchers Uncover Remnants of a Lost Civilization in a Hidden Mexican Cave

A remarkable archaeological discovery has emerged from the depths of a cave in Mexico, where researchers have uncovered artifacts linked to a vanished civilization—shedding new light on ancient spiritual practices and forgotten peoples.

The breakthrough occurred during a mapping expedition in Tlayócoc Cave, nestled in the Sierra de Guerrero mountains. Spearheading the mission was professional cave explorer Yekaterina Katiya Pavlova, who journeyed to the remote area to expand the known map of the cavern system. Alongside her local guide, Adrián Beltrán Dimas, Pavlova pushed beyond the previously charted zones and ventured through a submerged entrance into an unexplored passage.

What they found exceeded all expectations.

A Hidden Chamber and a Sacred Offering

The passage led to a concealed chamber, untouched by human presence for centuries. There, affixed to stalagmites, were two intricately carved shell bracelets—likely left as ritual offerings. According to a statement from Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), these artifacts hint at ceremonial activities within the cave.

But the discovery didn’t stop there. The team also uncovered a third bracelet, a massive snail shell, and fragments of black stone discs resembling pyrite mirrors—all dating back more than 500 years.

When archaeologists descended to the site for further investigation, they documented a total of 14 objects: three complete shell bracelets, one bracelet fragment, the large snail shell, a charred piece of wood, and fragments of eight stone discs, two of which were fully intact.

Symbols of a Forgotten Belief System

The bracelets, believed to be made from marine snail shells, were engraved with striking anthropomorphic imagery and symbols. Among the motifs were S-shaped figures known as xonecuilli, zigzag lines, and circles that form stylized human profiles. These may have represented deities or mythological beings.

Experts estimate the artifacts date to the Postclassic period, between 950 and 1521 CE—a time when the region was inhabited by the now-extinct Tlacotepehua ethnic group.

“This discovery is highly significant,” said INAH archaeologist Miguel Perez. “By studying the contextual relationship between the objects, we can interpret symbolic meanings, cultural practices, craftsmanship, and even trade networks.”

Further analysis revealed that the stalagmites had been deliberately modified in pre-Hispanic times, shaped into more spherical forms to suit ritual needs.

A Portal to the Sacred

According to Cuauhtémoc Reyes Álvarez, another INAH archaeologist involved in the research, the engraved figures and symbols likely relate to pre-Hispanic cosmogony—particularly themes of creation and fertility. “The sealed nature of the chamber allows us to understand how ancient people may have viewed these caves—as gateways to the underworld or sacred spaces tied to the earth and divine realms,” he noted.

The black stone discs found at the site closely resemble others discovered in nearby archaeological zones such as El Infiernillo, as well as more distant cultures like the Huasteca.

Clues to a Vanished People

Historical records suggest that extreme cold in the Sierra de Guerrero—rising over 7,850 feet (2,400 meters) above sea level and cloaked in dense oak and pine forests—may have driven inhabitants to lower elevations. Very little is known about the Tlacotepehua people beyond a few scattered 16th-century references to their existence.

Now, thanks to this extraordinary cave find, researchers have a rare opportunity to piece together the beliefs, artistry, and lifeways of a lost civilization—one that once saw caves not merely as natural formations, but as sacred thresholds between worlds.