Scientists Crack a 100-Million-Year-Old Mystery About Platypus S3x Determination

For decades, scientists have known that platypuses and echidnas — Australia’s unique egg-laying mammals known as monotremes — stand out in the animal kingdom: they do not use the same genetic mechanisms as other mammals to determine whether an embryo develops as male or female.

Now, a recent study published in Genome Biology has provided compelling evidence that the sex of monotremes depends on a single gene — and, intriguingly, this gene resembles those found in certain fish and amphibians more than in other mammals.

Unraveling the Monotreme Secret

The Australian platypus and the echidna (also called the spiny anteater) are monotremes — the oldest living lineage of mammals, and the only mammals that lay eggs.

Humans and most other mammals have two sex chromosomes: X and Y. Typically, an embryo with an XX pair develops as female, while an XY pair produces a male.

In many mammals, a gene called SRY on the male Y chromosome triggers the development of male characteristics. But monotremes don’t have the SRY gene at all.

About 20 years ago, researchers discovered that monotremes use an entirely different system involving multiple X and Y chromosomes. It was long suspected that one of their Y chromosomes must carry a sex-determining gene — but its identity remained elusive.

Now, one candidate has emerged as the likely key player: the Anti-Müllerian Hormone, or AMH.

A Genetic Twist 100 Million Years in the Making

The new research offers the first solid evidence that a modified version of AMH found on one of the monotreme Y chromosomes — dubbed AMHY — is the gene that determines their sex.

The team demonstrated that evolutionary changes to the AMH gene long ago likely gave rise to AMHY, which then took on the critical role of steering male development in monotremes.

A First for Mammals

Unlike other mammalian sex-determining genes that work by interacting directly with DNA, AMHY functions as a hormone. Instead of binding to DNA, it acts on the cell’s surface, triggering signals that switch genes on or off.

There’s growing evidence that similar versions of AMHY also help determine sex in various fish and amphibians. However, this discovery marks the first known case of a hormone playing a central role in sex determination in mammals.

Closer Than Ever to Discovering Nature’s Fifth Fundamental Force

For decades, physicists have wondered whether there might be a fifth fundamental force at work in nature. Right now, four forces are known to govern the universe: electromagnetism, gravity, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force. But the big question remains: Could a fifth force exist that explains various anomalies in our observations?

Since the 1980s, researchers have proposed different ideas, ranging from concepts like antigravity to “quintessence” — a hypothetical force that might help explain dark energy. In 2015, a team from the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (which you can read about here) announced the discovery of a particle 30 times heavier than the electron, which could hint at a fifth force. Yet, many physicists remain skeptical, arguing that this elusive fifth force may simply not exist.

How Asteroids Are Helping in the Hunt

Asteroids — especially those whose paths are tracked with high precision, like Bennu — provide a unique natural laboratory for pushing the limits of physics. The idea is simple: If there’s an unknown force at play, it could cause tiny deviations in an asteroid’s orbit. If those deviations can’t be explained by the known four forces, scientists might have clues pointing toward new physics, according to a recent study published in Nature Communications Physics.

Although this study didn’t detect signs of a fifth force influencing Bennu’s motion, scientists are optimistic. The successor to the OSIRIS-REx mission, called OSIRIS-APEX, is set to deliver even more detailed data as it heads toward the asteroid Apophis.

How Old Are the Dead Sea Scrolls, Really?

Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls may be older than previously believed, and certain biblical texts might date back to the time of their original authors, according to new research.

The first of these ancient scrolls were discovered in the Qumran caves in the Judean Desert by Bedouin shepherds in the mid-20th century. Ranging from legal documents to portions of the Hebrew Bible, the manuscripts have traditionally been dated from the 3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE, reports Nicola Davis for The Guardian.

Now, researchers from universities in the Netherlands, Denmark, and Italy have used artificial intelligence to gather new insights into the dates of individual scrolls—findings that could challenge established assumptions about when, where, and by whom they were produced.

“It’s like a time machine. We can now greet these people who lived 2,000 years ago and place them much more precisely in time,” said Mladen Popović, a professor at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands and lead author of the study, speaking to The Guardian.

Many scrolls were carbon dated back in the 1990s, but Popović notes that scholars at the time did not account for contamination from castor oil—a substance used in the 1950s to help specialists read the manuscripts—which could skew results. Moreover, many scrolls had been dated solely based on handwriting style analysis.

In their Plos One publication, the team describes how they performed carbon dating on 30 samples from different manuscripts found at four sites, covering an estimated timespan of five centuries. Importantly, the researchers first cleaned the samples to remove any castor oil contamination. Of the 30 samples, 27 were successfully carbon dated. They found that while two samples turned out to be more recent than previously thought, many others were actually older.

Among their discoveries, the team found that two distinct styles of Paleo-Hebrew script—known as Hasmonean and Herodian hands—coexisted for far longer than previously assumed. They also determined that a manuscript known as 4Q114, which contains verses from the Book of Daniel, is older than traditional palaeographic analysis had suggested.

“Previously, it was dated to the late second century BCE, about a generation after the Book of Daniel’s author. Now, our study pushes it back to the period when the author himself lived,” said Popović.

Authentic Dead Sea Scrolls as displayed at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science in 2018 (Helen H. Richardson/The Denver Post via Getty Images/Ideal Image)

The team then used a type of AI called machine learning to build a model named “Enoch”—a nod to the biblical figure associated with knowledge and wisdom.

They trained Enoch using 62 digital images of ink traces from 24 carbon-dated manuscripts, along with their radiocarbon ages. They then tested the model by showing it 13 new images from the same manuscripts. In 85% of cases, the AI’s estimated ages matched the carbon dating results—and often narrowed down the date range even more precisely.

“We created a very robust tool, grounded in empirical research. It’s based on physics and geometry,” Popović told The Guardian.

When presented with images from 135 undated scrolls it hadn’t seen before, Enoch generated realistic dating estimates for 79% of them, as judged by expert palaeographers. Popović added that in cases where the estimates seemed implausible, the issue likely stemmed from poor-quality images or problematic data.

This system has already yielded fresh insights: for example, a copy of Ecclesiastes (included in both the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament) appears to date to the period of its supposed author. According to Popović, Enoch could eventually date more scrolls without the need for destructive carbon dating, which requires taking tiny samples.

“There are more than 1,000 Dead Sea Scroll manuscripts, so our study is just a first but significant step. It opens a door to history with new possibilities for research,” he said.

Professor Joan Taylor, an expert at King’s College London, noted that the findings could have a major impact on Qumran studies. “These results imply that most of the scrolls found in the caves near Qumran were not written there, since the settlement wasn’t inhabited until later,” she said.

However, Dr. Matthew Collins of the University of Chester cautioned that radiocarbon dating reveals the age of the parchment, not necessarily when the text was written. He also questioned how stylistically representative the relatively small training sample was for different periods.

“Overall, this is a welcome study that adds a valuable new tool to our toolkit for dating such texts,” Collins said. “However, it’s a method that should be used carefully and alongside other evidence.”

16th-Century Shipwreck Found at Record Depth — Why Its Treasures Remained Almost Intact

A French Navy deep-sea exploration team, CEPHISMER, has made a stunning discovery: an uncharted shipwreck lying off the coast of Ramatuelle (Var, Provence) at an unprecedented depth.

The operation was part of France’s national strategy to strengthen maritime sovereignty while also advancing scientific knowledge of the ocean depths.

A Remarkably Preserved 16th-Century Merchant Ship

Measuring about 30 meters long and 7 meters wide, the shipwreck is believed to be a large 16th-century merchant vessel. Its remarkably intact cargo includes around 200 colorful faience jars, many of which remain embedded in the seabed sediment.

Faience pottery — glazed earthenware often associated with both ritual and daily uses — is a classic archaeological find. These vessels, typically made from fine-grained siliceous clay and coated with a shiny, colored glaze, are iconic remnants of Renaissance trade.

These round jars, with pressed necks and ribbon-style handles, feature decorative motifs in the Ligurian style. Many bear the “IHS” Christogram, widely used in Western Christian traditions, alongside intricate geometric and botanical patterns. The ship also carried about 100 plates, likely also of Ligurian origin.

Other artifacts found at the site include anchors, cannons, and cooking hearths, providing rare insights into daily life aboard a Renaissance-era merchant ship. Many more items still lie buried beneath the sand, waiting to be unearthed.

Photo: Drassm – Marine Nationale

A Unique Find for Underwater Cultural Heritage

According to France’s Mediterranean Maritime Prefecture and the Department of Underwater Archaeology (Drassm) at the Ministry of Culture, this is the deepest underwater cultural heritage discovery ever recorded within French jurisdiction.

Its exceptional depth has shielded the wreck from natural decay and looting, preserving it like a near-perfect time capsule from the 1500s. Nicknamed “Camarat 4,” the wreck offers an unprecedented opportunity for scientific study and historical analysis.

Planned next steps include detailed photogrammetric mapping, selective recovery of key artifacts, and a broad, interdisciplinary investigation by a team of experts ranging from naval architects and munitions specialists to ceramicists and conservationists.

A Reminder to Protect Our Seas

The discovery also highlights the urgent need to protect marine environments. Despite its remote location, researchers found traces of microplastics and larger plastic debris around the wreck, underscoring how human pollution reaches even the ocean’s hidden depths.

This remarkable find reinforces the importance of public awareness and conservation of our seas and underwater heritage. As France expands its deep-sea exploration capabilities, the Camarat 4 shipwreck marks a significant step in uncovering the ocean’s secrets — offering academics, scientists, and the public a glimpse into the lost stories of maritime archaeology.

6,000-Year-Old Venus Figurine Unearthed on Polish Farm Confirmed as a Historic Treasure

A remarkable discovery on a quiet Polish farm has turned out to be one of the country’s most extraordinary archaeological finds in decades — a limestone figurine dating back some 6,000 years.

Dubbed the “Venus of Kołobrzeg”, the small statue, which depicts a stylized female form, has been hailed by experts as the “find of the century.” It will now be displayed at the museum in Kołobrzeg, a city on Poland’s northern Baltic coast.

Measuring just 12 centimetres tall, the figurine was unearthed in December 2022 by a farmer in the village of Obroty, near Kołobrzeg. But only recently have researchers verified its authenticity and impressive age, placing it around the 5th millennium BC.

“I was informed that a local farmer had found an object resembling a human figure while working,” said Jan Orliński, head of a local historical society, in an interview with National Geographic.

Orliński’s team determined that the object was indeed crafted by human hands and likely served as a symbol of fertility. It was then handed over to the regional heritage conservator, who collaborated with the Polish Arms Museum in Kołobrzeg to establish its historical context.

“I can confidently say this is the find of the century,” declared the museum’s director, Aleksander Ostasz. “What has been unearthed is truly exceptional — it expands our understanding of Kołobrzeg’s ancient history in an extraordinary way.”

In an official statement, the museum emphasized that the figurine is unique in Poland, where no similar artifact has ever been uncovered. Experts believe it was created by some of the region’s earliest farmers who settled along the nearby Parsęta River.

“The stylized design of the Kołobrzeg Venus shows remarkable artistic skill. Despite its simplicity, it stands out for its aesthetic quality and clear depiction of feminine features,” the museum noted.

Venus figurines like this one, found across Europe, are generally believed to have had ritual or symbolic roles, often connected to fertility and femininity.

Closer examination has revealed subtle smoothing on the statue’s curves — especially around the breasts and hips — suggesting it was handled or used repeatedly. The figurine’s flat back indicates it may have been displayed upright or fixed to a base.

The Kołobrzeg City Museum, a branch of the Polish Arms Museum, is now preparing to present the Venus as part of its permanent exhibition — making it one of the oldest artifacts ever showcased there.

For context, the oldest known Venus figurine in Europe is the Venus of Hohle Fels, discovered in Germany in 2008 and dated to about 41,000 years ago. Another iconic example is the Venus of Willendorf, found in Austria in 1908 and estimated to be around 30,000 years old.

Captain Cook’s Long-Lost Ship Found After 250 Years — Where the Legendary Endeavour Lies Underwater

After 250 years shrouded in mystery, the final resting place of the Endeavour — the iconic ship that carried Captain James Cook and the first British expedition to Australia — has finally been confirmed.

Between 1768 and 1771, the Endeavour became the first European vessel to reach eastern Australia and to sail around New Zealand’s main islands.

While James Cook secured his place as one of history’s most celebrated explorers, his famous ship faded from memory, eventually being repurposed as a troop carrier.

In 1775, the ship was sold, renamed Lord Sandwich, and ultimately scuttled off the American coast in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War.

Where Was Cook’s Lost Ship Found?

Today, the sunken remains of the Endeavour have been located in Newport Harbor, Rhode Island, after experts officially matched the wreck to the one cataloged as RI 2394.

The confirmation was announced by the Australian National Maritime Museum (ANMM) in a new report, marking the end of 25 years of research with what they describe as a “definitive statement.”

“This final report is the culmination of 25 years of meticulous, painstaking archaeological investigation into this significant ship,” said the museum’s director, Daryl Karp.
“It involved underwater excavations in the U.S. and extensive research in institutions around the world.”

Experts reached their conclusion by comparing the wreck with historical plans of the Endeavour. They found timber beams precisely where the ship’s main and fore masts would have stood. The wreck’s measurements also match those recorded during a 1768 naval inspection before Cook’s epic voyage.

Portrait of James Cook / Photo: AP Photo

Additionally, wood analysis confirmed the material’s European origin, consistent with records showing the Endeavour underwent repairs in 1776 — years after its renowned expedition.

All of this adds up to a “weight of evidence” that strongly indicates the Newport wreck is indeed the Endeavour.

“The timbers are British,” said ANMM archaeologist Kieran Hosty.
“The dimensions of every beam — the so-called scantlings — match almost exactly with the Endeavour’s specs. We’re talking about differences within millimeters, not inches.”

“The bow joint is perfectly identical — a unique feature. We studied dozens of 18th-century ship plans and found nothing else like it,” Hosty added.

Photo: Painting by Samuel Atkins (1760–1810) — National Library of Australia

Disputed Waters: Controversy Over the Claim

However, the discovery is not without controversy. When the ANMM released a preliminary report in 2022 identifying RI 2394 as the Endeavour, their partners at the Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project (RIMAP) pushed back strongly.

In a statement, RIMAP insisted they were the lead researchers on the project and called the conclusions “premature” and a “breach of agreement.” Nevertheless, ANMM archaeologists maintain they have robust evidence.

Statue of James Cook / Photo: AP Photo

“The Lord Sandwich was intentionally sunk as a blockade ship,” said ANMM archaeologist James Hunter.
“The chances of finding an obvious identifier, like a ship’s bell, were always slim. Any valuable item would have been removed before the ship was sunk. But everything we’ve recovered so far clearly points to the 18th century.”

Hosty added:

“We’re never going to find something down there that literally says ‘Endeavour.’ There’s no plaque reading ‘Cook was here.’ Nor will we see a ship’s bell engraved ‘Endeavour,’ scratched out with ‘Lord Sandwich’ beneath it. What we do have is a chain of clues, all pointing to RI 2394 being HMB Endeavour.”

Preserving a Historic Wreck

Replica of the Endeavour / Photo: AP Photo

So far, only about 15% of the ship’s structure remains intact. Researchers are now focused on how best to protect and conserve what’s left for future generations.

In a follow-up statement, the ANMM acknowledged RIMAP’s “excellent historical analysis and detailed cataloguing of artefacts.”

“We recognise that RIMAP continues to accept that RI 2394 could be the Endeavour, while also noting there may be other possible wrecks,” the museum noted.

Daryl Karp also thanked the museum’s archaeological team, Dr Kathy Abass in Rhode Island, and the local state authorities for their invaluable support throughout the investigation.

On This Day: Eratosthenes Accurately Calculates the Earth’s Circumference – Over 2,000 Years Ago

Around 240 BCE, the Greek scholar Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who served as the head librarian at the Library of Alexandria, made a remarkably accurate estimate of the Earth’s circumference—without ever leaving Egypt.

Eratosthenes had heard that at Syene (modern Aswan), the Sun stood directly overhead at noon on the summer solstice, such that vertical objects cast no shadow. In contrast, in Alexandria, located north of Syene, vertical objects still cast a noticeable shadow at the same time. This discrepancy fascinated him.

Using a gnomon (a vertical stick or pole), he measured the angle of the shadow in Alexandria to be about 7.2 degrees, or 1/50th of a full circle. Knowing the approximate distance between Alexandria and Syene (roughly 5,000 stadia, an ancient Greek unit), he used simple geometry to calculate the Earth’s full circumference:

If 7.2° is 1/50th of a circle, then the total circumference = 50 × distance between the cities = 250,000 stadia.

Depending on the exact length of the stadion he used, this figure is astonishingly close to the modern measurement of Earth’s circumference (~40,075 km).

Eratosthenes’ method relied on empirical observation, deductive reasoning, and geometry—marking a major milestone in the development of science. His calculation not only confirmed that the Earth is spherical, but also demonstrated how logic and mathematics could reveal truths about the natural world on a grand scale.

Did Diogenes Really Exist? Searching for the Man Behind the Barrel

Was Diogenes the Cynic a real historical figure?
Doubts about the actual existence of Diogenes the Cynic arise mostly from the way his stories have come down to us.

We have no contemporary writings from his own hand, no treatises bearing his name; everything we know comes from texts written three, four, or even six centuries after he lived. The most prominent example is Diogenes Laertius, who compiled a patchwork of anecdotes—some philosophical, others purely comical.

This chronological gap is compounded by the nature of these tales themselves: Diogenes appears almost exclusively as a character in a moral skit, a paradoxical scene, or a prank mocking social norms. Each story feels crafted to be a witty bit of oral tradition, not a coherent biographical record. For this reason, some scholars—and skeptical lovers of antiquity—suggest that we might be dealing more with a myth than with an actual person.

A second source of doubt is the internal inconsistency of the sources. Regarding his exile from Sinope, some accounts say he personally debased the local currency; others claim it was his father’s doing; yet others say he simply misunderstood an oracle from Delphi. Even his death comes in four wildly different versions: suffocation, fever, a dog bite, or indigestion from eating raw octopus. Such variety undermines historical credibility, creating the impression of a figure onto whom later generations projected what one modern scholar calls “philosophical fantasies” of the post-Classical era.

Yet, those who argue for Diogenes’s existence have compelling evidence. First, there’s a numismatic clue: the city of Sinope once minted coins depicting an old man with a lantern—hinting that the famous exile was real enough to become a civic symbol. Moreover, writers closer to the fourth century BCE, like Menander and Teles the Cynic, mention him as an already well-known model of ascetic freedom—suggesting that the man’s reputation was firmly rooted before the legend grew.

Finally, certain biographical elements, like the debasement of the currency, are corroborated by independent inscriptions and by the historical fact that Sinope indeed punished someone for counterfeiting—something unlikely to have been invented later out of thin air.

So, why does the idea that “maybe Diogenes never existed” continue to intrigue us? First, because dismantling iconic figures is always an intellectual temptation. Second, because the Cynics themselves were masters of theater—deliberately inventing stories to shock, teach, and amuse.

Diogenes, with his lantern and barrel, has gathered so many tales that he seems almost “too perfect” to be true. But perhaps that’s where his deeper truth lies: as a philosopher who chose to become a living lesson, a performer in daily life, he wouldn’t have left behind neat pages of writings but rather stories embroidered and embellished by anyone who found them useful.

As modern research aptly puts it, “Diogenes’s brilliant exaggeration confirms rather than refutes his historicity; a life deliberately crafted as an example would not have endured for centuries if it hadn’t rested on some real foundation.” In the end, the debate about the “non-existent Diogenes” reflects less a lack of evidence than the tension between two ways of engaging with the past: either as a dry list of verifiable facts or as a living body of instructive myths that echo real—if paradoxical—human lives.

Whether he truly existed or not, the Cynic philosopher remains a shadow inviting us to decide what we really seek from history.

An Unknown Human Genetic Lineage Discovered in the Sahara

The Secret of the Sahara: A Hidden Genetic Legacy from a Time Before the Desert

Between about 14,500 and 5,000 years ago, the vast expanse we now know as the Sahara Desert was a lush, green landscape teeming with water and life. During this “Green Sahara” period, a mysterious and isolated human group thrived there—completely cut off from surrounding populations, as revealed by new genetic research.

Scientists investigating the origins of the region’s ancient inhabitants have now recovered the first complete genomes—detailed genetic blueprints—from the remains of two women buried at Takarkori, a site in southwestern Libya. These skeletons, dating back about 7,000 years, have provided a rare glimpse into a previously unknown chapter of human prehistory.

Takarkori was once home to early human communities, including at least 15 women and children discovered buried within a rocky shelter. These people lived by fishing and by herding sheep and goats—livestock that had already been domesticated elsewhere.

The “Green Sahara” – A Forgotten Eden
(Image Source: YouTube)

Genetic analysis revealed that the Takarkori people belonged to a distinct and until now unrecognized branch of the human family tree. They evolved separately from both sub-Saharan African populations to the south and Eurasian groups to the north for thousands of years.

“Interestingly, the Takarkori people show no significant genetic influence from sub-Saharan Africans or from prehistoric populations of the Near East and Europe,” explained Johannes Krause, a leading archaeogeneticist at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. “This suggests they remained genetically isolated, even though herding—a major cultural innovation—originated outside Africa.”

Artifacts found at Takarkori include tools made from stone, wood, and bone, as well as pottery, woven baskets, and carved figurines—evidence that these ancient people herded already domesticated animals rather than taming them locally.

(Excavation site at Takarkori – Image: YouTube)

The genomes also confirm that the Takarkori group represents a unique and ancient North African lineage that became separated from sub-Saharan populations about 50,000 years ago. Around the same time, other groups of early humans were migrating out of Africa toward the Middle East, Europe, and Asia—becoming the ancestors of all non-African peoples today.

(Skull recovered from the Takarkori excavation – Image: YouTube)

Krause noted that the Takarkori likely preserved a remnant of the genetic diversity once widespread in North Africa between 50,000 and 20,000 years ago. “After 20,000 years ago, we see evidence of new groups arriving from the Eastern Mediterranean, followed by migrations from the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily about 8,000 years ago. But for reasons we don’t yet fully understand, the Takarkori remained isolated far longer than expected. Since the Sahara only became habitable again about 15,000 years ago, their true homeland remains uncertain.”

This community seems to have maintained its genetic separation for nearly its entire existence, until a dramatic climate shift changed everything. When the African Humid Period—a warm, wet era—ended around 3,000 BCE, the once-fertile region gradually transformed back into the vast desert we see today.

Unlike other early humans who left Africa and interbred with Neanderthals in Eurasia—leaving genetic traces still detectable in modern non-African DNA—the Takarkori people show minimal signs of such mixing, implying only limited contact with other human groups.

For decades, researchers studied the Takarkori skeletons and artifacts but struggled to extract viable DNA due to the challenging preservation conditions. In 2019, they managed to isolate only mitochondrial DNA, which traces maternal ancestry but offers an incomplete picture.

A breakthrough came when advanced techniques enabled scientists at the Max Planck Institute in Leipzig to recover enough DNA from two mummies to sequence their full genomes. This achievement shed light not only on these individuals’ ancestry but also on the genetic history of an entire lost population of the Sahara.

An Extinct Human Lineage Revealed by the Oldest DNA: Who They Were and What Became of Them

Around 45,000 years ago, during the frigid depths of the last Ice Age, a new wave of humans pushed into Europe from the southeast. But this continent wasn’t empty — it was already home to the Neanderthals, a distinct branch of the human family tree. For roughly 5,000 years, these two human populations coexisted. They shared the same harsh landscapes — and sometimes, even their genes. That genetic legacy endures: today, nearly all non-African populations carry 2–3% Neanderthal DNA.

Yet, these earliest modern Europeans remained a mystery. Who were they? How did they live? And why did their genetic line vanish? A groundbreaking scientific study is now providing some long-awaited answers.

Fossil Clues from Germany and the Czech Republic

In a cave in Thuringia, Germany — known as Ranis — researchers unearthed exceptionally fragile human bones, including remains of infants. Dating estimates place them between 42,000 and 49,000 years old. Among the remains, scientists identified a mother and child pair.

Further east, in the Czech Republic, archaeologists had previously discovered a woman’s skull in Zlatý kůň Cave. Though separated by hundreds of kilometers, the two sites were long thought unrelated.

However, ancient DNA analysis revealed an unexpected connection: the woman from the Czech Republic and two individuals from Ranis were fifth- or sixth-degree relatives — something like distant cousins.

This discovery suggests they weren’t isolated nomads but part of a much wider population spread across vast regions of prehistoric Europe.

Stone Tools Speak Volumes

Ranis Cave has long intrigued archaeologists for its distinctive stone tools, known as LRJ (Lincombian–Ranisian–Jerzmanowician) industries. For decades, scholars debated: were these tools the handiwork of Neanderthals or the first modern humans?

The answer lay buried alongside the tools themselves. DNA evidence made it clear: these tools were crafted by early modern humans. Given that the woman from Zlatý kůň belonged to the same population, it’s likely she too used — or at least knew of — these tools, even though none were found with her remains.

A Lost Branch of Humanity

Among the Ranis skeletons, one individual — dubbed “Ranis13” — yielded DNA so well-preserved that scientists reconstructed his entire genome in remarkable detail.

The results were surprising: like the woman from Zlatý kůň, Ranis13 left no surviving descendants. Their genetic line did not persist in any present-day population.

They were not completely unrelated to us, though — their DNA carries the same ancient Neanderthal inheritance found in all non-Africans today. But unlike other humans of the same era, they show no signs of later interbreeding with Neanderthals. Perhaps they took a different migration route into Europe — or simply never crossed paths with Neanderthals again.

How Many Were There? And What Did They Look Like?

By analyzing shared genetic traits, researchers estimate this population consisted of only a few hundred people, scattered across a wide area.

They were few in number, living in a harsh and unforgiving environment. Cold, scarce resources, and competition with long-established Neanderthals made their survival precarious.

As for their appearance? Their DNA suggests they had dark skin, dark hair, and brown eyes — features typical of people with recent African ancestry, which they indeed had.

“These findings give us a clearer window into the very first pioneers who reached Europe,” said Professor Johannes Krause, a lead researcher on the study.

A Fleeting Chapter, A Lasting Legacy

This lost human lineage did not become our direct ancestors. Yet they were human, just like us. Their passage through history was brief, but their story — preserved in bone and stone — survives as a testament to an attempt, a migration, a connection that ultimately vanished.

The Louvre Brought to Its Knees by Overtourism: Staff Strike Shuts Down the Iconic Museum

Visitors to the Louvre faced an unpleasant surprise on Monday, June 16th: staff members staged a sudden walkout, refusing to take up their posts in protest against working conditions that, they say, have become unbearable — largely due to overtourism and the massive crowds pouring daily into the world’s most popular museum.

Recently, French President Emmanuel Macron unveiled a ten-year rescue plan to tackle the Louvre’s mounting challenges: leaky roofs, abrupt temperature fluctuations, aging infrastructure, and chronic overcrowding. But for the employees on the front lines, this plan feels far too distant to offer any immediate relief. “We can’t wait six years,” said staff member Sarah Sefian pointedly. “It’s not just about the art — it’s also about the people who protect it.”

The museum’s visitor numbers paint a striking picture. Last year alone, the Louvre welcomed 8.7 million visitors — more than double the capacity for which it was originally designed. Even with a daily limit of 30,000 guests, employees say that working at the Louvre has turned into a daily endurance test, especially during the summer when limited rest areas and bathrooms collide with stifling heat.

The situation reaches its peak at the museum’s most famous room: the Salle des États, home to Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa. Each day, roughly 20,000 people squeeze into this single hall just to snap a quick photo of the masterpiece. “You don’t actually see the painting,” Ji-Hyun Park, a visitor from Seoul, Korea, told The Washington Post. “You see phones, elbows — and you feel the heat. And then they push you out.”

Tyrannosaurus: Discovery of a New Species “Rewrites” Dinosaur History

A remarkable new dinosaur discovery in a Mongolian museum collection is shedding fresh light on the evolutionary journey of the mighty tyrannosaurs — and, according to scientists, is effectively rewriting their family tree.

As reported by the BBC, researchers have concluded that two skeletons, dating back 86 million years, belong to a species now believed to be the closest known ancestor of all tyrannosaurs — the family of fearsome carnivorous dinosaurs that includes the iconic Tyrannosaurus rex (T. rex).

The newly identified species has been named Khankhuuluu mongoliensis (pronounced khan-KOO-loo mongoliensis), which translates to “Dragon Prince of Mongolia.”

Published in the journal Nature, this discovery provides vital clues about how early tyrannosaurs evolved into the apex predators that dominated ecosystems across North America and Asia until the mass extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs.

The “Dragon Prince” of Tyrannosaurs

“The name ‘Prince’ reflects that it was an early, smaller member of the tyrannosaur lineage,” explains Professor Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist at the University of Calgary, Canada. Tyrannosauroids, as they are formally called, are a superfamily of two-legged carnivorous dinosaurs.

However, the first tyrannosauroids were not the towering giants we often imagine. Instead, as PhD candidate Jared Voris, who led the study alongside Professor Zelenitsky, describes: “They were quite small, nimble predators that lived in the shadows of larger top carnivores.”

Khankhuuluu represents a crucial evolutionary bridge between these small, agile Jurassic hunters and the colossal giants like T. rex. Weighing around 750 kilograms (about 1,650 pounds), it was still dwarfed by an adult T. rex, which could be up to eight times heavier.

“This is a transitional fossil,” says Zelenitsky, “linking early ancestors to the later, more powerful tyrannosaurs.”

She adds, “It helped us rethink the tyrannosaur family tree and rewrite what we know about their evolution.”

A Bite Built for Dominance

The new species shows early evolutionary traits that paved the way for tyrannosaurs to become apex predators — particularly in the skull structure that enabled their famously bone-crushing bite.

Voris elaborates:
“We see features in the nasal bone that, over time, led to the development of that extremely powerful bite force that tyrannosaurs are known for.”

This trait allowed T. rex and its relatives to tackle larger prey and even crush through bone, giving them a lethal advantage at the top of the food chain.

Rediscovered Fossils, New Insights

The two partial skeletons used in the study were actually unearthed in Mongolia in the early 1970s. Initially, they were classified as belonging to a known species, Alectrosaurus. But when Voris re-examined them decades later, he noticed distinct features pointing instead to a true tyrannosaur and setting the fossils apart as a new species.

“I remember getting a message from Jared — he was convinced it was a new species,” recalls Zelenitsky.

How Tyrannosaurs Conquered Continents

Back in the Late Cretaceous, tyrannosaurs were able to move between North America and Asia thanks to land bridges that once connected Siberia and Alaska. This migration allowed them to spread and adapt to different ecosystems, speeding up their evolution.

Voris notes:
“Moving between continents essentially accelerated the evolution of diverse tyrannosaur groups for millions of years.”

As Zelenitsky puts it:
“This discovery reminds us that before tyrannosaurs became kings, they were princes first.”

Archaeologists Uncover a 2,000-Year-Old Giant Roman Shoe

Archaeologists have unearthed a massive leather shoe, dating back around 2,000 years, that once belonged to a Roman soldier with remarkably large feet. The leather sole alone measures 32 centimeters (about 12.5 inches) long — roughly equivalent to a modern men’s European size 48 (US size 14).

The discovery was made at the Roman fort of Magna, near Hadrian’s Wall, which dates back to around A.D. 112. The shoe was found inside a deep defensive trap known as an “ankle-breaker ditch” — a narrow, water-filled trench designed to remain hidden and cause unsuspecting enemies to fall and injure themselves.

A Rare Glimpse Into Roman Footwear

Photo: Vindolanda Trust

The giant shoe was found alongside two other exceptionally well-preserved Roman shoes, both of which were nearly intact. One still had part of the heel and a row of iron hobnails embedded in the sole, much like modern military boots.

Yet it was the enormous size 48 shoe that truly stole the spotlight. Rachel Frame, lead archaeologist for the Magna Project, commented:

“Although only one layer of the sole survived, its sheer size made it the talk of the entire team. It could very well be the largest shoe in the entire Vindolanda Trust collection. We can’t wait to confirm it!”

This find is particularly significant because organic materials like leather rarely survive underground. Normally, microorganisms break them down — unless they are preserved in waterlogged, low-oxygen conditions, as at Magna. However, once the soil dries out, decomposition can rapidly accelerate.

Frame added:

“This gives us an amazing look at how Romans crafted their shoes: multiple leather layers for the sole, bound with straps, stitched and reinforced with hobnails. These outer studs made them more durable for long marches — just like modern hiking boots.”

A Fort Full of Secrets

The Magna fort (also known as Carvoran) lies about 11 kilometers west of the more famous Vindolanda and was built to guard the crossroads of two major Roman roads. Until recently, the site had not been extensively excavated, but new digs are already revealing remarkable finds.

However, archaeologists are concerned about the future of such delicate discoveries. This spring’s unusually dry weather threatens their preservation. Franki Gillis, the project’s geoarchaeologist, explained:

“At Magna, the lack of rain has drastically lowered the groundwater level. While pleasant weather is great for visitors, drought can be disastrous for the survival of organic materials like leather and wood — both here at Magna and at Vindolanda.”

Who Had the Biggest Feet in History?

While this Roman soldier’s shoe is impressive, the record for the largest feet in recorded history belongs to Robert Wadlow, the tallest person ever documented. Wadlow’s feet measured an astonishing 47 centimeters long, requiring shoes equivalent to a European size 75 — each pair specially made just for him.

The First Pharaoh in History: The King Who United Upper and Lower Egypt

The first pharaoh in ancient Egyptian history is widely believed to have been Narmer, who is also referred to as Menes in some historical sources.

Narmer is renowned as the ruler who achieved the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3150 BCE, marking the beginning of the First Dynasty and the Early Dynastic Period. This unification laid the groundwork for what would become one of the world’s most enduring and influential ancient civilizations.

The main archaeological evidence for Narmer’s reign is the famous Narmer Palette, discovered in Hierakonpolis. This ceremonial artifact depicts the king wearing both the white crown of Upper Egypt and the red crown of Lower Egypt, a powerful symbol of the unification of the two kingdoms.

Greek historians, including Herodotus and Manetho, referred to Menes (or Mēnēs) as Egypt’s first king. Today, most Egyptologists identify Menes with Narmer or sometimes with his successor, Hor-Aha, although scholarly opinions vary.

Narmer’s reign marks the dawn of the Pharaonic era, which would endure for more than 3,000 years. By establishing a unified state, Narmer set the stage for the flourishing of Egyptian society, advances in technology, the development of writing, and the blossoming of art and monumental architecture.

1,000-Year-Old Viking Hoard Includes Pendant That Could Be a Cross or Thor's Hammer

A metal detectorist in Germany has unearthed a hoard dating back to the Early Middle Ages, containing about 200 artifacts — including a pendant that may be a Christian cross or an unfinished Thor’s hammer.

This newly discovered Viking Age treasure, found in northern Germany near Haithabu, an important maritime trading center during the Viking Age (A.D. 793 to 1066), includes Arabic coins, silver ingots, and a pendant whose meaning could reveal insights into the region’s religious history.

If the pendant is a cross, it could represent “an early sign of the onset of Christianisation” in the area, said Birte Anspach, a spokesperson for the State Archaeological Office of Schleswig-Holstein, in an email to Live Science.

Christianity began to spread in Haithabu when St. Ansgar visited in the ninth century, but the transition from Norse paganism to Christianity was gradual.
“Ansgar did not come and suddenly everyone turned away from the old gods and embraced the Christian faith,” Anspach explained. “Christianisation was a long process spanning several generations.”

For about a century after Ansgar’s arrival, most people around Haithabu remained pagan. However, archaeologists have found Christian symbols in burials from that period, so this pendant may have belonged to an early convert. Interestingly, the eyelet on the pendant is attached to the longer part of the ‘cross,’ causing it to hang upside down when worn, Anspach noted.

Alternatively, the pendant might be an unfinished Thor’s hammer. Such hammer pendants, known as Mjölnir in Norse mythology, symbolized loyalty to the old Norse gods at a time when Christianity was spreading through Scandinavia and northern Europe. According to legend, dwarves forged the divine hammer for the gods of Valhalla, and Thor wielded it to battle giants.

Discovery by the Baltic

The hoard was discovered by Arjen Spießwinkel, a member of a volunteer metal detector group in Schleswig-Holstein. Volunteers must complete a four-day training course and pass an exam before they are permitted to search with a detector. Spießwinkel, who has made several significant finds in the past, was exploring along the Schlei — a Baltic Sea inlet near Haithabu — when he came upon the hoard and alerted state archaeologists, Anspach said.

Alongside the pendant, the hoard contained hacksilver — silver fragments historically used as currency by weight — as well as dirhams (Arabic coins), ingots, a pottery shard, and a whetstone for sharpening tools. These items suggest there may be an undiscovered settlement nearby.

“These finds offer fascinating insights into the history of the 10th century — a time marked by intensive trade, cultural exchange, and religious transformation,” Anspach said. “It is therefore not surprising to discover a hoard near the Schlei. Whether it was a hidden treasure depot or part of a nearby settlement remains unclear at this stage.”

The Minoans Reached America Before Columbus, Claims British Author

The Minoans were the first to cross the Atlantic and set foot in the Americas—3,700 years before Christopher Columbus. At least, that’s the claim made by British author and former Royal Navy submarine commander Gavin Menzies in his forthcoming book.

This isn’t the first time Menzies has challenged Columbus’ status as the "discoverer" of the New World. In his bestselling book 1421: The Year China Discovered America, he argued that a Chinese eunuch admiral led a fleet to the Americas 71 years before Columbus. That book sold over a million copies in 130 countries.

The Author’s Arguments

Menzies makes several bold claims in support of his theory.

First, he argues that Minoan seafarers possessed both the technical ability and the maritime knowledge to make such a long transatlantic journey. Drawing from Minoan ship depictions in frescoes and the few surviving remains of the Uluburun shipwreck—discovered off the coast of Turkey and dated to 1305 BC—Menzies suggests that “the ships could sail with the wind and had lower sails that made them more manageable during storms.”

Second, he points to the transmission of a rare DNA gene from Minoans to certain Native American populations. These populations, located around Lake Superior near the Canadian border, also lived near rich copper deposits. Menzies notes that copper tools found there exhibit a high level of purity.

According to Menzies, scientific studies show that this copper closely matches the copper found in the Uluburun wreck. He argues that this proves Minoans transported it across the Atlantic.

Third, Menzies suggests that endemic plants from the Americas, found in Old World contexts, must have been transported by the Minoans. He cites the presence of traces of nicotine and maize—both unknown in the ancient Old World—in archaeological remains in Egypt. Since ancient Egyptians were not known as strong seafarers but had close trade relations with the more capable Minoans, he concludes that the Minoans must have brought these crops from America.

Pushback from the Academic Community

While Menzies’ literary agent is excited—remarking that “revisionist history sells extremely well”—many scholars have firmly rejected his conclusions.

“It’s theoretically possible the Minoans made it to America,” says John Bennet, a Minoan archaeology expert at the University of Sheffield. “But their ships were too small to carry sufficient supplies and cargo for such a long journey.”

Cemal Pulak, an associate professor at Texas A&M University who led excavations of the Uluburun shipwreck, similarly doubts that Minoan vessels could survive a transatlantic voyage. He adds that the copper found in the Uluburun wreck has been scientifically traced to Cyprus—not North America.

Moreover, archaeologists state there is no solid evidence of anyone exploiting the copper deposits near Lake Superior aside from Indigenous peoples.

Skepticism also came from Greece. Emeritus Professor of Prehistoric Archaeology at the University of Athens, Giorgos Korres, told TA NEA newspaper: “The Egyptians did make sea voyages, but to the south. Secondly, how could such small boats cross the Atlantic at night? They may have taken long trips, but they progressed gradually, stopping at bays, islands, and headlands—features abundant in the Aegean. And finally, how can we rule out the possibility that the Egyptians encountered tobacco or maize from southern peoples or through trade in the Near East?”

Supporters Still Exist

Despite the criticism, some experts support Menzies’ ideas. Among them is Carl Johannessen, emeritus professor at the University of Oregon, who states, “I’m convinced the Minoans were neither the first nor the only people to cross the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.”

Menzies’ theories remain controversial, but they continue to captivate the public imagination—blending seafaring legend, archaeological evidence, and the enduring mystery of who truly discovered the Americas first.

An Archaeologist Sailed Like a Viking for 3 Years

Greer Jarrett, a PhD candidate in archaeology at Lund University in Sweden, spent three years reenacting the sea voyages of the Vikings. Covering more than 5,000 kilometers in a wooden boat modeled after the traditional faering design, he demonstrated that Vikings often ventured far from coastal waters, deep into the open sea—challenging long-standing assumptions held by historians.

His research was rooted not only in hands-on sailing experience, but also in interviews with Norwegian seafarers and studies of traditional routes from the 19th and 20th centuries. Drawing from these firsthand accounts and his own journey along the Scandinavian coastline, Jarrett mapped a decentralized network of small harbors on islands and peninsulas. These locations likely served as rest stops during Viking trade expeditions.

This theory is further supported by the design of the Viking vessels themselves. The faering, with its shallow draft and remarkable agility, was ideally suited for navigating into inlets and landing on shores that would have been inaccessible to larger ships.

While the boat proved impressively stable in open waters, the expedition was not without its challenges. On one return trip from the Lofoten Islands, the main mast holding the sail broke. The crew had to improvise by lashing two oars together to create a temporary support—an incident that highlighted the critical importance of teamwork, patience, and mutual support during such demanding voyages.

Jarrett’s journey blends experimental archaeology with historical inquiry, offering new insights into how the Vikings may have truly traveled—guided not by modern instruments, but by the stars, the wind, and the stories carried across generations.

The Hidden Gate of Athens That Leads to the Acropolis – Lost for Centuries, Rediscovered with Explosives

Most people walk right past it without even noticing. It’s the gate at the lower end of the staircase leading to the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Two low towers, a silent stone opening. Few realize that this modest structure was once the only thing standing between invaders and the sacred summit. And to bring it back to light, they had to use gunpowder.

This gate was built around 270 AD, following the sacking of Athens by the Heruli. It wasn’t designed to impress. It was built to keep people out. The Acropolis was no longer a site of worship—it had become a fortress. And this gate, once the starting point of the road to the goddess, now sealed everything off behind stone and towers.

But the gate itself was a product of reuse. It was constructed from marble blocks and column drums taken from another, much older monument: the Choregic Monument of Nicias. This Doric-style monument had once celebrated a victory in a choral competition, and its inscription can still be seen above the gate—a tribute to glory, sacrificed in the name of security.

Today we know it as the Beulé Gate, and for centuries it stood forgotten. Neither the Franks nor the Ottomans made use of it. They covered it, built over it, ignored it. Then, in 1852, a young French archaeologist named Charles-Ernest Beulé became convinced there was something buried beneath.

He began digging with a shovel, but the ground had hardened over the centuries. The concrete of history wouldn’t yield. So he called for help from sailors in the French navy stationed in the Aegean—and brought explosives. Sixty-eight kilograms of gunpowder. He blasted through the soil, and the marble gate finally emerged. He believed at first he had found the original entrance built by Mnesicles, but it was later confirmed to be of Roman construction.

The discovery was celebrated with fanfare. King Otto and Queen Amalia visited the site. France honored Beulé. He himself carved an inscription in ancient Greek: “France discovered the gate of the Acropolis”—his name, naturally, included. Greek archaeologists accused him of vanity. One even described him as “the man who tried to blow up the Acropolis.”

And yet, the Beulé Gate still stands. Built from broken monuments, forged in fear of sieges, unearthed through explosives and sheer human persistence. It’s the first thing you see when ascending toward the Acropolis—and perhaps the most misunderstood.

Priceless 1,000-Year-Old Gold Viking Bracelet Discovered on the Isle of Man

A rare gold Viking bracelet, believed to be around 1,000 years old, has been discovered on the Isle of Man by amateur treasure hunter Ronald Clucas. The stunning find, made up of eight intricately braided gold rods, has astonished archaeologists with its craftsmanship and historical significance.

The Amateur Archaeologist Behind the Discovery

Clucas, who made the find using a metal detector, was taken by surprise despite his years of experience. Gold's low conductivity makes it notoriously difficult to detect with such equipment, which makes this discovery even more remarkable.

Vikings, Trade, and “Hack Gold”

The bracelet measures approximately 7.7 centimeters in length and 3.7 centimeters in width, weighing in at nearly 27.3 grams. Its precise construction reflects the skill of Viking-era artisans. The fact that the bracelet was cut suggests it may have been used as “hack gold” — a form of currency in which precious metal objects were cut into pieces and traded, a common practice among the Vikings.

This isn’t Clucas’s first significant discovery. In 2005, he unearthed both a silver and a lead ingot from the same period. The recent find adds another crucial piece to the historical puzzle of the Isle of Man, which was a major Viking hub from the 9th century onward.

Why Gold is Especially Rare

Experts note that gold artifacts were relatively uncommon during the Viking Age. Silver was by far the dominant metal used for both trade and jewelry-making. At the time, gold was estimated to be worth about ten times more than silver, making this bracelet exceptionally valuable.

The Isle of Man as a Viking Trade Center

The Isle of Man has yielded other significant treasures in recent years. In 2021, another amateur metal detectorist discovered a trove of jewelry, including a gold bracelet and a large silver brooch, dated to around 950 AD. Such findings point to the presence of wealthy and influential communities on the island during that era.

Hiding treasure was a common Viking practice, especially during times of upheaval. These hoards typically included jewelry, coins, and other valuables buried with the intent of later retrieval. Their discovery today offers vital insight into Viking trade networks, social hierarchies, and cultural customs.

Ancient Greek and Roman Statues Were Scented with Perfumes They were infused with substances like rose, olive oil, and beeswax to give off pleasant fragrances

Statues in ancient Greece and Rome were not only examples of classical beauty but also emitted pleasant scents, according to a new study published in the Oxford Journal of Archaeology. The study’s author, Danish archaeologist Cecilie Brøns, discovered that sculptures were fragranced with substances like rose, olive oil, and beeswax.

This practice, in addition to pleasing the senses, had a symbolic role, “highlighting the religious and cultural significance of those sculptures,” as Bill Giannopoulos writes in the Greek City Times. In some cases, it even contributed to better preservation of the statues.

The ritual of scenting statues, according to Brøns, was not only for sensory pleasure but also underscored the cultural and religious importance of these artworks.

How Did Brøns Arrive at This Conclusion?

By reading ancient Greek and Roman texts, Brøns noticed references to statues with sweet fragrances. She continued her search and uncovered numerous additional references in the works of authors such as Cicero, Vitruvius, and Pausanias, among others. The sculptures mentioned in these texts were often depictions of deities.

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In any case, the pleasure of these statues for the viewer was not solely visual but also olfactory, Brøns adds in her article.

This is yet another fascinating revelation following the discovery that, despite the minimalist aesthetic we associate with them today, statues in the past were decorated in vibrant colors, with jewelry, fabrics, flowers, garlands, and ribbons.

However, by the time archaeological excavations began during the Renaissance, many of these decorations were no longer present, and even the pigments had significantly faded. Those that had survived until then were destroyed after exposure to the air and sunlight.