The Remarkable Engineering of Roman Roads: A Legacy of Durability and Precision

November 5, 2024

Roman roads have long been admired for their durability and advanced construction techniques, playing an essential role in the expansion and governance of the Roman Empire. These roads were more than mere routes; they were carefully designed and constructed pathways that connected cities, military outposts, and ports across thousands of miles. Their longevity is a testament to Roman engineering prowess, with many of these roads still intact today. This article will explore the methods Romans used to construct these enduring pathways, the reasons behind their remarkable durability, and the logistics behind their construction timeline.

How Were Roman Roads Constructed?

The Romans employed a meticulous, multi-layered process to construct their roads, which provided both stability and durability. Here’s a step-by-step breakdown of the construction technique:

Surveying and Planning: Roman engineers, known as agrimensores (land surveyors), first marked out the road route using tools like the groma and chorobates, which allowed for precise alignment and leveling. They aimed for direct paths, regardless of natural obstacles, which were either bridged or tunneled through when possible.
Excavation and Foundation: Once the path was marked, laborers would excavate a trench, which varied in depth depending on the terrain and intended use of the road. This trench was foundational, as it provided stability for the road structure.
Layering Materials: Roman roads were constructed in multiple layers, each with specific materials and purposes to ensure stability and drainage:
- Statumen: The first layer was a base of large stones or rubble (usually around 20 cm thick), which provided a solid foundation.
- Rudus: Above this was a layer of smaller stones and mortar, approximately 25 cm thick. The use of mortar was essential in binding the materials and providing a robust underlayer.
- Nucleus: Next was a layer of finer gravel or crushed stones, which formed a solid yet smoother surface. This layer was usually around 20 cm thick.
- Pavimentum: Finally, on top was a layer of polygonal stone slabs, fitted closely together to form a durable surface. The stones were often cut to create a cambered shape, allowing water to drain off easily to the sides.
Cambering and Drainage: One of the crucial aspects of Roman road durability was its effective drainage system. The Romans used a slight camber (curved shape) to ensure water runoff, preventing pooling and erosion. Ditches or culverts on either side of the road carried away the excess water.
Finishing Touches: Some roads included raised curbs, particularly in urban areas, to separate pedestrian areas from the main path. Occasionally, they installed milestones and inscriptions to indicate distances and directions, adding utility to the road’s design.

Why Are Roman Roads So Durable?

Several factors contributed to the extraordinary durability of Roman roads:

High-Quality Materials: The Romans selected materials based on the terrain and climate. In volcanic regions, they utilized volcanic stone for added durability, and in other areas, they incorporated local materials, optimizing each road’s resilience.
Layered Structure: The multi-layered structure of Roman roads helped distribute weight effectively. This layering prevented the surface from sinking or cracking under the weight of carts, animals, and pedestrians.
Cambered Design: The slight upward curve in the center of the road was a masterstroke in road engineering, as it directed water away from the road surface. This design minimized water damage, which is a primary cause of wear and erosion in roadways.
Regular Maintenance: The Romans established a network of inspectors who oversaw maintenance, ensuring that damaged sections were quickly repaired. This proactive approach helped preserve the structural integrity of the roads.
Strategic Alignment and Construction: Roman engineers preferred straight roads, which minimized stress points and reduced wear. Additionally, they adapted the road’s depth and materials to the local environment, ensuring the foundation was stable and resistant to regional weather conditions.

How Thick Was a Roman Road?

Roman roads varied in thickness, but the typical road was around 3 to 5 feet (1 to 1.5 meters) thick. This depth, created by the layered construction method, ensured that the road could bear the weight of heavy traffic without settling or cracking.

In mountainous or marshy regions, Roman engineers sometimes increased the thickness for added stability. Roads in flat, dry areas might be thinner but were still built to last through layers that supported both function and longevity.

How Long Did It Take the Romans to Build a Road?

The time it took to build a Roman road depended on several factors, including the terrain, available labor, and the urgency of the project. Generally, a Roman road could take several months to a few years to complete. For instance, a straight road over a relatively flat landscape could be constructed in less time, sometimes within a year. However, in challenging terrains with obstacles like rivers or mountains, road construction could extend to several years.

The Roman Empire employed a large workforce for road construction, including soldiers, local laborers, and slaves. Military engineers supervised the process, often constructing roads strategically to facilitate troop movement. This mobilization ensured a swift pace, as roads were critical for connecting new territories and securing the empire’s borders.

Conclusion

The engineering marvel of Roman roads lies in their systematic approach to construction, durable materials, and innovative drainage solutions. These roads were much more than mere transportation routes; they symbolized Rome’s technological prowess and administrative reach. From the famous Via Appia in Italy to roads spanning the far reaches of Britain, the longevity of these ancient pathways speaks volumes about the advanced state of Roman engineering.

By understanding the methodology behind these enduring constructions, we gain insight into the Roman Empire's commitment to infrastructure, its understanding of environmental adaptation, and the sheer willpower that went into building a network that united an empire stretching over three continents. Today, Roman roads continue to inspire modern infrastructure, and their legacy endures as a remarkable example of ancient engineering at its finest.

The Forma Urbis Romae: The Story of Lost Severan Monumental Marble Map of Rome

October 31, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

A City Carved in Stone: Decoding Ancient Cartography Through Rome’s Severan Marble Map and: a Testament to Rome’s Glory"

The Forma Urbis Romae, commonly known as the Severan Marble Plan, stands as one of the most remarkable archaeological artifacts from ancient Rome. Commissioned between 203 and 211 CE under the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, this monumental marble map not only documents the urban layout of the city with immense detail but also captures the grandeur of Rome at its peak. Despite its fragmented survival, the Forma Urbis Romae remains a focal point for scholars and historians, offering a glimpse into the empire’s architectural prowess, urban planning, and historical record-keeping. Through this detailed analysis, we will explore what the Forma Urbis Romae reveals about ancient Rome, the mysteries of its purpose, its journey through history, and its significance today.

The Structure and Design of the Forma Urbis Romae

Originally measuring an astounding 18 meters wide by 13 meters high, the Forma Urbis Romae was carved into 150 marble slabs and mounted on an interior wall of the Temple of Peace, also known as the Templum Pacis. The map was crafted from Proconnesian marble and covered a significant area on the temple’s wall, capturing a detailed ground plan of the imperial city at an approximate scale of 1:240. The creators of the map oriented it with the south at the top, an orientation differing from the north-oriented convention typical in modern maps.

The map was extraordinarily detailed, reflecting the ground plans of Rome’s public and private spaces, including temples, baths, and housing blocks (insulae), along with streets and other communal structures. Even interior details, like colonnades, staircases, and doorways, were incised, with certain features highlighted through symbolic signs or dotted lines. The Forma Urbis Romae revealed the precise architectural layout of each building, and despite some inaccuracies in the carving, the map’s details were an exceptional testament to Roman urban sophistication.

What Does the Forma Urbis Romae Tell Us About Ancient Rome?

The Forma Urbis Romae primarily provides insight into Rome’s architecture and urban organization during the Severan period. By showcasing individual buildings and their internal structures, the map hints at the Romans’ meticulous attention to spatial design and their emphasis on monumental architecture. Notably, prominent public buildings like the Colosseum and the Circus Maximus are clearly depicted, underscoring the role of such spaces in Roman culture.

Moreover, the map highlights the Severan dynasty’s architectural legacy. Archaeologist Susann Lusnia suggests that the Forma Urbis served as a symbolic record of Severus’ building program, which included both restoration projects and new constructions aimed at solidifying his dynasty’s standing. The map’s scale and intricacy might suggest it was intended more as a decorative display than as a functional map. However, its basis in actual land surveys reflects the Romans’ advanced mapping techniques and desire for spatial accuracy in monumental depictions of their empire’s capital.

Purpose and Function of the Forma Urbis Romae

Scholars remain divided on the primary function of the Forma Urbis Romae. Some propose that it served as an official cadastral or locator map within the Temple of Peace, which might have functioned as an archive for the city’s records. However, David Reynolds, a scholar in Roman cartography, argues that the map was likely a decorative showpiece rather than a practical tool. Given its immense size, the map would have been challenging to consult in detail from the floor, especially as many sections were left unlabeled, further questioning its practicality.

Reynolds suggests that there may have been two versions of the Forma Urbis: one functional, preserved in papyrus form with landownership annotations and other precise details, and the marble version intended for public display. This decorative version would visually demonstrate Rome’s urban landscape while drawing attention to Severus’ accomplishments. By placing it in the Temple of Peace, Severus could project his influence over the city’s physical and symbolic landscape.

The Journey of the Forma Urbis Through the Centuries

Following its creation, the Forma Urbis Romae gradually succumbed to the ravages of time. By the early 5th century, the map suffered significant damage when a passageway was cut through the wall it adorned. The marble slabs were eventually abandoned, with many removed or repurposed for lime production during the late medieval period.

Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Map of ancient Rome and *Forma Urbis*, from *Le antichità Romane*, 1835-1839.

Rediscovery of the Forma Urbis fragments began in 1562 when antiquarian sculptor Giovanni Antonio Dosio excavated pieces near the Church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. Over the centuries, further fragments were unearthed, with key pieces identified and matched to notable structures like the Forum of Augustus and the Baths of Agrippa. Despite these efforts, only about 10-15% of the original marble map survives, though this has been sufficient to spark ongoing scholarly fascination and reconstruction projects.

The Forma Urbis Today: A Testament to Roman Legacy

In 2024, the fragments of the Forma Urbis Romae finally received a dedicated exhibition space at the newly opened Museo della Forma Urbis near the Colosseum. This museum, part of the larger Archaeological Park of the Celio, allows visitors to walk over the map fragments displayed under glass flooring, experiencing a physical connection to ancient Rome’s monumental design. The museum also features an 18th-century copy of a historical map, the Nolli Map, superimposed on the ancient fragments, helping visitors contextualize the ancient city layout.

The wall of the Temple of Peace where the Severan marble plan once hung (photo: Wikimedia Commons)

Was the Forma Urbis Romae the Oldest Roman Map?

While the Forma Urbis Romae is among the oldest surviving large-scale maps of Rome, it may not have been the first. There is ongoing debate about whether a similar monumental map existed before Severus’ plan. Evidence from archaeological and literary sources hints at earlier representations of Rome, possibly used for administrative or ceremonial purposes, but no definitive pre-Severan maps have been discovered.

Did the Romans Have Accurate Maps?

The Forma Urbis demonstrates the Romans’ impressive ability to create precise architectural renderings, likely informed by cadastral surveys and advanced land measurement techniques. Roman maps, such as the Peutinger Map, further reveal their capacity to map vast territories and connect regions through detailed road networks. Although not always geographically accurate by modern standards, Roman maps provided essential guidance and visualizations for imperial governance, emphasizing strategic and political aspects of the empire’s expanse.

Conjectural reconstruction of the *Forma Urbis Romae*

Conclusion

The Forma Urbis Romae endures as a powerful symbol of Rome’s imperial ambition, urban organization, and architectural sophistication. The fragments of this marble map are not just remnants of stone but are pieces of a narrative that link modern viewers to an era when Rome was the heart of a vast empire. Now preserved for public admiration in the Museo della Forma Urbis, the map continues to fascinate and inspire, affirming the ingenuity of ancient Rome’s mapmakers and their lasting contribution to the history of urban cartography.

The Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome and Its Influence from the Tomb of Alexander the Great in Alexandria, Egypt

October 1, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Mausoleum of Augustus, also known as Mausoleum Augusti, is one of the most significant architectural monuments of ancient Rome, symbolizing the supremacy and immortality of the first Roman Emperor. However, few people know that this mausoleum, designed and constructed during Augustus’ reign, was largely inspired by the tomb of another great leader—Alexander the Great in Alexandria, Egypt. The architecture and symbolic significance of Augustus’ Mausoleum can be better understood through the study of Alexander’s tomb, possibly providing clues to its exact location and structure.

The Historical Significance of the Mausoleum of Augustus

The Mausoleum of Augustus, whose construction began in 28 BCE, is located in the Campus Martius of Rome. It was one of the first major public works initiated by Augustus shortly after the establishment of the Pax Romana. With a diameter of approximately 87 meters and a height exceeding 40 meters, the mausoleum was a circular tomb, covered with earth and trees on top, exuding a sense of eternity and peace. At its core, the Mausoleum housed a central chamber that contained the ashes of Augustus and other members of the Julio-Claudian family.

The construction of the mausoleum was not merely a work of architectural grandeur but also a political statement. By erecting such an imposing funerary monument at the heart of Rome, Augustus sought to ensure his eternal memory and declare that the power of his family would last forever. This symbolism bears a strong resemblance to the grand funerary practices that had developed in the East, with Alexander the Great’s tomb being one of the most impressive examples.

The Tomb of Alexander the Great: Architecture and Symbolism

The tomb of Alexander the Great in Alexandria was one of the wonders of the ancient world. Although the exact form and location of the tomb have been lost over the centuries, ancient sources give us some clues about its magnificence and influence. According to these sources, Alexander’s tomb was housed in an elaborate mausoleum, possibly inspired by the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, and was located in the center of Alexandria, serving as a pilgrimage site for centuries.

Tomb of Alexander the Great in Assassin's Creed: Origins

Alexander’s tomb was more than just a burial place; it was a symbol of his deification. After his death, Alexander was worshiped as a god, and his tomb served as a shrine. This symbolism of eternity and deification deeply influenced Augustus, who, recognizing the power and allure of such a tomb, sought to adopt and reinforce these symbols in his own mausoleum.

Architectural Influences and Common Elements

Although the details of Alexander’s tomb remain unclear, there are indications that Augustus drew inspiration from it. The circular shape of Augustus' Mausoleum resembles the circular tombs popular in the East, like the probable shape of Alexander’s tomb. The choice of location, in a central spot in Rome, and the use of luxurious materials and decoration reveal Augustus’ effort to create a tomb worthy of the great leaders of history.

*Reconstruction Sketch of Mausoleum Augustus*

Additionally, Augustus’ references to Alexander in various texts and his attempts to present himself as a new Alexander suggest that he wanted to be associated with the image of the great Macedonian conqueror. The mausoleum, as a monument not only of burial but also of worship, echoes the cult that had developed around Alexander’s tomb.

Can We Draw Information to Help Locate Alexander’s Tomb?

The study of Augustus’ Mausoleum may offer interesting insights into the identification and reconstruction of the image of Alexander the Great’s tomb. The influence of Alexander’s tomb on Augustus’ mausoleum suggests that the former was located in a central area and was a place of worship, making its possible location in the heart of Alexandria, near the famed Soma of Alexander.

However, archaeological investigations in Alexandria have proven to be extremely challenging due to modern urban development. Nevertheless, comparisons with Augustus’ Mausoleum, such as its shape, location, and use of materials, might help archaeologists search for similar features in the landscape of Alexandria. One possible approach would be to look for signs of large circular monuments or underground chambers that could be linked to the tomb.

The connection between the Mausoleum of Augustus and the lost tomb of Alexander the Great is reinforced by both ancient literary sources and archaeological analysis, allowing modern historians to draw significant parallels between the two structures. Suetonius, Dio Cassius, and Strabo highlight Augustus’ admiration for Alexander, particularly his visit to the Macedonian king’s tomb in Alexandria, where he reportedly touched the body and expressed a desire to emulate his legacy. Strabo’s description of Alexander’s tomb as a grand circular monument finds a striking parallel in the architectural design of Augustus’ Mausoleum, suggesting a conscious attempt to mirror the grandeur of Hellenistic royal burials.

Paul Zanker, in The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, explores how Augustus strategically adopted Hellenistic imagery to shape his divine and imperial persona, modeling his rule on figures like Alexander. The Res Gestae Divi Augusti, while not explicitly referencing Alexander, underscores Augustus’ efforts to create an enduring monument that would solidify his divine status, much like Hellenistic rulers who established cults around their tombs. The central placement of Augustus’ Mausoleum in Rome further reflects the prominent location of Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria, reinforcing the notion that Augustus sought to integrate elements of Hellenistic kingship into his own imperial image. While no ancient source directly states that Augustus copied Alexander’s tomb, the architectural similarities, historical context, and Augustus’ known admiration for Hellenistic ideals strongly suggest that the Mausoleum was influenced by the legendary conqueror’s burial, serving as a powerful testament to Alexander’s enduring impact on Roman leadership and self-representation.

The Ara Pacis and its Greek Roots: How the Pergamon Altar Shaped the Altar of Peace of Divine Augustus

September 29, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Altar of Peace of Divine Augustus (Ara Pacis Divi Augusti) stands as one of the most significant architectural and artistic works of the Roman Empire. It was constructed to honor the peace established by Augustus following his military campaigns in Spain and Gaul, and it serves as a manifestation of his policy promoting the Pax Romana. Although the work is distinctly Roman, its architecture and decorative elements show substantial influence from the Greek world, especially from the Pergamon Altar. In this article, we will examine the history, architecture, and artistic influences of the Ara Pacis, with particular emphasis on how it was inspired by the Temple of Pergamon.

Historical Context and Construction of the Altar

The Altar of Peace was inaugurated on January 30, 9 B.C., commemorating Augustus' return to Rome after his successful campaigns. Its construction was decreed by the Senate in 13 B.C. and was situated in the Campus Martius, an area associated with Rome’s military history and honors bestowed upon great military leaders.

The altar consists of an enclosure and an inner altar, with the enclosure decorated with relief scenes depicting the procession of the imperial family and deities associated with peace. This monument is not just a religious structure but also a political statement of Augustus' success and the new era of peace and prosperity he brought to the empire.

Architectural and Artistic Elements

The Ara Pacis is a masterpiece of Roman architecture and sculpture, blending political propaganda with religious devotion. The outer enclosure is adorned with reliefs that glorify peace, prosperity, and the moral renewal of Rome. These depictions include mythological scenes, such as the founding of Rome and the miracle of peace under Augustus' reign, along with processions portraying members of Augustus' family, priests, and other prominent figures of the time.

The reliefs on the Ara Pacis are characterized by striking realism and naturalism, traits that evolved in Hellenistic art and were transferred to Rome. This influence is evident in the portrayal of figures, the intensity of expressions, and the detailed representation of clothing and faces.

Asclepius to Esculapio: The Integration of the Cult of Asclepius in Roman Healing and Religion

The Influence of the Temple of Pergamon

One of the most significant aspects of the Ara Pacis is the influence it received from the Temple of Pergamon, particularly from the Altar of Zeus and Athena built in the 2nd century B.C. in Pergamon. The Pergamon Altar, famous for its "Gigantomachy" frieze, was one of the greatest architectural and artistic achievements of the Hellenistic period, and it had a profound impact on Roman architecture and art.

This influence is evident in both the structure and decoration of the Ara Pacis. In the Temple of Pergamon, the altar was surrounded by reliefs depicting the battle between the gods and the giants, a theme symbolizing the triumph of order and civilization over chaos and barbarism. This concept was transferred to the Ara Pacis, where the reliefs portray the peace and prosperity that result from Augustus' victory and the establishment of order in Rome.

Additionally, the structure of the Ara Pacis, with its enclosure surrounding the altar, echoes the architectural layout of the Temple of Pergamon. The symbolism of a perimeter enclosing a sacred space and the inner unity it represents are characteristics drawn from Greek models, adapted to the Roman context to serve Augustus' political and religious agenda.

The Altar of Peace of Divine Augustus is not only a religious monument but also a symbol of Augustus' power and political success. Through the study of the Ara Pacis, we can see how Rome adopted and adapted the finest elements of Greek art, blending them with its own traditions and needs. The influence of the Temple of Pergamon is clear, and the result is a monument that embodies the values of the Pax Romana while also demonstrating the continuous cultural interaction between Rome and the Hellenistic world.

The Scholarly Connection Between the Ara Pacis and the Pergamon Altar

There is no ancient literary source that explicitly records a direct connection between the Ara Pacis Augustae and the Altar of Zeus at Pergamon. However, the association between the two is based on archaeological, artistic, and historical analyses conducted by modern scholars.

Ancient sources that describe the Ara Pacis include Ovid in Fasti (1.709-722), who mentions the construction of the altar and its symbolic significance. Pliny the Elder in Natural History (36.19-36.28) references sculptural works from the Augustan period, while Cassius Dio in Roman History (53.22, 54.25) discusses the political meaning of the altar and its connection to Augustus' establishment of peace.

For the Pergamon Altar, the most notable ancient reference comes from Lucian in Against the Ignorant Book Collector (7-8), where he describes the grandeur of Pergamene constructions.

The connection between the Ara Pacis and the Pergamon Altar has been established through modern scholarly research, which highlights how the Ara Pacis borrows both artistic and ideological elements from the Pergamon Altar, especially in its relief decorations. The Pergamon Altar significantly influenced Roman sculpture and decorative art, particularly through its use of high-relief narrative sculpture, a technique that is evident in the Ara Pacis as well.

For a deeper analysis of this influence, the works of Paul Zanker in The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (1988) and Tonio Hölscher in The Language of Images in Roman Art (2004) are highly recommended. These studies explore how Augustus utilized Hellenistic art to legitimize his rule and craft a new visual narrative for Rome, reinforcing his political and ideological agenda.

The Roman Amphitheater of Arles: A Monument of Antiquity and Modernity

September 18, 2024

The Roman amphitheater of Arles, standing as a timeless symbol of Roman engineering, culture, and societal importance, is a prominent relic of the ancient city of Arelate, now Arles in modern-day France. Built in 90 AD, during the reign of Emperor Domitian, the amphitheater was one of the largest in Gaul (modern-day France), designed to accommodate over 20,000 spectators. This grand structure, both in scale and architectural sophistication, remains a testament to the Romans’ mastery in the construction of public entertainment venues, similar to the world-renowned Colosseum in Rome.

Architectural Marvel

The amphitheater’s design reflects the Romans’ characteristic attention to detail and functionality. The structure spans 136 by 109 meters, embodying the classical Roman elliptical form that facilitated optimal viewing for all attendees. The arena itself is encircled by two tiers of 60 arches, divided by distinct architectural orders. The first level features sturdy Doric columns, emphasizing strength and simplicity, while the second level showcases Corinthian columns, known for their decorative elegance and intricate capitals. The inclusion of these two classical orders not only added to the amphitheater’s aesthetic appeal but also symbolized the hierarchy and order that underpinned Roman society.

A Venue for Spectacle

As with other amphitheaters across the Roman Empire, the Arles amphitheater was built to host a variety of public spectacles, including gladiatorial games, animal hunts, and public executions. These events served both as entertainment and as a method of reinforcing the power of the Roman state. The citizens of Arles, much like those in other parts of the empire, gathered here to witness the pageantry and brutality of Roman entertainment culture, which reinforced communal identity and loyalty to Rome.

Medieval Transformation

Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, the amphitheater of Arles, like many Roman structures, fell into disuse and disrepair. However, the Middle Ages marked a curious transformation in the life of the amphitheater. By the 6th century, its open spaces and sturdy walls became a foundation for the construction of a small fortified community. Over time, nearly 200 houses were built within the structure’s walls, alongside chapels and four towers, which were added to the amphitheater’s perimeter. The once bustling arena for gladiatorial games was now a bustling, self-contained fortress—a citadel that shaped the medieval landscape of Arles.

A Rebirth in the 19th Century

The amphitheater remained inhabited for centuries, until the early 19th century, when a campaign to restore the historical monument began. The French writer Prosper Mérimée, renowned for his contributions to historical preservation, played a pivotal role in the amphitheater’s revival. In 1825, he initiated efforts to clear out the medieval homes and reclaim the site as a national treasure. By 1830, the clearing process was complete, and the amphitheater once again stood in its original form, free from the medieval encroachments.

The amphitheater’s restoration was symbolic not only of a physical revival but also of the 19th-century European fascination with classical antiquity. This period, marked by a resurgence of interest in Greco-Roman culture, saw many ancient sites across Europe rediscovered and restored to their former grandeur.

The restored arena also regained its role as a venue for public spectacles. In a nod to its ancient past, the first event held in the cleared amphitheater was a bullfight—an event that, although not Roman in origin, carried the same spirit of public entertainment that the structure had been built for nearly 2,000 years earlier.

UNESCO World Heritage Status

In 1981, the amphitheater of Arles, along with other Roman and Romanesque monuments in the city, was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This designation not only affirmed the historical and cultural significance of the structure but also ensured its preservation for future generations. The amphitheater stands as a key piece of the ancient urban fabric that defined Arles, which was once a thriving provincial capital of the Roman Empire.

The Amphitheater Today

Today, the amphitheater continues to serve as a vibrant cultural hub. While its ancient walls have witnessed millennia of history, they now provide a backdrop for theatrical performances, concerts, and the region’s famed bullfights—offering a unique blend of ancient heritage and modern entertainment. Its ongoing use keeps the amphitheater alive as a space for public gatherings, much as it was in antiquity, bridging the past with the present in a remarkable continuity of purpose.

In conclusion, the Roman amphitheater of Arles is far more than a relic of an ancient civilization; it is a dynamic symbol of cultural endurance. From its origins as a grand Roman venue to its transformation into a medieval fortress and finally its revival as a historical monument, the amphitheater has adapted to the changing tides of history while retaining its monumental grandeur. As a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it stands as a reminder of the richness of Roman architecture and the enduring legacy of the Roman Empire in shaping Europe’s cultural landscape.

**Illustration by** **Dimosthenis Vasiloudis**

Asclepius to Esculapio: The Integration of the Cult of Asclepius in Roman Healing and Religion

September 14, 2024

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

The Establishment of the Asclepieion on Tiber Island: A Greek God’s Journey to Heal an Empire

The transfer of the cult of Asclepius to Rome is a significant chapter in the history of ancient religion and medicine. The worship of Asclepius, the god of healing in Greek mythology, was widespread throughout the Greek world and played a central role in many sanctuaries, known as Asclepieia, which functioned as centers of medical practice.

The Crisis of 293 BC and the Roman Appeal to Asclepius

In the late 3rd century BC, Rome faced a severe epidemic that caused widespread fear and distress among the population. The situation was so critical that the Romans, traditionally polytheistic and deeply reverent of their gods, began to seek divine help beyond their borders. Knowing the reputation of the Asclepieion in Epidaurus, Greece, the Romans decided to turn to the god Asclepius for aid in combating the epidemic.

According to historical sources, in 293 BC, a delegation from Rome was sent to Epidaurus to request help from Asclepius. The Greeks of Epidaurus accepted the request and gave the Romans a sacred snake, a symbol of the god and believed to embody his divine power. The delegation transported the snake to Rome, and during the journey, it is said that the snake left the ship and swam to the Tiber Island in the Tiber River.

The Establishment of the Asclepieion on Tiber Island

Following this event, the Romans considered Tiber Island the appropriate place to establish a sanctuary dedicated to Asclepius. In 289 BC, a Roman Asclepieion was founded on Tiber Island, which became the center of the cult of the god in Rome. There, Asclepius was worshiped under the Latinized name Esculapio, marking the integration of the Greek god into Roman religious life.

View of the Tiber Island represented as a ship, the Temple of Aesculapius at left, print, Giovanni Ambrogio Brambilla (MET, 2012.136.940)

The Asclepieion on Tiber Island quickly became a significant site for worship and healing, following Greek models. The sanctuary included temples and medical facilities where the sick could seek divine healing through rituals, sacrifices, and medical treatments. The presence of the sacred snake, which was seen as an embodiment of the god, signified divine presence and protection.

The Role of the Asclepius Cult in Roman Society

The introduction of the cult of Asclepius in Rome strengthened the belief that gods could provide healing and salvation in times of crisis. Esculapio soon became one of the most important gods in Roman religion, blending traditional Roman worship with Greek medical knowledge. The rituals and practices associated with the cult of Esculapio combined religious faith with the logic of medicine, and the Romans continued to view the healing of the body as a way to approach the divine.

The cult of Esculapio was not confined to Tiber Island but spread to other parts of the Roman Empire, affirming the god's important role in the cultural and religious life of the period. Over time, the worship of Esculapio merged with other deities and medical practices, contributing to the evolution of Roman medicine and the absorption of Greek heritage by the Romans.

Relief with Asclepius' staff is still visible on the Tiber Island.

The transfer of the cult of Asclepius to Rome and the establishment of the Asclepieion on Tiber Island marked a pivotal moment in the history of Roman religion and medicine. It reflects the ongoing interaction between the Greek and Roman worlds and the willingness of the Romans to adopt foreign elements they deemed beneficial. The cult of Asclepius became part of Rome’s cultural identity, deeply influencing contemporary views on health, divine intervention, and human well-being.

The Bombing of Pompeii During World War II: A Tragic Chapter in the History of World Cultural Heritage

September 12, 2024

The ruins of Pompeii, known for their historical significance as the remains of an ancient Roman city destroyed by Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, faced yet another disaster in the 20th century. During World War II, between August and September 1943, the archaeological site became an unintended target of the Allied bombing campaign aimed at dislodging German troops from southern Italy. This destructive event remains one of the most tragic episodes in the modern history of Pompeii.

The Context of the Bombings

By the summer of 1943, the Italian campaign was in full swing, and Allied forces had already landed in Sicily and were pushing into mainland Italy. German forces had taken up strategic positions in the region, including areas surrounding Pompeii, and Allied military planners believed the site was being used as a hiding place for German troops and ammunition.

*American B-25 Mitchell Bombers Flying Past Vesuvius*, March 17–21, 1944, Unknown photographer. Gelatin silver print, 4 7/16 x 5 13/16 in (11.3 x 14.7 cm). Archive of Raymond D. Yusi, Army Corps of Engineers

As Allied forces moved toward Salerno in their operation to capture Naples, they began bombing targets in and around Pompeii to disrupt German supply lines and communications. Unfortunately, the mistaken belief that the ruins were being used for military purposes led to several air raids on the site. These raids took place between August 24 and September 26, 1943, dropping over 160 bombs across the area.

Impact on the Archaeological Site

The damage to Pompeii was extensive, with no part of the excavation area entirely spared. Key regions such as Regio VII, Regio III, and Regio VI suffered severe bomb damage. Notable structures such as the House of the Faun, the House of Venus in the Shell, and the Large Theater were hit. Even the famed Antiquarium, which housed numerous artifacts from Pompeii, was nearly destroyed by two direct hits, causing the loss of countless irreplaceable objects.

The Forum, Via delle Terme, and Via Marina were all badly affected, with bombs shattering ancient walls and frescoes. The House of Romulus and Remus, another significant part of Pompeii’s heritage, was also severely damaged. Much of the destruction was concentrated in areas where it was believed German military equipment might be hidden, though these claims were later found to be largely unfounded.

The Efforts to Protect Pompeii

Amedeo Maiuri, the superintendent of Pompeii at the time, had foreseen the threat that the war posed to the site. In an effort to protect some of the most valuable artifacts, statues and other objects were buried underground or stored in more secure locations. Nevertheless, many treasures could not be saved, and Maiuri himself was injured by bomb shrapnel during the raids.

Maiuri's reports after the war detailed the devastating impact of the bombings. Over 150 bombs had fallen within the excavation site, with over 100 ancient buildings damaged. He compiled an inventory of nearly 1,400 lost or damaged artifacts, including fragile glass, terracotta, and bronze items.

He chronicled the destruction, writing:

It was thus that from 13 to 26 September Pompeii suffered its second and more serious ordeal, battered by one or more daily attacks: during the day flying low without fear of anti-aircraft retaliation; at night with all the smoke and brightness of flares […]. During those days no fewer than 150 bombs fell within the excavation area, scattered across the site and concentrated where military targets were thought to be.

The Aftermath of the Bombing

The bombing of Pompeii during World War II serves as a stark reminder of the vulnerability of cultural heritage sites in times of war. While the immediate goal of the bombings was military in nature, the long-term consequences were felt most acutely in the realm of cultural preservation. Efforts to repair the damage began almost immediately after the conflict, though the process of restoration continued for many years.

In the years following the war, international attention on the protection of cultural heritage in conflict zones increased significantly, partly due to tragedies like the bombing of Pompeii. This awareness helped to shape modern policies and practices concerning the safeguarding of cultural and historical sites during armed conflicts, emphasizing the need for clearer guidelines and better protection.

Today, the scars of the war are still visible in some parts of Pompeii, serving as a testament to the resilience of the site and the ongoing challenges of preserving the world’s cultural treasures in times of strife.

The bombing of Pompeii during World War II was an unfortunate and largely avoidable tragedy. It underscored the difficulties of protecting cultural heritage in war and left a lasting mark on the archaeological site. Despite the extensive damage, ongoing restoration efforts have allowed the site to continue to be a symbol of ancient life and a reminder of the destructive potential of war on our shared human history.

The Origin of the Word "Money": From Juno Moneta to Modern Currency

August 31, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The English word "money" has a rich and complex history that traces its roots back to ancient Rome and the temple of Juno Moneta. This word's etymology provides a fascinating glimpse into how language evolves alongside societal changes, particularly in the realms of religion, politics, and economics. Understanding the origins of "money" not only sheds light on the development of language but also on the historical importance of currency as a tool for trade and power.

Juno Moneta and the Roman Mint

The word "money" derives from the Latin term "moneta," which initially referred to the goddess Juno in her aspect as Juno Moneta. In Roman mythology, Juno was the equivalent of the Greek goddess Hera, revered as the protector of women, marriage, and the state. The epithet "Moneta" likely comes from the Latin verb "monere," meaning "to warn" or "to remind." This title was associated with the goddess because, according to legend, she warned the Romans of a potential attack by the Gauls. This warning helped the Romans prepare and ultimately defend themselves, solidifying her role as a protective and guiding deity.

The temple of Juno Moneta was located on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, one of the most significant religious and political centers of the city. Capitoline Hill housed important religious structures and was a symbol of Roman authority and power. The temple of Juno Moneta, established around 344 BCE, played a crucial role in Roman society, not just as a place of worship but also as the site of the official mint (the "moneta") of the Roman state. This dual function of the temple—both religious and economic—illustrates the close relationship between religion and state affairs in ancient Rome.

The mint at Juno Moneta’s temple was where the Roman state produced its coins, which became the foundation of Roman currency and, by extension, the economy of the empire. As the center of coin production, the temple's name became synonymous with money itself. Coins minted here were used throughout the Roman Empire, spreading the influence of "moneta" far beyond the city’s boundaries. The connection between the temple, the goddess, and currency production illustrates how religious and economic activities were intertwined in the ancient world. It also highlights how the sanctity of religion could be used to legitimize economic and political power.

Drawing of the Capitoline Hill by Georg Rehlender, with the Temple of Juno Moneta at upper right, above the Tabularium.

The Evolution of the Word

The transition from the Latin "moneta" to the modern English "money" is a fascinating journey through linguistic evolution. Initially, "moneta" referred specifically to the place where coins were minted. Over time, however, the meaning of the word broadened to include the coins themselves and eventually the concept of money as a medium of exchange. This shift in meaning reflects broader changes in how societies viewed and used currency.

As the Roman Empire expanded, so did the use of its currency. Roman coins, and by extension the concept of "moneta," spread throughout the empire, influencing the languages and cultures of the conquered territories. The Latin word "moneta" made its way into Medieval Latin, maintaining its association with currency. From there, it was adopted into Old French as "moneie" and eventually into Middle English as "moneie" or "money." This linguistic evolution mirrors the spread of Roman influence across Europe and the subsequent rise of European states that would adopt and adapt Roman economic practices.

The word "money" as we know it today, therefore, is the result of centuries of linguistic borrowing and transformation. By the time it entered the English language in its current form, "money" had come to represent not just coins but all forms of currency and wealth. This transformation also reflects changes in the way societies organized their economies, moving from barter systems to more complex economies based on standardized currency. The word "money" encapsulates this historical progression, serving as a linguistic bridge between the ancient and modern worlds.

The Role of Money in Society

Today, the word "money" is ubiquitous and indispensable, representing the means of exchange that underpins virtually every aspect of modern life. However, its origins in the temple of Juno Moneta remind us that currency has always been more than just a medium of exchange. It is also a symbol of power, authority, and societal values. In ancient Rome, the act of minting coins at a religious site like the temple of Juno Moneta imbued the currency with a sense of divine legitimacy. This connection between religion and currency is a recurring theme in history, with many cultures viewing their currency as a manifestation of divine or royal power.

The importance of money in society has only grown over time. As economies became more complex, so did the role of money. It became not just a means of exchange but a store of value, a unit of account, and a symbol of wealth and power. The evolution of the word "money" from its ancient roots to its modern usage reflects these broader changes in society and economy. What began as a word associated with a specific location and deity in ancient Rome has become a universal term that is central to the functioning of modern economies.

In addition, the historical connection between money and religion underscores the idea that money is never just a neutral tool. It carries with it the weight of history, culture, and ideology. The story of the word "money" is a reminder that currency is not just about economics but is also deeply intertwined with the social and political structures of its time.

Hadrian's Ambition: The Renaming of Judea to Palestine and the Suppression of Jewish Identity

August 28, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Renaming of Judea: Hadrian’s Attempt to Erase Jewish History by Creating Palestine

The Roman Emperor Hadrian (Publius Aelius Hadrianus), who reigned from 117 to 138 AD, is considered one of the most significant and controversial leaders of the Roman Empire. His reign was marked by important political and administrative reforms and extensive cultural activities. However, one of the most contentious aspects of his rule was his conflict with the Jews and his attempt to eradicate Jewish identity and religion. His decision to rename Judea as Syria Palaestina and the suppression of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 AD) left an indelible mark on the history of the region.

Hadrian's Conflict with the Jews

Hadrian's conflict with the Jews was not merely the result of political or military differences but a deeper cultural and religious confrontation. Influenced by Greek philosophy and classical tradition, Hadrian sought to impose Greco-Roman culture across the provinces of the empire. This policy manifested in the founding of the city of Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem and the construction of a temple dedicated to Jupiter on the site of the destroyed Temple of Solomon. To the Jews, this was not just a political act but a profound sacrilege, as it directly challenged the core of their religious beliefs.

The Jewish response was driven by a desire to preserve their identity in the face of an empire that sought uniformity. Hadrian's attempt to ban circumcision, a fundamental Jewish religious practice, heightened tensions. Circumcision was not just a religious rite but a symbol of the covenant between God and Abraham, embodying the Jewish people's absolute faith. The prohibition of circumcision was seen as an attempt to erase Jewish identity itself.

The Bar Kokhba Revolt, led by Simon Bar Kokhba, was the Jewish response to these provocations. Lasting from 132 to 136 AD, this rebellion was marked by intense violence, underscoring the deep-rooted resistance of the Jews to foreign domination and cultural imposition. The revolt presented the Roman Empire with one of its most formidable challenges, reflecting the resilience of Jewish determination to maintain their religious and cultural autonomy.

The Renaming of Judea to Syria Palaestina

Following the suppression of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, Hadrian decided to take drastic measures to erase the Jewish presence in the region. One of these actions was the renaming of the province of Judea to Syria Palaestina. This was not merely an administrative change but a deliberate attempt to sever the historical and religious connection of the Jews to their land.

The choice of the name "Palaestina" referred to the ancient Philistines, traditional enemies of the Jews in the Old Testament. By invoking this name, Hadrian aimed to undermine the historical continuity of the Jewish people in the region, stripping them of their claim to the land. The renaming was also a strategic move to prevent any future Jewish uprisings or attempts to reclaim their independence.

The founding of Aelia Capitolina and the renaming of the province were part of a broader policy of cultural assimilation. Hadrian sought not only to impose Greco-Roman culture but also to obliterate any remnants of Jewish religion and history. This policy was particularly harsh, aiming to render the Jews a marginalized minority with no hope of regaining their former glory.

The Causes of Hadrian's Persecution of Judaism

The reasons behind Hadrian's persecution of Judaism were multifaceted, rooted in his philosophical and political vision. Firstly, Hadrian was a proponent of classical Greek culture and Roman organization. His admiration for Greek culture and architecture made him view Judaism as something foreign and incompatible with the values of the empire. His desire to unify the empire through cultural homogeneity left little room for tolerance toward religions that diverged significantly from the Roman model.

Moreover, the continuous resistance of the Jews to Roman rule made them a persistent thorn in the side of the empire's eastern frontier. The memory of the Jewish Revolt of 66-73 AD was still fresh in Roman minds, influencing Hadrian's decisions. To avoid a recurrence of such events, Hadrian opted to destroy the very foundation of Judaism by imposing severe measures of suppression.

Finally, Hadrian's religious tolerance did not extend to religions he perceived as threats to the political unity of the empire. Unlike other emperors who tolerated or even encouraged religious pluralism, Hadrian saw Judaism, with its strict monotheism and unique practices, as a danger to the imperial order. This perceived threat was exacerbated by the Jews' persistent refusal to fully integrate into Roman society and accept the emperor's supremacy.

Hadrian, though recognized for his cultural initiatives and administrative reforms, left a deep scar on the Jewish people through his actions. His attempt to eradicate Judaism and transform Judea into Syria Palaestina was part of a broader strategy of cultural unification and suppression. His conflict with the Jews was a clash of cultures and religions, with the wounds of this period echoing into modern times. The history of Hadrian and his relationship with Judaism remains one of the most significant chapters in the history of the conflict between religion and power.

The World’s Only Intact Roman Boiler: A Glimpse into Ancient Engineering

August 18, 2024

The excavation of the Villa della Pisanella in Boscoreale has yielded one of the most extraordinary archaeological finds of the Roman era: the world’s only known intact Roman boiler, complete with all its pipes, valves, and accessories. This unique artifact provides a fascinating insight into the technological sophistication of the ancient Romans, highlighting their advanced engineering skills and meticulous craftsmanship.

The Villa della Pisanella: A Window into Roman Life

Nestled in the Roman countryside of Boscoreale, near Naples, the Villa della Pisanella was one of many productive estates that flourished in the northern suburbs of Pompeii. These estates were vital to the Roman economy, serving as centers of agricultural and industrial production. However, unlike the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which have been extensively studied, the scattered settlements of the Boscoreale area have often been overlooked. Most have only been partially explored, with excavations conducted hastily and without systematic documentation. As a result, many valuable artifacts from these sites are now dispersed across museums worldwide, their origins and contexts largely forgotten.

The Villa della Pisanella first came to light in November 1868, when Modestino Pulzella, while laying the foundations for a new wall, discovered remnants of ancient structures. Further exploration revealed mosaics, but the work was soon halted by a neighboring landowner, Vincenzo De Prisco, who feared damage to his property. It wasn’t until September 1894, nearly three decades later, that excavations resumed. This time, De Prisco himself initiated the work, having apparently set aside his earlier concerns.

This renewed effort led to the discovery of the famous "Boscoreale Treasure," a collection of exquisite artifacts that were regrettably sold abroad due to inadequate legal protections for cultural heritage. Despite this loss, the excavations continued, and in May 1896, the remarkable discovery of the Roman baths and the intact boiler was made. De Prisco subsequently restored part of the villa, converting it into a private museum known as the "Museo De Prisco." During this time, the Alinari Brothers, renowned photographers, captured an extraordinary image of the site, preserving its legacy for future generations.

The Intact Roman Boiler: A Technological Marvel

The Roman boiler unearthed at the Villa della Pisanella stands out as a testament to the engineering prowess of the ancient world. Unlike most archaeological finds, which are often incomplete or damaged, this boiler was discovered intact, complete with its intricate network of pipes, valves, and accessories. The boiler was equipped with functional taps to regulate water flow using a valve mechanism that operated via a 90-degree rotation. This system was not only efficient but also remarkably similar to modern plumbing standards.

The valves themselves were crafted from bronze, cast in a single block using molds, while the pipes were made of lead. The connection between the lead pipes and bronze valves was achieved through soldering, a technique that involved heating small flat-tipped rods in portable forges. A solder wire with a 70% lead alloy was used, and pine resin likely served as the flux, ensuring a strong, oxidation-resistant bond. This meticulous craftsmanship reflects the high standards maintained by the Collegia Fabrorum, the Roman guild responsible for the production of such mechanisms. These standards, as documented by the Roman engineer Frontinus in "De aquae ductu urbis Romae," were akin to the stringent regulations of today’s European Union.”

The Boiler's Current Location: Preserving History

Today, this extraordinary artifact is preserved in the technological section of the National Archaeological Museum of Naples (MANN). However, the section housing the boiler is currently undergoing renovation and is not open to the public. Despite this, the boiler remains a significant piece of Roman engineering history, offering a rare glimpse into the technological advancements of an ancient civilization.

A Testament to Roman Ingenuity

The discovery of the intact Roman boiler at the Villa della Pisanella is a remarkable achievement in the field of archaeology. It not only sheds light on the daily life and technological capabilities of the Romans but also underscores the importance of preserving cultural heritage. As the only known example of its kind, this boiler serves as a powerful reminder of the ingenuity and skill of ancient engineers, whose innovations continue to influence the modern world. The story of its discovery and preservation is a compelling chapter in the ongoing exploration of our shared human history, revealing the rich and complex legacy of the Roman Empire.

The Enigmatic Practice of Sparsiones in Roman Amphitheatres: A Refreshing Tradition or a Myth?

August 9, 2024

In the scorching heat of ancient Rome, spectators gathered in amphitheatres to witness gladiatorial combat and theatrical performances. These events were often lengthy, crowded, and intense, with the stifling atmosphere exacerbated by the mass of people, the presence of animals, and the visceral nature of the spectacles. To alleviate the discomfort of the audience, the Romans reportedly employed a practice known as "sparsiones"—a term that has fascinated historians and scholars alike for its seemingly luxurious blend of practicality and opulence.

What Were Sparsiones?

The term "sparsiones," derived from Latin, roughly translates to "sprinklings" or "scatterings." According to numerous literary sources from the period, sparsiones involved the spraying of scented water over the audience in Roman amphitheatres and theatres. This practice served a dual purpose: it refreshed the spectators and masked the less pleasant odors that permeated the air during these often gruesome events.

The liquid used for sparsiones was typically infused with fragrant substances such as balsam, saffron, or other aromatic oils, creating a cooling mist that not only alleviated the heat but also added an element of luxury to the experience. The scents chosen were likely intended to elevate the status of the events, appealing to the Roman sense of sophistication and grandeur.

The Literary Evidence

Sparsiones are well-documented in various Roman literary sources, ranging from poetry to historical accounts. Pliny the Elder, in his work The Natural History (21.17), remarks on the use of perfumes in theatres, noting how such scents were employed to enhance the environment: "...but it combines remarkably well with wine, sweet wine in particular. Reduced to a powder, it is used to perfume the theatres."

These references span a significant period in Roman history, from the first century BCE to the early second century CE, reflecting the timeframe when permanent venues for dramatic productions and gladiatorial games became prominent in Rome. The references to sparsiones in this context suggest that the practice was an integral part of the Roman entertainment experience, especially in the capital, where munera (gladiatorial games) and venationes (animal hunts) were among the most popular forms of public spectacle.

A Practice Shrouded in Mystery

Despite the literary evidence, the practical implementation of sparsiones remains a topic of debate among historians. No physical device or mechanism specifically designed for distributing these scented mists has been found in the archaeological remains of Roman amphitheatres. This absence of tangible evidence has led some scholars to question the very existence of sparsiones as they are traditionally understood.

Luciana Jacobelli and other scholars have proposed alternative interpretations of the term. They suggest that sparsiones might not have referred to the diffusion of perfumed water but to the distribution of other favors to the crowd, such as fruit, coins, or other small gifts. This practice of scattering gifts among the audience was common in Roman times and might have been misinterpreted or conflated with the idea of scented mists in later literary accounts.

Sparsiones: Myth or Reality?

The debate around sparsiones highlights the complexities of interpreting ancient practices based on literary sources alone. While the idea of scented mists cooling and refreshing a Roman audience is certainly appealing, the lack of direct evidence leaves room for speculation. Were these accounts exaggerations of more mundane practices, or did the Romans indeed devise a way to create such an aromatic and cooling experience for their spectators?

What is clear, however, is that the concept of sparsiones, whether literal or symbolic, reflects the Roman desire to enhance the sensory experience of public entertainment. The very fact that such practices were recorded in the annals of history speaks to their cultural significance, whether as a reality or an idealized vision of Roman opulence.

Conclusion

The notion of sparsiones in Roman amphitheatres remains one of the many intriguing mysteries of the ancient world. Whether a genuine practice or a literary embellishment, it captures the imagination and provides a glimpse into the lavish and sensory-rich environment of Roman public spectacles. As with many aspects of ancient history, the truth behind sparsiones may lie somewhere between reality and myth, reflecting the Romans' enduring pursuit of comfort, luxury, and spectacle in all aspects of their public life.

The Influence of Roman Architecture on Islamic Architectural Heritage

June 29, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

From Domes to Minarets: How Roman Architecture Shaped Islamic Design

The visual similarities between Orthodox churches and mosques often spark curiosity and intrigue, leading many to ponder the historical connections between these architectural styles. This architectural convergence is not merely a coincidence but a testament to the rich, intertwined histories of different civilizations. Byzantine architecture, with its grand domes and intricate mosaics, drew heavily from Roman and Hellenistic innovations. As Islam spread and interacted with Roman culture, Islamic architects adopted and adapted these elements, giving rise to iconic mosques that reflect a shared heritage. This article delves into the fascinating journey of architectural influence from the ancient Greeks and Romans to the Byzantine and Islamic civilizations.

Roman and Hellenistic Foundations

Byzantine architecture did not develop in isolation. Its roots can be traced back to the architectural traditions of the Roman Empire, which itself was heavily influenced by Hellenistic principles from ancient Greece. Roman architects and engineers mastered the use of arches, vaults, and domes, creating iconic structures like the Pantheon with its vast, unsupported concrete dome. The Greeks had already laid the groundwork with their emphasis on proportion, symmetry, and the use of columns in structures such as temples and public buildings.

Byzantine Synthesis and Innovation

When the Byzantine Empire emerged from the Eastern Roman Empire, it inherited a rich architectural legacy. Byzantine architects synthesized and innovated upon these Roman techniques, resulting in distinctive ecclesiastical buildings characterized by large domes, extensive mosaics, and a focus on verticality and light. The Hagia Sophia, completed in 537 AD, stands as a monumental example of this architectural style, featuring a massive dome supported by pendentives—a technique that allowed for more open and spacious interiors.

The Spread of Islam and Architectural Exchange

As Islam spread across the Middle East and North Africa, it encountered the sophisticated architecture of the Byzantine Empire. Early Islamic architects, particularly those in the Umayyad Caliphate, admired and adopted many Byzantine techniques and styles. This exchange is evident in the Great Mosque of Damascus, where the use of domes, arches, and intricate mosaics reflect Byzantine influence.

The Ottoman Era and Architectural Transformation

The architectural dialogue continued with the rise of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, who established their rule in 1299 and reached their peak by the 16th century, were keen students of Byzantine architectural traditions. A significant example of this cultural and architectural exchange is the transformation of the Hagia Sophia into a mosque in 1453. The Ottomans integrated Byzantine dome structures into their mosque designs, creating iconic silhouettes like those seen in the Blue Mosque in Istanbul. These structures feature multiple domes and semi-domes, reflecting the grandeur and spatial complexity of Byzantine prototypes.

Conclusion

The visual similarity between Orthodox churches and mosques is not simply a case of imitation. Instead, it reflects a complex historical evolution where Byzantine architecture, built upon Roman and Hellenistic foundations, profoundly influenced the development of Islamic architectural styles. Byzantine designs, characterized by their domes and intricate mosaics, were adopted and adapted by Islamic civilizations, leading to the beautiful and grandiose mosques we see today. This architectural legacy underscores the interconnectedness of cultures and the enduring influence of early innovations on subsequent generations.

Cultural Affinity and Strategic Importance: Why Rome Endured in Greece and Asia Minor

June 21, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

How Greece and Asia Minor Became the Heart of the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire, at its zenith, was a formidable force that stretched from the British Isles in the west to the banks of the Euphrates in the east. However, the longevity of Roman control varied significantly across this vast expanse. A fascinating aspect of Roman history is the prolonged Roman presence in the Greek peninsula and Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). This article delves into the reasons behind this extended influence, examining the historical, cultural, economic, and strategic factors that contributed to the enduring legacy of Roman rule in these regions.

Hellenistic Foundations and Cultural Integration

One of the most critical factors for the sustained Roman presence in Greece and Asia Minor was the robust foundation laid by the Hellenistic period. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, the Greek world underwent significant changes, leading to the establishment of the Hellenistic kingdoms of the Diadochi. These kingdoms, which included the Seleucid Empire in Asia Minor and the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, fostered a vibrant and sophisticated urban culture.

When the Romans began their conquests in these regions, they encountered societies that were already highly urbanized and culturally advanced. The Greek cities, with their established systems of governance, education, and commerce, provided a seamless transition for Roman administrative structures. The Romans, who admired Greek culture immensely, integrated many aspects of Hellenistic civilization into their own. This cultural affinity facilitated smoother governance and helped maintain stability and loyalty within the provinces.

Economic Prosperity and Strategic Importance

Greece and Asia Minor were economically prosperous regions, crucial to the Roman Empire's wealth and stability. The eastern provinces were home to major trade routes, including the famed Silk Road, which connected the Roman Empire to the Far East. Cities such as Ephesus, Smyrna, and Byzantium (later Constantinople) were bustling economic hubs that contributed significantly to the empire's coffers.

The economic importance of these regions was matched by their strategic value. Asia Minor served as a buffer zone against potential eastern invaders, such as the Parthians and later the Sassanids. The rugged terrain and natural fortifications provided defensive advantages, making it easier for the Romans to defend these territories. Additionally, controlling the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean seas was vital for maintaining maritime dominance and securing trade routes.

Administrative Continuity and the Byzantine Empire

The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD marked a significant shift in the balance of power, but the Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire, continued to flourish. The Byzantine Empire, with its capital in Constantinople, preserved Roman laws, administrative practices, and cultural heritage. This continuity ensured that the eastern provinces remained under a form of Roman control long after the western provinces had fallen to various Germanic tribes.

The Byzantine Empire's administrative efficiency and military prowess played a crucial role in sustaining Roman influence in Greece and Asia Minor. The empire's ability to adapt and reorganize in the face of external threats allowed it to maintain control over these regions for over a thousand years. The strategic use of diplomacy, combined with formidable military defenses like the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, ensured the longevity of Byzantine rule.

Conclusion

The prolonged Roman presence in Greece and Asia Minor is a testament to the enduring legacy of the Hellenistic period and the strategic acumen of the Roman and Byzantine empires. The integration of Hellenistic cultural and administrative practices, coupled with the economic prosperity and strategic importance of these regions, created a robust foundation for sustained Roman control. The administrative continuity provided by the Byzantine Empire further solidified this influence, allowing Roman traditions to thrive in the east long after they had faded in the west.

Understanding the factors that contributed to the longevity of Roman rule in these regions provides valuable insights into the complexities of empire building and maintenance. It also highlights the profound impact of cultural and economic integration in shaping the course of history. The legacy of Roman rule in Greece and Asia Minor is a remarkable chapter in the annals of history, illustrating the intricate interplay of culture, economy, and strategy in the rise and fall of empires.

Celebrating Rome: 2,777 Years of Legacy and Legend

April 21, 2024

The Founding Myth of Rome

The city of Rome celebrates its foundational myth with the annual event known as Natale di Roma, marking what is believed to be its establishment in 753 BC by the legendary figure Romulus. According to tradition, the story begins with the miraculous survival of twin brothers, Romulus and Remus, who were abandoned on the banks of the River Tiber and nurtured by a she-wolf. The brothers later contended for the right to establish a new city, a dispute that tragically ended with Romulus killing Remus and naming the nascent city after himself. This dramatic tale not only sets the tone for Rome's storied history but also embeds a narrative of struggle and triumph in the city’s identity.

Rome’s Ascent to Glory

Rome's history is characterized by its remarkable transition from a modest settlement of shepherds to a vast empire that, at its peak, encompassed the Mediterranean and beyond. This expansion was driven by a combination of military prowess, strategic alliances, and a complex system of laws and governance that integrated a diverse array of conquered peoples. Rome’s architectural and engineering achievements—such as roads, aqueducts, and public buildings—further testify to its glory days, facilitating not just the empire's expansion but also the flow of ideas, cultures, and commerce.

Principles of Roman History

Central to the understanding of Roman history are several key principles:

Legal and Political Innovation: Rome’s contribution to the systems of law and governance is monumental. The principles of Roman law, such as justice, equity, and the protection of property, have influenced countless legal systems in the West. Politically, Rome evolved from a monarchy to a republic and finally to an imperial structure, reflecting an ongoing experiment in governance that would echo through the ages.
Military Discipline and Strategy: Rome’s military was a cornerstone of its empire, renowned for its discipline, tactical innovation, and the integration of foreign soldiers into its ranks. The legions were not just military units but crucial tools for political and social integration, spreading Roman culture and customs far beyond Italy.
Cultural Syncretism: As Rome absorbed territories, it also adopted and adapted the gods, rituals, and cultural practices of those it conquered. This syncretism enhanced Roman religious life and helped stabilize diverse empire regions by respecting and incorporating local traditions.
Public Welfare: The Romans pioneered the concept of public welfare with initiatives like grain doles and public baths. These efforts, aimed at maintaining public order and contentment, highlighted the state’s role in individual lives, setting precedents for future governance.

Celebrations of the Eternal City

Today, the Eternal City commemorates its founding with a vibrant blend of historical re-enactments, parades, and cultural events that draw participants and spectators from across the globe. These festivities not only honor Rome’s past but also serve as a vivid reminder of its enduring influence on art, culture, and politics. Events like gladiator displays, re-enactments of ancient rituals at the Circus Maximus, and musical performances resonate deeply with both the historical significance and the mythic grandeur of Rome.

As the Italian Army Band's performance of the "Gladiator" soundtrack fills the Circus Maximus, it evokes not only the splendor of ancient Rome but also its portrayal in modern culture, reminding us of the timeless fascination with this unique city. Rome, at 2,777 years old, continues to be a powerful symbol of resilience and innovation, a city that has repeatedly risen from adversity and redefined itself, much like the mythical phoenix of its legends.

Today, Rome's birthday is not just a local festivity but a global celebration of an eternal city that has profoundly shaped human history and continues to inspire and intrigue millions around the world. Happy Birthday, Rome! Here’s to many more centuries of influence and renewal.

Unearthing Elegance: Artistic Jewelry Depictions in Ancient Frescoes and Their Archaeological Counterparts

March 9, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

When Artifacts Speak: The Veracity of Ancient Art in Archaeological Finds

The discovery of artifacts that closely resemble depictions in ancient art offers an extraordinary window into the aesthetic preferences, cultural practices, and craftsmanship of past civilizations. Through these findings, we gain invaluable insights into the daily lives of those who once wore such personal adornments and how these items were represented in their visual culture. The funerary portrait from Roman Egypt and the jewelry from Mycenaean Greece present remarkable cases where archaeological findings correlate directly with artistic representations, serving as a testament to the accuracy and value of ancient art as a historical source.

Eternal Adornment: The Intersection of Life, Death, and Jewelry

The first example features a funerary Fayum portrait of a woman from Roman Egypt, adorned with a necklace of emeralds and gold, dating back to the 2nd century AD. This era, often referred to as the period of Roman Egypt, highlights a convergence of cultural elements where traditional Egyptian practices and Roman influences coexisted and influenced one another. The encaustic painting method used to create such portraits provided a durable and lifelike representation of the deceased, making these funerary items not just art but intimate tokens of memory and identity. The fact that a real necklace mirroring the one worn in the portrait has been discovered affirms the importance placed on such objects in both life and death and suggests that the portrait likely aimed to represent the individual as she lived, with her personal belongings.

Golden Circles of Mycenae: Artistic Echoes in Aegean Goldsmithery

In the second instance, we examine a pair of gold earrings from the famed Burial Circle A of Mycenae, Tomb III, dating back to the second half of the 16th century BC. These exquisite pieces of jewelry embody the sophistication of Creto-Mycenaean goldsmithing techniques, showcasing a combination of relief work and granulation—a testament to the skill and artistry of Mycenaean craftsmen. The correlation between these earrings and those depicted on the women in the frescoes of Akrotiri on Santorini is startling. The fresco known as the "Saffron Gatherers" portrays women with similar earrings, providing not just an artistic representation of fashion of the time but an indication of trade, cultural exchange, and the flow of artistic motifs across the Aegean Sea.

Art and Archaeology in Dialogue

These correspondences between art and actual items carry profound implications. They validate ancient artworks as reliable sources for understanding the past, proving that these were not merely imaginative creations but genuine reflections of contemporary styles and customs. Moreover, they emphasize the role of personal adornments in ancient societies—not only as indicators of social status, wealth, or aesthetic preference, but also as objects of personal significance that accompanied individuals in life and, quite often, into the afterlife.

The interplay between archaeology and art history is beautifully illustrated in these examples. While archaeology provides us with the tangible remnants of the past, ancient art breathes life into these findings, allowing us to envision how these items were once used and perceived. Such discoveries underline the necessity for interdisciplinary approaches in historical inquiries, where artifacts and art coalesce to shape a fuller, more nuanced understanding of ancient peoples and their worlds. Through the careful examination of these items and their artistic counterparts, we not only reconstruct past realities but also honor the legacy of craftsmanship and expression that has endured through millennia.

How did Roman Aqueducts work?

January 12, 2024

Engineering Marvels of Ancient Rome: The Roman Aqueducts

The Roman aqueducts stand as enduring symbols of the impressive engineering prowess and advanced infrastructure of ancient Rome. These monumental structures were vital in supplying water to the citizens of Rome, ensuring access to clean water for public baths, fountains, and private residences. Notably, the aqueducts brought water to all Seven Hills of Rome, showcasing the scale and ambition of the Roman engineering efforts.

One of the most remarkable aspects of Roman aqueducts was their reliance on gravity flow to transport water across great distances. The precise construction of these systems, achieved through the use of advanced tools and engineering techniques, was a testament to the ingenuity of Roman engineers. The utilization of exposed open signinum, a waterproof cement mixed with crushed ceramics, played a crucial role in maintaining the flow of water through the aqueducts.

To ensure that the water reached its intended destinations, the Romans employed a network of castella, or distribution tanks, which diverted water into distinct channels. This intricate system allowed for the efficient allocation of water to various public and private amenities, enhancing the overall quality of life for Roman citizens.

Despite the ingenuity of the Roman aqueducts, their maintenance posed significant challenges. Mineral deposits often obstructed the flow of water, requiring continuous maintenance and clearing to ensure that the aqueducts functioned optimally. This maintenance was a testament to the dedication of the Roman engineers and laborers who worked tirelessly to uphold the functionality of these vital structures.

The Roman aqueducts served not only practical purposes but also symbolized the prestige and power of the Roman Empire. Their construction and continued maintenance were a demonstration of Rome's capabilities in civil engineering and public works. Furthermore, they represented the empire's commitment to providing for the welfare and comfort of its citizens, further solidifying Rome's reputation as an advanced and influential civilization.

In conclusion, the Roman aqueducts stand as awe-inspiring remnants of ancient engineering feats. From their innovative construction techniques to their vital role in supplying water for public and private use, these structures exemplify the exceptional craftsmanship and foresight of the ancient Romans. The legacy of the Roman aqueducts endures as a testament to the enduring impact of ancient engineering marvels and their significance in shaping the course of history.

The Palatine Hill: This is The Oldest Building in Rome

January 12, 2024

Unraveling the Myth of Romulus and Remus: Exploring the Palatine Hill, A Magnificent Root of Roman History

Nestled in the heart of Rome, the Palatine Hill stands as a testament to the city's rich history and mythological origins. This iconic landmark was home to the most influential and affluent families of the late Republic and housed the grand palaces of the emperors, showcasing the opulence and power that characterized ancient Rome.

The House of Romulus: Myth and Reality Interwoven

Legend has it that the Palatine Hill was also home to the House of Romulus, the fabled founder of Rome, and his twin brother Remus. According to myth, their evil uncle abandoned the twin brothers, who were Numitor's grandchildren, and left them to die. However, a she-wolf and a sympathetic shepherd found them and took care of them, sparing their lives. This legendary account has become deeply intertwined with the founding of Rome, and the House of Romulus has captured the imagination of scholars and enthusiasts alike for centuries.

Exploring the Mythical Origins: Romulus and Remus

The story of Romulus and Remus, the she-wolf, and the founding of Rome is deeply embedded in Roman folklore and has left an indelible mark on the city's identity. As the legend goes, the twins grew up to establish Rome on the Palatine Hill. This mythical tale, while a foundational part of Roman identity, has also sparked intense scholarly debate and scrutiny, with the line between myth and historical reality often blurred.

Debunking Myth with Historical Inquiry

While the Romulus and Remus myth has captured the world's imagination, modern scholarship has shed light on the complexities surrounding the founding of Rome. Though the myth of the Roman foundation differs from contemporary historical interpretations, it is widely acknowledged that the myth of Romulus and Remus contains a historical kernel, pointing to the existence of a significant figure or figures responsible for the city's inception.

The Palatine Hill: A Living Legacy

Today, visitors have the opportunity to delve into the captivating history of the Palatine Hill through various guided tours, such as the renowned "Explore Rome with Through Eternity Tours." These experiences provide a unique opportunity to immerse oneself in the breathtaking landscapes and remnants of ancient structures that once stood as a testament to the power and grandeur of Rome's elite.

In conclusion, the myth of Romulus and Remus, the House of Romulus, and the Palatine Hill stand as enduring symbols of Rome's storied past. While the narrative of the city's foundation may be intertwined with myth and legend, it remains an essential part of Rome's historical tapestry, and the remnants of the House of Romulus continue to inspire awe and fascination. Whether one seeks to unravel the mysteries of the past or simply bask in the grandeur of ancient history, the Palatine Hill offers an unparalleled journey through time, inviting all to explore the origins of one of the world's most iconic cities.

The Enigmatic Language of the Etruscans: Non-Indo-European?

November 5, 2023

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

The Etruscan language, once spoken in the region of Etruria (modern Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio) in Italy, remains one of antiquity’s greatest enigmas, its secrets only partially unlocked. Though no longer living, its legacy endures through inscriptions and a handful of bilingual texts, offering a window into the lives of the enigmatic Etruscans.

From Greek Columns to Etruscan Inscriptions: The Alphabet's Journey

The Etruscan alphabet is the earliest recorded script in the Western world after the Greek script. It was adopted from the Greek alphabet of the Euboean variant, used by Greek colonists in Italy, specifically in Ischia and Cumae. This adoption likely occurred during the 8th century BC, coinciding with the flourishing of Etruscan civilization. The Etruscan script underwent a transformation tailored maybe to their non-Indo-European linguistic structure; some Greek letters were repurposed to represent Etruscan sounds, and a few were discarded as they were unnecessary for Etruscan phonetics.

The Etruscans

The Etruscans emerged as a distinct civilization by the beginning of the first millennium BC, dominating the cultural and economic landscape of pre-Roman Italy. They were skilled metalworkers, merchants, and seafarers, leaving a durable imprint on Roman religion, architecture, and society. Their social structure was complex, with evidence of significant roles for women, and their art and culture were rich with religious symbolism.

A Tale of Two Origins: Myth and Modern Inquiry

According to ancient lore, the Etruscans were the descendants of the mysterious Lydians, as narrated by Herodotus. He recounts a myth where the Lydians, under King Tyrrhenus, left their famine-stricken lands in Asia Minor, sailing westward to find a new home in Italy. This narrative has long colored the perceptions of the Etruscan origin, casting them as an exotic people with an eastern heritage.

***Maximum extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities.***

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an ancient Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, provided a contrasting viewpoint to the prevailing theories of his time concerning the origins of the Etruscans. In his work "Roman Antiquities," Dionysius presented a strong argument in favor of the Etruscans being autochthonous, meaning originating from the land itself, in this case, the Italian Peninsula. He contested the then-popular belief, as recounted by Herodotus, that the Etruscans were of Lydian descent.

Dionysius' opinion was rooted in several observations: the uniqueness of the Etruscan language, which did not resemble any other known tongues; the distinctive nature of their customs and laws; and the lack of any migration stories in their own historical records, which he presumed would exist if they had migrated from Asia Minor. He critiqued Herodotus' account as being based on mythical tales rather than concrete evidence. Moreover, Dionysius argued that the Etruscans shared physical characteristics with the indigenous peoples of the region, further supporting his autochthonous theory.

He went to considerable lengths to refute the Lydian origin theory, appealing to logical arguments and existing knowledge about the Etruscans and their culture. This stance by Dionysius of Halicarnassus has been one that modern archaeology and genetics have, to some extent, corroborated, showing a continuity of the Etruscan lineage within Italy and challenging the once widely accepted tale of their foreign origins.

Genetic studies suggest that the Etruscans were local to the Italian peninsula, with their DNA showing continuity with Neolithic farmers. This indigenous development theory is further supported by archaeological evidence, which indicates a gradual evolution of Etruscan culture from the earlier Villanovan civilization.

***The*** ***Cippus Perusinus**, a stone tablet bearing 46 lines of incised Etruscan text, one of the longest extant Etruscan inscriptions. 3rd or 2nd century BC.***

A Historical Overview of Etruscan Language Theories

The Etruscan language, originating from the ancient Etruscan civilization within the regions of Etruria, Etruria Padana, and Etruria Campana in what is now Italy, has left a legacy of approximately 13,000 inscriptions dating from 700 BC to AD 50. Although most inscriptions are brief, there are some longer and bilingual texts, suggesting that while Etruscan influenced Latin, it was eventually replaced by it. Linguists and Etruscologists generally agree that Etruscan was a pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language related to the Raetic and Lemnian languages.

Inscriptions reveal the geographic spread of the Etruscan language across Italy and beyond. The consensus is that Etruscan was related to Raetic and Lemnian, forming part of the Tyrsenian language family, which predates Indo-European languages in southern Europe. Recent archeogenetic analysis supports the autochthonous nature of the Etruscans, genetically similar to the Early Iron Age Latins.

Historically, various theories have attempted to classify the Etruscan language, ranging from Indo-European to Semitic connections, most of which have been dismissed in favor of its status as a non-Indo-European and Paleo-European language.

Throughout history, numerous theories have been posited regarding the origins and classification of the Etruscan language, many of which have been deemed speculative or unfounded. The general scholarly consensus is that Etruscan, part of the Tyrsenian language family, is neither Indo-European nor Semitic but rather a pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language, closely related to Raetic and Lemnian.

One hypothesis considered Etruscan as part of a Paleo-European "Aegean" language family, alongside Minoan and Eteocretan, with potential ties to pre-Indo-European Anatolian languages. However, this connection has been largely dismissed.

The Anatolian Indo-European hypothesis, which suggested a relationship between Etruscan and the languages of Anatolia, such as Luwian, has been influenced by Herodotus' account of the Lydian origins of the Etruscans. Despite these theories and attempts to link Etruscan to Anatolian Indo-European languages or propose that the Etruscans brought the alphabet from Anatolia, scholarly evidence has not supported these claims.

Other fringe theories have ranged from Etruscan's origins being connected to Aramaic, Semitic languages, Armenian, Albanian, Uralic languages, and even Altaic languages. These theories have included suggestions of genetic relationships with Hungarian and connections with Northeast Caucasian languages. Such theories, including those positing that the Etruscan language influenced Hungarian, have been largely rejected by specialists in Etruscan, Finno-Ugric, and historical linguistics.

While there have been many attempts to classify Etruscan within various language families, the prevailing view among experts is that it shares kinship only with the Raetic and Lemnian languages and is an indigenous language of the Italian peninsula with no proven connection to the major language families of Indo-European or Semitic origins.

***The Capua Tile, one of the longest Etruscan inscriptions, possibly 5th C BC. Image from*** ***Wikipedia***.

The Etruscan language, a beacon of a civilization that influenced the course of Western history, still poses significant questions. Its alphabet, a product of cultural exchange with the Greeks, reveals the interconnectedness of ancient societies. The identity of the Etruscans, entangled with myth and history, reflects the complex narratives that ancient civilizations left behind. Whether as travelers from distant lands or children of the Italian soil, their legacy continues to captivate scholars and enthusiasts alike, a testament to the enduring allure of the ancient world.

Liqian: A city founded in China by Roman legionaries?

November 5, 2023

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EDITOR GROUP

Did Roman Legionaries Find a City in China?

In the annals of history, tales of lost legions and ancient encounters between disparate civilizations have always captured the imagination. The city of Liqian in China stands as a testament to such a captivating historical mystery—could it have been founded by Roman legionaries, remnants of a once-mighty army lost to the annals of the East?

The monument that graces Liqian depicts a Chinese and a Roman figure in mutual greeting, a symbolic representation of a tale that intertwines the fates of the Roman and Chinese empires. This beguiling narrative finds its roots in the aftermath of the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, where the Romans suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of the Parthians. Ancient chroniclers like Pliny and Horace recount the tale of a captured legion, condemned to toil in the mines of Margiana or to serve as human bulwarks along the distant borders.

***Source:*** ***Antiokhos in the East***

Yet, it is a Chinese chronicle penned twenty years later that fuels this enduring legend, describing foes with combat formations echoing the Roman testudo—a tactical formation resembling a tortoise shell. Could these have been the Roman soldiers, somehow integrating into the fabric of Chinese military might?

The plot thickens with linguistic intrigue. 'Liqian' was once a name used by the Chinese to refer to Rome or the Hellenistic cities before adopting the term 'Daqin.' Some posit that 'Liqian' could be a linguistic corruption of 'Alexandria,' suggesting a deeper Hellenic connection.

Despite the romanticism of such theories, empirical evidence remains elusive. Archaeological excavations in Liqian have yet to yield any artifacts that betray a Mediterranean heritage. The famed testudo formation could have been adopted by another, non-Roman force, effectively dismantling the basis for asserting a Roman presence.

Skeptics argue that the notion of Roman origins may be a modern contrivance, an inventive ploy to stimulate tourism through the erection of commemorative monuments and the weaving of alluring legends. Thus, the enigmatic origins of Liqian remain shrouded in myth, a confluence of historical coincidence and creative interpretation rather than substantiated fact.

As it stands, the story of Liqian is a patchwork of ancient texts and modern desires, a reflection of our yearning to connect dots across time and space. Until incontrovertible evidence comes to light, the legend of the Roman legionaries in China remains just that—a legend, as ephemeral and intriguing as history itself.

Ancient Pompeii's Political Clientelism: Electoral Inscriptions Shed Light on Aulus Rustius Verus

October 5, 2023

Pompeii, a city frozen in time by the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, continues to astonish archaeologists with its remarkable discoveries. Recently, the ancient equivalent of today's electoral posters and pamphlets, electoral inscriptions, were unearthed in a surprising location—inside a house on the Via di Nola, a central area of ancient Pompeii.

These inscriptions provide valuable insights into the political landscape of ancient Rome, revealing the prevalence of clientelism and its intricate ties to bread and public service.

The Surprising Location of Electoral Inscriptions

Traditionally, electoral inscriptions were displayed on the exterior facades of buildings, allowing citizens to read the names and qualifications of candidates vying for city magistracies. However, the recent discovery inside a house has puzzled archaeologists. According to experts, the practice of organizing events and dinners within the homes of candidates and their friends was common in ancient Rome to promote electoral campaigns. This context explains the presence of electoral propaganda within the house.

Aulus Rustius Verus: Aspiring Aedile

Among the discovered inscriptions, one stood out—the endorsement of Aulus Rustius Verus, a candidate for the position of aedile. Aediles was responsible for maintaining public buildings and regulating public festivals, typically held by young men aspiring to higher political office. Aulus Rustius Verus was not an unfamiliar name in Pompeii, having held the highest public office in the city in the 1st century AD.

Political Clientelism and Bread

One intriguing aspect of the discovery is the presence of a bakery with a large oven within the house. Near this bakery, the bodies of three victims—two women and a child—were found, victims of the attic collapse during the eruption. This combination of a bakery and electoral inscriptions sheds light on the ancient practice of political clientelism.

Maria Chiara Scappathiccio, a professor of Latin at the Federico II University of Naples and co-author of the study on these findings, explained that councilors and bakers "collaborated to the limits of legality" in ancient Rome. Aulus Rustius Verus, during his electoral campaign, seemingly recognized the importance of providing voters with bread.

This connection is reinforced by the discovery of the candidate's initials, ARV, on a volcanic stone millstone within the house, suggesting direct financing of the bakery by Aulus Rustius Verus for both economic and political purposes.

Rituals and Offerings

In addition to the electoral inscriptions, researchers found the remains of a last votive offering on the altar of the Lararium within the house. This ritual, likely performed shortly before the eruption, involved offering figs and dates that were burned in front of the altar. The rite was concluded by placing a whole egg directly on the masonry altar, which was then covered with a tile.

Previous offerings included vine fruits, fish, and mammal meat, providing a glimpse into the religious practices of the residents.

The recent discovery of electoral inscriptions inside a house in ancient Pompeii has provided fascinating insights into the world of ancient Roman politics. The presence of Aulus Rustius Verus's endorsements, the connection between political clientelism and a bakery, and the rituals at the Lararium all contribute to a richer understanding of life in Pompeii before its tragic end. These findings continue to underscore the enduring fascination of this remarkable archaeological site and its ability to shed light on the intricacies of daily life in the ancient world.