New tests show Neolithic Pits near Stonehenge were human-made (video)

Ring of hollows has been called the largest prehistoric structure found in Britain, but some were sceptical

simulated view of the underground pits near Stonehenge. Credit: Wild Blue Media/Channel 5/University of Bradford

When a series of deep pits were discovered near the world heritage site of Stonehenge last year, archaeologists excitedly described it as the largest prehistoric structure ever found in Britain – only for some colleagues to dismiss the pits as mere natural features.

Now scientific tests have proved that those gaping pits, each aligned to form a circle spanning 1.2 miles (2km) in diameter, were definitely human-made, dug into the sacred landscape almost 4,500 years ago.

The structure appears to have been a boundary guiding people to a sacred area, because Durrington Walls, one of Britain’s largest henge monuments, is located precisely at its centre. The site is 1.9 miles north-east of Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain, near Amesbury in Wiltshire.

Prof Vincent Gaffney, of Bradford University, an archaeologist who headed the team that made the discovery, said science had proved that this was indeed a huge neolithic monument. “Some of the debate about the discovery and Stonehenge seemed bonkers to me,” he said.

Soon after the discovery was announced in June 2020, one doubting archaeologist referred to the pits as “blobs on the ground” and said linking them to Stonehenge was “entirely hypothetical”. Another argued that archaeologists who had previously looked at some of the pits had suggested they were natural hollows, and that they could “be trusted to recognise a natural feature when they encounter one”.

The arguments shocked Gaffney, who recalled one archaeologist suggesting his team should have had a geologist on site to recognise natural features. In fact, he said, they had two.

The distribution of underground pits from above. Credit: Wild Blue Media/Channel 5/University of Bradford

While part of the circle has not survived, owing to modern development, Gaffney said the latest fieldwork involved scientific analysis of nine of the pits. “We’ve now looked at nearly half of them and they’re all the same. So effectively this really does say this is one enormous structure. It may have evolved from a natural feature, but we haven’t located that. So it’s the largest prehistoric structure found in Britain.”

Each pit is about 10 metres across and 5 metres deep, and science supports the theory that the neolithic people who constructed Stonehenge also dug this monument.

Pit 1A as seen through remote sensing scanning. Credit: Wild Blue Media/Channel 5/University of Bradford

The previously unknown subterranean ring is 20 times bigger than Stonehenge. It adds to the evidence that early inhabitants of Britain, mainly farming communities, had developed a way to count, tracking hundreds of paces to measure out the pits. It gives new insights into the complexity of the monumental structures in this landscape. While Stonehenge was positioned in relation to the solstices, the boundary of pits may have had cosmological significance.

Specialists in remote sensing technology that can search below ground have now investigated ancient features in the landscape that traditional archaeology could never detect. They can pinpoint where the ground has been disturbed, even after thousands of years.

The cutting-edge technology includes optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), which can date the last time that sediment was exposed to daylight.

The tests were conducted by Dr Tim Kinnaird, of the school of earth and environmental sciences at the University of St Andrews, who said: “These proved beyond doubt that the pits date to around 2400BC.”

He spoke of the “exciting” findings, including “the remarkable consistency across the cores, the identification of multiple and distinct fills, the suggestion that the pits were infilled at a similar time.” Detailed analytical work in the laboratory further confirmed that “these were not natural features”.

He added: “It’s confirmed that the [pits] are all very similar, which is fascinating.” If these were natural features such as sinkholes, they would be different sizes.

Gaffney, who has studied Stonehenge for 20 years, said: “There’s a real revolution in dating technology happening with OSL. You date the sediments directly. Traditional dating relies on us finding a bit of bone or charcoal and then we date that. We don’t date the soil. OSL does that.”

The data showed that the pits were being used from the late neolithic until the middle bronze age, after which they were left to silt, he said. “So these things are being maintained beyond the monumental phases of Stonehenge.”

The discovery is explored in a Channel 5 documentary titled Stonehenge: The New Revelations, to be aired on 9 December (9pm).

Dalya Alberge, The Guardian

Unique Golden Treasure Found In Denmark - One of the Richest Treasures in Danish History!

One of the largest, richest and most beautiful gold treasures in Danish history has just been found at Vindelev, just outside Jelling. The enormous find of almost 1 kg of gold, i.a. consisting of huge medallions the size of saucers, has again seen the light of day, after 1500 years in the Danish soil.

Ole Ginnerup Schytz had just acquired a metal detector, and was allowed to walk on the ground with his old classmate. After a few hours, he found what is qualitatively one of the greatest gold finds in Danish history. The site has now been excavated by the Archaeologists of the Vejlemuseerne, in collaboration with the National Museum's experts and with funds from the Palaces and Culture Agency.

Archaeologists now know that the treasure was buried in a longhouse in a village about 1,500 years ago. The studies, and the many samples and data collected, will provide invaluable knowledge about the connections and circumstances that led to the tax being abolished by a great man, at that time in the Iron Age.

The great man in Vindelev

The discovery of the enormous amount of gold shows that the site has been a center of power, in the late Iron Age.

"Only one member of society's absolute top has been able to collect a treasure like the one found here" , explains Vejlemuseernes research director Mads Ravn, and continues:

"Although the place name Vindelev can be linked to the time of migration, there was nothing that could make us predict that an unprecedented warlord or great man lived here, long before the kingdom of Denmark arose in the following centuries."

Here, just under 8 km from the Jelling, which in the 900s became Denmark's cradle, there was already a great man in the 500s who managed to create wealth and attract skilled artisans. For as yet unknown reasons, he chose to close down this large gold find in the early 500s.

Maybe to save it in case of war, or maybe as a victim of higher powers.

Mythological motifs and a Roman emperor

The Vindelev treasure consists of saucer-sized, beautifully decorated medallions, so-called bracteates. There are also Roman coins made into jewelry. They occur in a technique and a combination that has never before been seen comparable examples of why the finding of experts is described as completely unique in quality.

Some of the objects have motifs and runic inscriptions that may refer to the rulers of the time, but which also, according to some of the researchers who have so far had the opportunity to examine the treasure, lead the mind to Nordic mythology.

One of the finds is a bracteate that has a male head with a braid and a number of runes on it. Under the head is seen a horse and in front of a bird with which the man communicates. There is a runic inscription between the horse's muzzle and forelegs, which according to the preliminary interpretations says 'houaʀ'; 'the High' .

'The High' may refer to the ruler who abolished the find, but is also in later mythological contexts associated with the god Odin.

There are also much older coins from the Roman Empire. Most notably a heavy gold coin from the Roman emperor Constantine the Great (285-337 AD). Constantine legalized Christianity among the Romans in 313 AD, a few hundred years before the coin that bears his face found rest in under a Jutlandic longhouse, 2,000 km north.

The fascinating journey of gold tells us about a European continent that was already in the Iron Age closely connected by trade and war.

A chaotic time

Many of Scandinavia's largest gold finds date from the middle of the 5th century, when the ash cloud from a large volcanic eruption in the year 536 AD, created a global climate catastrophe with many years of misgrowth and famine.

Preliminary dates suggest that this treasure was also abolished at this chaotic time in world history. A couple of years ago, the archaeologists of the Vejlemuseers excavated another gold treasure from the period on the small island of Hjarnø in Horsens fjord.

According to many researchers, the climate catastrophe in 536 caused the inhabitants of what was then Denmark today to reject the old rulers and lay down lots of gold during this very period. Maybe to save it from enemies, or maybe to appease the gods.

Some believe that the foundation of the Viking Age society, and a united Danish kingdom, lies in this period.

More than 40 kg of gold from these very centuries in the Iron Age have been found. But the size, quantity and technical details of the objects in the treasure now found at Vindelev are completely unique, placing the find in the absolute top.

Exhibited already next year

In less than half a year, the Vindelev treasure will be seen as part of the Vejlemuseerne's large Viking exhibition, which opens on 3 February 2022.

The exhibition tells the story of Harald Blåtand's eastern connections, and of the early kingdom formation that created the foundation for the Jelling dynasty.

The Viking exhibition is made in collaboration with Moesgaard Museum, which also has an exhibition that tells about other aspects of the Vikings' travels to the east.

A Viking's 'Langsax' Fighting Knife Discovered in Poland

Archaeologists working in the Wdecki Landscape Park in Poland’s Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeship have discovered a rare langsax long knife with potential Viking roots.

Researchers were looking for one of the forgotten combat locations from the Polish-Pomeranian struggle of AD 1091 when Duke Wadysaw I Herman of Poland sought to conquer the area of Pomerania. The knife was discovered by accident. The blade was classified as a “loose find” by archaeologist Mateusz Sosnowski, who participates and coordinates research on behalf of the Wdecki Landscape Park because there were no cultural strata in situ to show a larger link with the surroundings.

The long blade, according to Dr. Piotr Pranke of the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru’s Department of History of Scandinavia, Central, and Eastern Europe, was an exceptionally uncommon Norwegian langsax from the 8th century AD. The long blade has a total length of 90 cm and a blade length of 80 cm. “It is a weapon of impressive size for a long knife, which could easily measure up against double-edged swords from that period,” In a statement to PAP, Sosnowski said.

Mateusz Sosnowski holding the blade. Photo: O. Popkiewicz

The long blade appears to be in virtually excellent condition at first glance, with only the blade tip partly bent.

“We intend to carry out detailed metallographic tests (the study of the microstructure of all types of metallic alloys) that may allow us to gain additional knowledge about this unique specimen of a weapon,” told Sosnowski.

In 2015, the object most similar to the langsax found in Wdecki Landscape Park is a long combat blade found in Haukela. This is the area between Vestfold and Telemark in western Norway. The Haukela discovery comes from the middle of the 8th century, i.e. the beginning of the Viking era. The Polish find is most likely the same age.

What is the Langsax or Long Seax?

Blades are 50cm or longer and lengthy hilts like broad seaxes. The edge is typically straight or slightly curved towards the tip. These knives are thought to have been used from the 8th to the 10th centuries.

5,000-Year-Old Wooden Pieces Discovered at the Neolithic Site of Orkney!

Archaeologists say it may be a particularly important part of the site because it features external upright slabs called orthostats.

Archaeologists found the wood while excavating the Ness of Brodgar, home to a vast network of buildings, including a temple-style complex, that thrummed with activity during the Neolithic period. Sigurd Towrie, of the University of Highlands and Islands Archaeology Institute, said it was the first time wood had been found on the site.

Mr Towrie said: “Over the years of excavation the Ness has produced so many surprises that some archaeologists thought we had exhausted all the possibilities. Not so.”

He said the “astonishing new discovery” of the wood was made at ‘structure 12’ on the site, a large rectangular building that is some 17-metres long.

The building was divided up inside by pillars to create a series of bays, alcoves and recesses which surrounded two large hearths. Access to this was by three entrances, one that was flanked by a pair of standing stones that faced the burial chamber at Maeshowe, with the building likely a “stunning sight” in the immense Neolithic landscape of mainland Orkney.

The vast Ness of Brodgar site in Orkney. PIC: Contributed.

Mr Towrie said the wood was found in a post hole and had survived probably due to its preservation under a tiny amount of water.

"Preservation of organic material is very rare,” he said.

"The post hole sat in a depression and we think some water had gathered. It creates anaerobic conditions, which slows down decay.”

While few trees stand on Orkney today, the islands were once rich in woodland that disappeared over time due to rising sea levels. Recent studies of the “woodlands under the waves” included analysis of remains of a forests, which had been pushed under the water at Bay of Ireland near Stromness, which has been dated to around 6,000-years-old.

“The earliest Neolithic settlements were made of wood and then they later switched to stone,” Mr Towrie said.

"The wood that we found is in very poor condition, but hopefully we will be able to tell what kind of wood it is and whether it was grown locally or imported.”

Ness of Brodgar: Digital reconstruction

The Ness of Brodgar site covers around six acres between the Ring of Brodgar and the Stones of Stenness in the Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site. The earliest structures on the site were built around 3300 BC, with the site closed down and abandoned after around 1,000 years. The site was first excavated in 2003 with the summer excavations ending with Ness of Brodgar being covered up again for the winter.

Decorated stone slabs, thousands of sherds of pottery and a temple-style building are among key finds at Ness of Brodgar, an incredible site given its scale and central function to Neolithic life in Orkney. Earlier this year, a potter’s fingerprint was discovered on a vessel made some 5,000 years ago, creating a “poignant connection” to the people who lived and visited here.

Around 30 archaeologists are on the site this summer, with hundreds of visitors dropping by the site as work progresses. Mr Towrie said: “On one day, we had 450 people here. It’s been great to be back on site again and to see so many people, and to still know that people really care about this place.”

By Alison Campsie, The Scotsman

1,400-Year-Old Visigoth Sarcophagus Found Under Roman Villa In Spain

A research team led by Rafael González Fernández, professor of Ancient History at the University of Murcia, has discovered a spectacular sarcophagus from the Visigothic period at the site of the Roman necropolis of Los Villaricos, in Mula.  

It is a 2-metre long piece with geometric decoration interspersed with ivy leaves. On the front corresponding to the part of the chancel, a Christogram has been documented framed in a border. Its chronology corresponds, in the absence of further studies, possibly to the 6th century.

Rafael González described this finding as spectacular and unexpected, and which corroborates previous studies on the chronology of the necropolis. This necropolis originated next to the basilica church after the abandonment of the town in the 5th century.

This summer's archaeological campaign is taking place in the main necropolis of the site, which occupied the part of the impluvium and rooms adjacent to the Roman house once it had been abandoned. Essentially, the work this summer is focusing on three areas.

Firstly, the cleaning of a fountain that possibly supplied water to the villa; secondly, progress is being made in what we call the "pool area", dedicated to the production and storage of some product that we still do not know today; and thirdly, the aim is to complete the excavation of the tombs that were located above the rooms of the villa when it lost its function, at a time between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 7th century. 

The presence of this necropolis may be justified by the transformation of the Oecus or Triclinium, a kind of reception hall, the best room in a Roman villa, into a space for Christian worship. This would explain the presence of the burials next to this religious building in what we know as the necropolis ad sanctos.

Source: University of Murcia [trsl. TANN; July 17, 2021]

Ljubljana Marshes Wheel: The Oldest Known Wheel in the World!

The Ljubljana Marshes Wheel is a wooden wheel that was found in the Ljubljana Marshes some 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, in 2002. Radiocarbon dating, performed in the VERA laboratory (Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator) in Vienna, showed that it is approximately 5,150 years old, which makes it the oldest wooden wheel yet discovered. It was discovered by a team of Slovene archeologists from the Ljubljana Institute of Archaeology, a part of the Research Center at the Slovene Academy of Arts and Sciences, under the guidance of Anton Velušček.

The archaeological site

Remains of pile dwellings were discovered in the Ljubljana Marshes as early as in 1875. Since 2011, the site has been protected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as an example of prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps, a special form of dwellings in areas with lakes and marshes. The archaeologists at the excavation site identified over one thousand piles in the bed of the Iška River, near Ig. They reconstructed the dwellings of 3.5 by 7 metres (11 ft 6 in × 23 ft 0 in) in size, separated by approximately 2 to 3 metres (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in). The analyses of the piles revealed that the dwellings were repaired each year and that a new house had to be built on the same place in as little as 10 to 20 years.

The earliest inhabitants settled in the region as early as 9,000 years ago. In the Mesolithic, they built temporary residences on isolated rocks in the marsh and on the fringe, living by hunting and gathering. The permanent settlements were not built until the first farmers appeared approximately 6,000 years ago during the Neolithic.

The wooden wheel

The wooden wheel belonged to a prehistoric two-wheel cart – a pushcart. Similar wheels have been found in the hilly regions of Switzerland and southwest Germany, but the Ljubljana Marshes wheel is bigger and older. It shows that wooden wheels appeared almost simultaneously in Mesopotamia and Europe.

It has a diameter of 72 centimetres (28+3⁄8 in) and is made of ash wood, and its 124-centimetre-long (48+7⁄8 in) axle is made of oak. The axle was attached to the wheels with oak wood wedges, which meant that the axle rotated together with the wheels. The wheel was made from a tree that grew in the vicinity of the pile dwellings and at the time of the wheel construction was approximately 80 years old.

It appears that the wheel itself is primarily made of two planks of wood which are held together with four cross braces. The cross braces appear to have been held in place simply by a tenon arrangement, the braces being fitted into tenoned slots carved into the two main wheel sections.

Prehistoric animal carvings discovered for first time in Scotland

Prehistoric animal carvings thought to be nearly 5,000 years old have been discovered for the first time in Scotland.

The prehistoric drawings were discovered inside Dunchraigaig Cairn in Kilmartin Glen, Argyll.

They are the first clear examples of deer carvings from the Neolithic to Early Bronze Age in the whole of the UK.

They depict two male red deer, which are considered to have been the largest deer species in the country at the time.

Kilmartin Glen where the rock art carving representing a deer was found. Picture: Historic Environment Scotland

Full-grown antlers can be seen on both animals, and one of the deer can be seen with a short tail.

Three other quadrupeds are also visible, two of which are thought to be juvenile deer – useful to prehistoric communities as a source of food and with bones providing a resource for making tools.

The drawings were found by Hamish Fenton, who has a background in archeology, and it was the first time ancient animal carvings have been discovered in an area alongside cup and ring markings in the UK.

An illustration of the animal carving. Picture: Hamish Fenton

Mr Fenton said: "I was passing Dunchraigaig Cairn at dusk when I noticed the burial chamber in the side of the cairn and decided to slide inside with my torch.

"As I shone the torch around, I noticed a pattern on the underside of the roof slab, which didn't appear to be natural markings in the rock.

"As I shone the light around further, I could see that I was looking at a deer stag upside down, and as I continued looking around, more animals appeared on the rock.

"This was a completely amazing and unexpected find and, to me, discoveries like this are the real treasure of archaeology, helping to reshape our understanding of the past."

Joana Valdez-Tullett, research assistant at Scotland's Rock Art Project, working with Historic Environment Scotland (HES). Picture HES

There are more than 3,000 prehistoric carved rocks in Scotland with the vast majority of cup and ring markings which are created by striking the rock surface with a stone tool, such as a large river-washed pebble.

Many of these mysterious carvings can still be seen in the open landscape, yet there is still little known about how they were used, or what purpose they served.

Experts from Scotland's Rock Art Project examined the carvings to confirm their authenticity by using innovative technology in their analysis.

A structured light scan was carried out by Historic Environment Scotland (HES) digital documentation experts to create an accurate and detailed 3D model with photographic texture.

Various visualisation techniques were then applied to the model in order to reveal more details of the carvings.

Dr Tertia Barnett, principal investigator for Scotland's Rock Art Project at HES, said: "It was previously thought that prehistoric animal carvings of this date didn't exist in Scotland, although they are known in parts of Europe, so it is very exciting that they have now been discovered here for the first time in the historic Kilmartin Glen.

"This extremely rare discovery completely changes the assumption that prehistoric rock art in Britain was mainly geometric and non-figurative.

"While there are a few prehistoric carvings of deer in the UK, the only other ones created in the Early Bronze Age are very schematic. It is remarkable that these carvings in Dunchraigaig Cairn show such great anatomical detail and there is no doubt about which animal species they represent."

By Calum Loudon, The Scotsman

The Etruscan Wolf’s Helmet: A Masterpiece of Ancient Equipment

The Etruscan wolf’s helmet, that is currently kept in Harvard’s Art Museum, is undoubtedly a masterpiece of ancient equipment. Despite it’s name, the etruscan helmet resembles a boar head. It dates back to archaic to classical period (6th-5th century BCE) an has modern additions. It is bronze and cast and hammered.

Other Elements of the helmet are lead, iron and arsenic. These pieces were part of an old repair and were removed from the object.

The patina is green and has areas of black and underlying areas of red. The top components of the nose and the hemispherical dome have areas of rough, raised green corrosion products and brown burial accretions.

Numerous large losses are the result of corrosion and breaks in the brittle, mineralized metal. There are numerous ancient repairs, including the flaps of metal folded and riveted around cracks on the lower edge of the hemispherical dome and the irregular shapes of metal riveted to the dome where it meets the lower jaw on both sides. The cast teeth are modern additions. They are not life casts and were irregularly modeled directly in wax to fit the shapes of the sheet metal assembly that form the jaw and top portions of the mouth. A modern sheet-copper framework in the top and bottom sections of the mouth and a patinated but modern ridged palette-shape on the top of the mouth both help to support weight of these teeth. Many of the rivets are ancient, but some have been replaced with modern copper pins or brass screws.

The hemispherical dome was raised by hammering, and its irregular thickness ranges from 0.3 to 0.7 mm. The top and snout sections of the nose have the same thickness as the dome, which in neither case was a measurement error caused by the rough corrosion products on the surface of these components. The other parts of the object are also raised by hammering but are generally thinner (2.0 to 4.0 mm). They form the bottom exterior and interior surfaces of the mouth, the narrow strips at the lower edges of the top of the mouth, and the repair reinforcements previously mentioned. A serrated sheet inserted in the folded and riveted front section of the nose is less deeply corroded than the snout but appears to be ancient. The serrations may depict teeth, and it is possible that similar teeth once decorated the other portions of the mouth. The remains of two oval repoussé depressions on the front of the dome depict eyes. No inlay or added material is visible in the eyes.

Prior to the 1998 conservation treatment of this object, numerous additional fragments, many of them modern, were joined to the object and completed many of the losses to the original components. These fragments greatly confused the question of what was original as well as what the original object looked like. They were removed and stored separately from other loose fragments that are ancient but either do not belong to this object or cannot be properly fitted to it. Future work on the object could involve completely removing the replacement teeth. It is also possible that the entire lower jaw is a modern fabrication from ancient sheets of metal.

Henry Lie

English Dictionary of Ancient Greek ‘spares no blushes’ with fresh look at crudity

Victorian attempts to veil the meanings of crude ancient Greek words are set to be brushed away by a new dictionary 23 years in the making. It is the first to take a fresh look at the language in almost 200 years and promises to “spare no blushes” for today’s classics students.

The late scholar John Chadwick first came up with the idea to update HG Liddell and Robert Scott’s 1889 dictionary, the Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon, in 1997. An abridged version of a lexicon published in 1843, the Liddell and Scott had never been revised, and is packed with antiquated terms and modestly Victorian translations of the more colourful ancient Greek words. Despite this, it remains the most commonly used reference work for students in English schools and universities.

It was initially thought that Chadwick’s project would take five years, but Cambridge professor James Diggle, who was then chair of the advisory committee, said it soon became clear that the Intermediate Lexicon was “too antiquated in concept, design and content”, and the team would need to start afresh.

Diggle and his fellow editors then set out on the “Herculean task” of rereading most examples of ancient Greek literature, from Homer to the early second century AD. They then worked through the 24 letters of the Greek alphabet to create a modern guide for today’s students to the meanings of ancient Greek words and their development through the years. The lexicon is the first to be based on an entirely new reading of the Greek texts since 1843.

“At the outset of the project I undertook to read everything which the editors wrote. I soon realised that if we were ever to finish I had better start to write entries myself,” said Diggle.

“The moment of greatest relief and joy was when I was able to sign off the final proofs and say to the publisher, ‘It’s finished. You can print it.’ You can’t imagine what it was like, to realise that we had finally got there. I literally wept with joy.”

The completed Cambridge Greek Lexicon, which is being published by Cambridge University Press, runs to two volumes and features around 37,000 Greek words, drawn from 90 authors and set out across 1,500 pages.

The new dictionary’s editors “spare no blushes”, Diggle said, when it comes to the words that “brought a blush to Victorian cheeks”. The verb χέζω (chezo), translated by Liddell and Scott as “ease oneself, do one’s need”, is defined in the new dictionary as “to defecate” and translated as “to shit”; βινέω (bineo) is no longer “inire, coire, of illicit intercourse”, but “fuck”; λαικάζω (laikazo), in the 19th-century dictionary translated as “to wench”, is now defined as “perform fellatio” and translated as “suck cocks”.

Antiquated and offensive language also gets a makeover. While Liddell and Scott defined βλαύτη (blaute) as “a kind of slipper worn by fops”, in the Cambridge Greek Lexicon it is described as “a kind of simple footwear, slipper”; κροκωτός (krokotos) is no longer defined as “a saffron-coloured robe worn by gay women”, but as a “saffron gown (worn by women)”.

“Liddell and Scott could have claimed, in the words of Edward Gibbon, ‘My English is chaste, and all licentious passages are left in the obscurity of a learned language,’” Diggle said. “We use contemporary English.”

The Cambridge Greek Lexicon also begins each entry with the rootmeaning of a word, a fundamentally different approach to the 19th-century lexicon, which started entries with a word’s earliest appearance in literature. “Take a word like πόλις, which will be familiar to many in its English form ‘polis’,” said Diggle. “Our article shows the variety of senses which the word can have: in its earliest usage ‘citadel, acropolis’; then, more generally, ‘city, town’ and also ‘territory, land’; and, more specifically, in the classical period, ‘city as a political entity, city-state’; also, with reference to the occupants of a city, ‘community, citizen body’.”

Professor Robin Osborne, chair of Cambridge’s classics faculty, said the department invested in the new lexicon in order to “make a contribution to the teaching of Greek over the next century”.

“This puts into the hands of students a resource that will enable them access to ancient Greek more securely and easily,” said Osborne. “It is hugely important that we continue to engage with the literature of ancient Greece, not as texts frozen in a past world, but which engage with the world in which we live.”

The Lexicon’s publisher at Cambridge University Press, Michael Sharp, said it was “one of the most important classics books we have ever published”, and “a milestone in the history of classics”.

Diggle, however, said he had no plans for further lexicographical ventures. “No, no, no, no, no,” he said. “I finished it with an enormous sense of relief and joy – for the last 15 years of it I did nothing else, it really dominated my life.”

Source: The Guardian

Villa Kérylos: A Greek Classically Inspired House in French Riviera

Villa Kerylos in Beaulieu-sur-Mer, France, is a house in Ancient Greek Revival style built in the early 1900s by French archaeologist Theodore Reinach. It has been listed since 1966 as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture. A Greek word, kerylos means halcyon or kingfisher, which in Greek mythology was considered a bird of good omen.

The French archaeologist and statesman Théodore Reinach spent his family’s banking inheritance to live in exotic magnificence. In the early 1900s, he commissioned a house on a French Riviera peninsula with rooms frescoed in sea creatures and mosaicked with deities — all based on ancient buildings that he had documented on Delos island in Greece.

Mr. Reinach in 1913. He died in 1928.(Agence Meurisse/Bibliothèque nationale de France)

He commissioned Emmanuel Pontremoli, a French Architect and Archaeologist to foresee the building works. The project started in 1906 and took six years to complete. It then became their family home until 1967.

Quietly poised in the Southern Mediterranean town of Beaulieu Sur Mer lies his Greek style Villa Kérylos. The white and brick red shuttered villa is nestled in one of the prettiest areas in the south of France; directly on the tip of the Baie des Fourmis overlooking the Mediterranean sea. 

The entrance to the villa is right at the tip of the ocean. Reinach chose this coastal spot as it echoed the style of Greek temple locations. He also welcomes us eternally with the entrance floor inscription in ancient Greek ‘ΧΑΊΡΕ’ (chaíre, “hello; goodbye”, literally: "rejoice, be glad").

Surrounded by a pretty, formal garden and the water’s edge the property stands on three floors. From the basement of the building when it was a family home, there was access to a mooring and swimming directly in the sea.  Some areas are closed off and restricted due to the villa being listed, becoming a Museum in 1966 and a historical monument by the French Ministry of Culture. There is the opportunity to buy gifts and information in the entrance to the villa, and it probably takes an hour to walk around. 

The ground floor area of the house styled around an open peristyle courtyard which brought to life films I have watched that are now popular representing the Roman Empire and the dramas that belong to that period. It would make a fantastic film location. However,  it is now only open to the public with no opportunities for private parties or filming. 

The Greeks loved bathing, and this has defiantly not been overlooked, with sauna-like bathrooms and walk-in showers. It has the feel of a modern day spa, but even better. The first room is, in fact, a spa with a huge sunken bath adorned with grey and white marble languishing a golden-lit dressing area suggesting warmth and comfort. The features are unique; in another bathroom area, brass taps are opening to the mouths of lions with matching soap saucers and a plunging marble bath supported by the lion’s feet.

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Candles would have lit many of the rooms and together with their effects and the art adorning the walls it would have accelerated an atmosphere of sheer indulgence and luxury. The walls and floors mirror their beliefs with classical Greek motifs representing stories of the gods and mythical animals. This all adds to the fantasy world of the Classical period and creates an illusion of more space. 

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The attention to detail is just stunning. Nothing is overlooked; from the pretty tiled floors running throughout the villa to the star decorated ceiling. The ancient Greeks were fascinated by astrology,  reflected in their use of patterns and colour. The walls are delicately embellished with gardens of ancient olive trees and birds. The name Kerylos means Halcyon or kingfisher which in Greek mythology refers to a bird of good omen. 

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The main room overlooking the sea is large with high ceilings, perfect for the summer climate; elegant and formal leads off from the inner courtyard, the heart of the villa. 

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Some of the tapestries are still decorating the bedroom walls, and the embroidered original curtains remain intact. The Greeks were also inspired most of all by nature, and this too is echoed in the wall hangings and contrasted by the symmetrical design. 

The views throughout the villa are spectacular, and even on a cold, miserable day, there would be the inspiration. The first floor of the house is light and breezy with all the bedrooms adorned with frescoes representing heroic and imaginative stories.

It may have been cold in winter with no double glazing and all the marble but underfloor heating was incorporated, and with the Mediterranean climate this house would have been a palace and paradise home.  

by Kay Hare

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Swedish orienteering enthusiast finds rare Bronze Age treasure

Astash of 50 Bronze Age relics dating back over 2,500 years was discovered by a Swedish orienteering enthusiast working on a map earlier in April, authorities said Thursday.

Bronze pieces of jewelry found in Alingsas, in Gothenburg, Sweden, April 29, 2021. (EPA Photo)

Mainly consisting of ancient jewelry, the find outside the small town of Alingsas in western Sweden represents one of "the most spectacular and largest cache finds" from the Bronze Age ever in the Nordic country, the county administrative board said in a statement.

Among the relics, believed to be from the period between 750 and 500 B.C., are some "very well-preserved necklaces, chains and needles" made out of bronze.

The objects were lying out in the open in front of some boulders out in the forest.

"Presumably animals have dug them out of a crevice between the boulders, where you can assume that they had been lying before," the government agency said.

Tomas Karlsson, the cartographer who made the discovery when he was out updating a map, at first thought it was just junk.

"It looked like metal garbage. Is that a lamp lying here, I thought at first," Karlsson told the Dagens Nyheter newspaper.

He told the paper he then hunched over and saw a spiral and a necklace.

"But it all looked so new. I thought they were fake," he continued.

He reported the find to local authorities who sent out a team of archaeologists to examine the site.

"Most of the finds are made up of bronze items that can be associated with a woman of high status from the Bronze Age," Johan Ling, professor of archeology at the University of Gothenburg, said in the statement.

"They have been used to adorn different body parts, such as necklaces, bracelets and ankle bracelets, but there were also large needles and eyelets used to decorate and hold up different pieces of clothing, probably made of wool," Ling added.

Photo: Adam Ihse/TT

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Viking Scholars ‘Thrilled’ by Discovery of Celtic Ornament in Norway

A leading Viking scholar says she and fellow archaeologists are thrilled with the discovery of what appears to be an ancient Celtic ornament in a field in Norway that is believed to be among a cache of Viking loot.

Dr Cat Jarman, a senior adviser to the New Museum of the Viking Age in Norway, said she was “very excited” about the discovery of what appeared to be a medieval ornament depicting a face that would have been fitted on a bucket most likely used by monks in Ireland between 500AD and 700AD.

The ornament – along with ancient Islamic coins known as Dirham, circa 800AD – were found by metal detectorists combing a farmer’s field for valuables near Trondheim in central Norway last week.

The extremely rare find has been handed over to archaeological experts at the Trondheim Archaeological Museum who will clean it up and examine it further.

However, Dr Jarman suspects it is of a similar vintage to other Celtic bucket ornaments taken by the Vikings from medieval monasteries in Ireland and the UK during looting raids in the 9th century that have since been discovered in Norway.

“They are beautiful, with religious significance,” she told the Irish Independent.

Once the ornament is cleaned up by conservators, she expects it will reveal two faces depicted in similar finds.

“It would have been very valuable back then,” she said of religious and other artefacts that Vikings plundered during raids here between around 790AD to 900AD.

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“It’s not very likely that it would have been brought in a peaceful way,” she said of the violent looting raids in which Vikings prided themselves on bringing back “exotic” finds during attacks on churches and monastic sites in Ireland. 

Allison Bray

370-Year-Old Gold Ring May Have Honored Beheaded Earl

The initials J.D., crafted from gold thread, are visible.

This gold ring, discovered by metal detectorist Lee Morgan, likely dates to the English Civil War. (Image credit: Manx Museum)

A metal detectorist in the United Kingdom has unearthed a 370-year-old gold and crystal ring that might have been crafted in honor of a beheaded earl who lived during the English Civil War.

The slender gold band has a diameter of 0.8 inches (21.5 millimeters) and is topped with a 0.5-inch-wide (12 mm) crystal stone that covers two ornate letters made with gold thread: the initials J.D. (or I.D.), according to Manx National Heritage on the Isle of Man.

If the first letter is a "J," that could mean this ring once belonged to James Stanley, 7th Earl of Derby and Lord of Man, a supporter of the Royalist cause during the English Civil War. "Letters and documents from the time show that he signed his name as J Derby, so the initials JD would be appropriate for him," Allison Fox, curator of archaeology at Manx National Heritage, said in a statement. 

Moreover, the ring is "of a high quality," indicating "that it was made for, or on behalf of, an individual of high status" — a profile that fits James Stanley, Fox said.

Metal detectorist Lee Morgan found the ring on the southern part of the Isle of Man, an island between Great Britain and Ireland, in December 2020. The ring was officially declared a "treasure" — a label given to artifacts that meet certain archaeological criteria — by the Isle of Man coroner of inquests, Jayne Hughes, on April 19, 2021. 

The ring's two shoulders, on either side of the crystal, are decorated with inlaid black enamel. Archaeologists have dated it to the late 1600s and identified it as a Stuart-period (1603-1714) mourning ring, a type of jewelry that was sometimes given out at funerals to commemorate a person who had died, often holding their initials.

James Stanley, also known as Baron Strange and the Great Earl Of Derby, supported the cause of King Charles I — who ruled England, Scotland and Ireland from 1625 until 1649, when he was executed. Charles' authoritarian rule didn't sit well with the English Parliament, and that animosity eventually led to the series of battles known as the English Civil War (1642-1651).

In this case, the ring was likely made after Parliamentarians executed James Stanley in October 1651, just a few years after King Charles I died. Today, there is a historic plaque on the Bolton Market Cross at Churchgate in his memory, saying "1651. James, Seventh Earl of Derby, beheaded near this spot."

James Stanley's wife, Charlotte, Lady Derby, likely had the mourning ring made in his honor, according to the statement. 

The gold ring will go on display at the Manx Museum.

Originally published on Live Science.

Tomb Hidden in Ireland for 4,000 Years is found ‘Untouched’ with Human Remains Inside That could Hold Clues About Pre-historical Burial Rituals

A farmer in Ireland stumbled across an ancient tomb virtually untouched for thousands of years.

The burial site was uncovered on southwest Ireland's Dingle Peninsula when an excavator overturned a large stone to reveal a hidden chamber underneath.

Inside, local archaeologists found what they believe to be the human bones, along with a smooth oval-shaped stone - all of which could hold clues about pre-historical burial rituals.

They suspect the tomb dates to the Bronze Age, making it between 2,500 and 4,000 years old.

But unlike most Bronze Age tombs, it was constructed completely underground—meaning it could be even older. 

A farmer in southwest Ireland moved a large stone on his land and discovered this ancient tomb underneath. The site included a sub-chamber near the front of the tomb, as well as a smooth oblong-shaped stone and what's believed to be human bones

The tomb was discovered during routine land improvement work, according to RTE, when a large stone was lifted up to reveal a 'slab-lined chamber' underneath.

An adjoining sub-chamber was found at what appeared to be the front of the tomb, containing what is presumed to be human bone fragments.

A smooth oval-shaped stone was also uncovered, although its purpose is not yet clear.

Archaeologists from the National Monuments Service and the National Museum of Ireland visited the site and believe the tomb likely dates to the Bronze Age, which ran from 2000 to 500BC.

Bronze Age tombs have been found in the region before, but almost all of them stick out the ground. The new discovery 'is completely concealed, suggesting it may be even older

But it could be even older given its 'highly unusual' design.

'Given its location, orientation and the existence of the large slab, your initial thought is this is a Bronze Age tomb,' archaeologist Mícheál Ó Coileáin told RTE.

'But the design of this particular tomb is not like any of the other Bronze Age burial sites we have here,' he added.

'It's possible that it's earlier but it's very difficult at this early stage to date it.'

Fellow archaeologist Breandán Ó Cíobháin told the outlet the tomb appears 'completely untouched,' and its contents remain in their original state.

'That is very rare,' Ó Cíobháin said. 'It is an extremely significant find as the original structure has been preserved and not interfered with, as may have occurred in the case of other uncovered tombs.'

The tomb was discovered on farmland on southwest Ireland's Dingle Peninsula, which has been inhabited for 6,000 years. Its exact location is being kept private to preserve the site for future study

The discovery could prove invaluable to the understanding of prehistoric burial rituals, he said.

Bronze Age tombs have been found in southwest Ireland before, particularly in Cork and Kerry.

They're typically 'wedge tombs,' which narrow at one end and protrude above ground.

'[But] this one is completely concealed, Ó Coileáin told The Times.

Wedge tombs mostly face the west and southwest, possibly representing 'celestial or lunar alignments,' Ó Cíobháin theorized.

Because so much of the newly discovered tomb is underground, 'it is difficult to fully assess the layout,' he said.

'It is very well built, and a lot of effort has gone into putting the large cap stone over it,' Ó Coileáin told the Irish Times. 'It's not a stone that was just found in the ground. It seems to have some significance.'

The National Monument Service says the tomb is in 'vulnerable condition' and is keeping its exact location private to preserve the site for future study.

Known to have been inhabited for at least 6,000 years, Dingle Peninsula has been the site of several archaeological discoveries, including clochán, dry-stone beehive-shaped huts built by the Celts.

Source: dailymail

Bronze Age Village found under Swiss Lake

Archaeologists have, for the first time, found traces of a Bronze Age lakeside village under the surface of Lake Lucerne. The find shows that the city of Lucerne area was already populated 3,000 years ago.

This is 2,000 years earlier than previously thought, researchers said on Thursday.

Traces of a pile dwelling (or stilt house) village came to light while laying a pipeline in the natural harbour area. The remnants were found by underwater archaeologists around four metres below the water surface.

A diver from Zurich's unterwater archaeology department at work in Lake Lucerne Unterwasserarchäologie UWAD Zürich/Canton Lucerne.

“This finally confirms the theory that, in earlier times, the Lucerne lake basin was a suitable settlement area,” a canton Lucerne statementExternal link said.

Proof of settlement

Archaeologists had been looking for proof of settlement for some time, but had been hampered by a thick layer of mud at the bottom of the lake. Work on the pipeline however revealed around 30 prehistoric wooden piles or stilts and five pieces of pottery.

The wood and pottery have been tested and dated to the late Bronze Ages, so around 1,000 years BC.

An artist's impression of life at a Lucerne area stilt village Joe Rohrer/Canton of Lucerne

The find coincides with the 10th anniversary of prehistoric lakeside pile dwellings in Alpine countries - including in Switzerland - being given Unesco World Heritage Site status.

In all, 111 of the most important sites in six countries have gained the label. Of these, 56 are in SwitzerlandExternal link.

Unesco describes the groupExternal link of dwellings as “one of the most important sources for the study of early agrarian societies in the region”.

Source: swissinfo

USA: Silver Coins Unearthed, May Be Loot from One of the Greatest Pirate Crimes

Henry Every was one of the most famous pirates to ever live.

A handful of Arabian silver coins found in New England may be the last surviving relics of history's most notorious act of piracy — and perhaps one of the most famous pirates who ever lived.

Evidence suggests the distinctive coins were spent as common silver in the American colonies in the late 1690s by the fugitive pirate crew of Henry Every, also known as John Avery, who had fled there after plundering the Mughal treasure ship Ganj-i-sawai as it was returning pilgrims from the Muslim Hajj.

Researchers aren't certain that the coins are from the Ganj-i-sawai, but their origin, their dates and their discovery in such a distant region suggest they were seized by the pirates and spent in the Americas. 

The coins may have been handled by Every himself, who disappeared a few years later but who came to be portrayed as an almost heroic figure from what some have called the "Golden Age of Piracy."

The 1693 Yemeni silver coin found in 2014 in Rhode Island. Similar similar coins have since been unearthed at American colonial sites. (Image credit: Jim Bailey)

Their discovery has also cast new light on Every's whereabouts shortly before he vanished with his loot. "We can prove beyond a doubt that he actually was in the mainland American colonies," Rhode Island metal detectorist Jim Bailey told Live Science. 

Bailey found one of the first of the Arabian silver coins, called a comassee, in 2014 at the site of a colonial settlement on Aquidneck Island, about 20 miles (32 kilometers) south of Providence. 

More than a dozen similar coins thought to be from the pirate raid on the Ganj-i-sawai have now been discovered by metal detectorists and archaeologists elsewhere in Rhode Island, and in Massachusetts, Connecticut and North Carolina — maybe the last evidence of one of the greatest crimes in history. 

Pirate attack

In 1695, Every and his cutthroat crew on board their ship Fancy joined a pirate raid on a convoy in the Red Sea that was returning to India from Mecca.

Every's ship chased and caught the convoy's flagship, the Ganj-i-sawai, which belonged to the Grand Mughal Aurangzeb, the Muslim emperor of what is now India and Pakistan. Reports say the pirates tortured and killed its crew and 600 passengers, before making off with gold and silver, including thousands of coins, said to be worth between 200,000 and 600,000 British pounds — the equivalent of between $40 million and $130 million in today's money.

Captain Henry Every and his crew take one of the Great Mogul's ships in this illustration. (Image credit: Bettmann/Getty Images)

After an outcry led by the British East India Company, whose profits on the riches of India were threatened by the raid, Britain's King William III ordered what is regarded as the first international manhunt to capture Every and the other pirates.

By this time, however, Every and his crew had escaped to the New World. They lived for several months in the Bahamas, possibly with the collusion of the British governor of the islands; but they fled in late 1696 as the Royal Navy closed in. 

Some of Every's crew went to live in the mainland colonies, where they were eventually tried and acquitted, possibly as a result of bribery; but there were no further sightings of Every. Later reports suggested he had sailed to Ireland while still on the run and that he died there, impoverished, a few years later. Since his loot from the Ganj-i-sawai was never accounted for, rumors long persisted that the treasure had been buried somewhere in secret.

Arabian silver

Bailey is an amateur archaeologist who worked on the recovery of the wreck of the Whydah, a pirate ship discovered off Cape Cod in 1984.

In 2014, his metal detector picked up the first of the mysterious coins in a meadow on Aquidneck Island that was once the site of a colonial township.

"You never field-clean a coin, because you could damage it," he said. "I had to run to my car and get a big bottle of water… the mud came off, and I saw this Arabic script on the coin and I was amazed, because I knew exactly where it'd come from," he said. "I was aware that the American colonies had been bases of operation for piracy in the late 17th century."

Arabian coin (American Numismatic Society)

Studies of the Arabic writing on the coin showed it had been minted in Yemen in southern Arabia in 1693, just a few years before the pirate attack on the Ganj-i-sawai. Another 13 have been found, mostly by metal detectorists, but the latest in 2018 by archaeologists in Connecticut; two Ottoman Turkish silver coins thought to be from the same hoard have also been unearthed in the region. 

Bailey has carefully studied each of the discoveries, while researching historical sources about the pirates who might have brought the coins to the Americas; and in 2017, some of his work was published in the Colonial Newsletter, a research journal published by the American Numismatic Society. 

Several of the coins show the year they were minted, while some are marked with the names of rulers at the time, which can be used to date them. "None of the coins date after 1695, when the Ganj-i-sawai was captured," Bailey said.

Pirate treasure

Every is thought to have sailed directly to Ireland after his time in the Bahamas, but Bailey's research suggests Every first spent several weeks on the American mainland, trading in African slaves he had bought with the loot from the Ganj-i-sawai. 

Historical records relate that a ship Every had acquired in the Bahamas, Sea Flower, sold dozens of slaves on the mainland, and Bailey's research suggests that Every was on board, he said.

Bailey thinks Every probably died in Ireland eventually, as described by some chroniclers. But others portrayed him as a swashbuckling "king" who ruled for years over a fictional pirate utopia in Madagascar.

here's no way to know if Every handled the New England coins himself, but Bailey thinks they were almost certainly part of the hoard looted from the Mughal ship (Some coin specialists, however, are not convinced by his theory.) 

Bailey unearthed other metallic objects from the same period, including these bit-bosses from a horse's bridle, a buckle for a spur and part of a spur itself. (Image credit: Jim Bailey)

While most of the loot was probably melted down to hide the origins, "what we're finding basically are the coins that were being used by the pirates when they were on the run: coins for lodgings, coins for meals, coins for drinking," he said. 

Astonishingly, the coins may also have been referred to in the manhunt proclamation by King William, which stated that Every and the other fugitives had looted many "Indian and Persian" gold and silver coins from the captured ship. 

"How often do you find a coin that's mentioned in the proclamation for the capture of a pirate and the subject of the first worldwide manhunt?" Bailey said. "It's just fantastic."

Originally published on Live Science.

Knights’ Arsenal Unearthed by Detectorist

A metal detectorist has found an arsenal of weapons from a Knight, that may have fought in the Battle of Grunwald.

The Battle of Grunwald, also called the Battle of Žalgiris, or First Battle of Tannenberg, was one of the largest battles recorded in medieval Europe during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War on the 15th of July in 1410.

The battle took place in the territory of the monastic state of the Teutonic Order, on the plains between three villages: Grünfelde (Grunwald) to the west, Tannenberg (Stębark) to the northeast and Ludwigsdorf (Łodwigowo, Ludwikowice) to the south in western Masuria, Poland.

The Polish–Lithuanian alliance defeated the German–Prussian Teutonic Knights led by Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen, resulting in most of the Teutonic Knights’ leadership either being killed or taken prisoner.

The arsenal, which was discovered by Alexander Medvedev near the city of Olsztyn consists of a sword, a scabbard, part of a belt buckle, and two knives.

Medvedev gave the finds to the Marshal’s Office of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, who has since presented them to the Museum of the Battle of Grunwald for conservation and research.

Alexander Medvedev told the PAP foundation “This is a phenomenal set in the form of a sword, scabbard, belt and two knives. Considering that these items date back to the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries, and therefore they were lying in the ground for about 600 years, they are preserved in extremely good condition.”

Szymon Drej from the Battle of Grunwald Museum added: “It is puzzling that no one appropriated these items, very valuable at the time. Perhaps it will be possible to find the remains of the knight to whom these items belonged”.

The undisclosed site where the discovery was made will be explored by archaeologists who plan to conduct a series of excavations.

Source: heritagedaily

Header Image Credit : Marshal’s Office in Olsztyn. Background Image – The Battle of Grunwald – Image Credit : Jan Matejko – Public Domain

Greece: Metro Works In Thessaloniki Unearthed a Buried Armored Gothic Warrior

A Goth warrior was found buried with his weapon in the three-aisled cemetery basilica that came to light in 2010, after excavations for the Thessaloniki Metro.

Archaeologists report they have made a great discovery while excavating a graveyard next to the remnants of a three-aisled cemetery Basilica. The early Christian basilica is occupied by a cluster of tombs, most of which are vaulted. It is in one of them, archaeologists found the skeleton of a Gothic warrior and his weapons. The best preserved of his weapons is a sword which was found folded (bent). The type of weapon found next to the soldier, as well as the folded sword, are two elements that we knew until now only from Western Europe. It is probable that he was a gothic soldier, as Byzantium employed gothic mercenaries especially in the last decades of the 4th century onwards. They were experienced warriors and had a reputation for being good warriors.

“What seems to "unlock" the identity of the warrior, is that "the sword was deliberately folded, not broken", explains archaeologist Melina Paisidou, who together with PhD candidate Errico Maniotis will present the study "Arming a soldier of the Basilica of the Fountain" at the 33rd Archaeological Conference for the excavations in Macedonia and Thrace.

In 2010 archaeological excavations uncovered much of the city's eastern cemetery. Specifically, it brought to light about three thousand burial monuments which came to enrich our knowledge so far about the organization and continuous use of the space from the Hellenistic period to Late antiquity. The tombs belong to various types, pit-shaped, box-shaped, pot burials, altars, altar-shaped structures, vaulted single or twin.

The tomb of the Goth warrior in the center of Thessaloniki.

The main element and rarity of the find, which will be mentioned by Ms. Paisidou and Mr. Maniotis at the conference, is that there is this series of vaulted tombs inside a temple, which means that this Basilica was built in such a way that they included, so they were important people who belonged to the Christian religion. A special honor was also the fact that this warrior was buried with his weapons.

the folded sword found next to the soldier in good condition.

"It is rare for weapons of this period to be found in excavation contexts, even in Greece. "Most of the corresponding findings we have are from Balkan and Western European countries," explains Ms. Paisidou.

"In Thessaloniki and in wider Macedonia, this sword diploma is found for the first time", Ms. Paisidou emphasizes.

Gothic warriors, 4th century AD.

Scarborough: Remains of Roman villa and bath-house never seen before in Britain discovered beneath building site

Archaeologists have made one of the most stunning Roman finds ever unearthed in Britain on the site of a new housing development in a village near Scarborough.

The foundations of a large Roman villa complex discovered in Eastfield, near Scarborough.

An excavation was carried out at the Keepmoat Homes site in Eastfield after Historic England suggested there was the potential for Roman or Iron Age remains to be found there - but the extent and significance of the discovery has astonished those working on the dig.

A large complex of buildings was revealed, including a circular central room with a number of other rooms and a bath-house leading from it. Experts believe they are the foundations of a 'high-status' Roman villa, some sort of religious community or perhaps a combination of both.

This type of villa layout has never previously been found in Britain and it could even be the first example to be uncovered in the whole of the old Roman Empire.

An aerial view of the site.

Developers Keepmoat have now amended their plans for the site to preserve the remains, and houses will no longer be built over them. The area will instead be designated as public open space.

Historic England also intend to apply for Scheduled Ancient Monument status for the site, and will fund further archaeological work and analysis.

Inspector of ancient monuments Keith Emerick said: “These archaeological remains are a fantastic find and are far more than we ever dreamed of discovering at this site. They are already giving us a better knowledge and understanding of Roman Britain. We are grateful to Keepmoat Homes for their sensitive and professional approach to helping ensure the future conservation of this important historical site.”

Corporate director for business and environmental services at North Yorkshire County Council Karl Battersby, who also advised the developers, added: “This is a remarkable discovery which adds to the story of Roman settlement in North Yorkshire. Work by local archaeologists has already established the buildings were designed by the highest quality architects available in northern Europe during the era and constructed by the finest craftsmen.

“Because of the significance of this, it is excellent to see that the layout of the new housing has been redesigned so this important part of our history can be preserved. There will be further work on the finds and environmental samples to try to establish exactly what this enigmatic site was and why it was created so far from other Roman centres.”

Although there is evidence of a Roman signal station on the headland near Scarborough, it had been previously thought that there had not been a formal settlement in the area during their period of occupation.

By Grace Newton

Neolithic Cat Burial in Cyprus: The oldest known evidence of taming of cats!

The bones of a cat were found near human bones in a grave uncovered in Cyprus, dating from 7,500 to 7,000 years B.C., during excavations carried out under the supervision of Jean Guilaine of the Collège de France. Jean-Denis Vigne, CNRS research director, showed that this was the oldest known evidence of the taming of cats.

It is generally taken for granted that cat domestication began in Egypt, with the first clear evidence dating from 2,000 years B.C. French researchers writing in Science magazine show that the process actually began much earlier than that. The evidence comes from the Neolithic, or late stone age, village of Shillourokambos on Cyprus, which was inhabited from the 9th to the 8th millennia BC.

The cat is buried together with its "master", 3D reconstruction of the Early Aceramic Neolithic grave of Shillourokambos. Vigne, J.-D., Guilaine, J., Debue, K., Haye, L., and P. Gérard (2004), “Early taming of the cat in Cyprus,” Science, 304 (9 April 2004).

At the end of the 1980’s, the discovery of the jawbone of a cat on the island of Cyprus, at Khirokitia, in sediment from the Neolithic Age dating from more than 6,000 years B.C., had already suggested that the domestication of this species could have begun earlier and elsewhere than in Egypt.  The distance of the island of Cyprus from the continent and the absence of a local feline species during the Neolithic Age clearly implied that Neolithic populations had voluntarily introduced the animal to the island. 

Digs at the site of Shillourokambos, led by Jean Guilaine under the direction of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus and the French School of Athens, have recently unearthed a burial site in which a cat and a human are associated.  It dates from 7,500 to 7,000 B.C. Not only is it older by almost one thousand years than the first evidence of the presence of the cat in Cyprus, but it leaves no doubt as to the existence of a strong association between humans and cats as of that time, at least at the symbolic level. The cat buried with the human was approximately eight months old and had almost reached its adult size.  The morphology of the skeleton suggests that it was a big cat, similar to wild cats found in the Near East today. The morphological modifications of the skeleton associated with domestication are not yet visible, justifying the use of the term “tamed”, rather than “domesticated”.

“This particular relationship between humans and cats could have begun at the very beginning of agriculture, when cats were attracted into the villages because mice came to eat the stored grain”, explains Jean-Denis Vigne.

The complete body of the animal was buried in a small pit at about twenty centimeters from the human grave. The tomb, particularly rich in offerings in comparison to other graves known from this period in Cyprus, suggests that the individual had a special social status. Τhis grave certainly bears witness to relationships between humans and cats in the 8th millennium B.C., not restricted to the material benefit of humans but also involved in spiritual links.

Photo of the discovery.

Domestication and taming 

Archaeozoologists generally use the word domestication when they have good evidence for morphological modifications such as the decrease of the general size or the shortening of the face and tooth raw. However, morphological modifications may not appear for some considerable time after the original association with man. We use the term ‘taming’ for the early history of the domestic cat when no morphological modification is visible. In addition this term, which has also been used by Malek for the same stage of domestication, fits well the status of cat as an ‘exploiting captive’. Cultural situation of Shillourokambos. The cultural characters of the late 9th millennium Shillourokambos archaeological assemblages are very similar to those of the mainland for the same period. Indeed, it has now been established that Cyprus was settled by Neolithic farmers from the continent who brought with them both crops and herds.

Brief description of the human burial 

The sub-circular (55 x 60 cm) grave was situated in the upper part of the archaeological deposits, just under the 25/30 cm thick arable ploughed earth. It had been dug into the remains of a mud building which dates to the middle phase of the occupation of Shillourokambos. It contained the complete skeleton in primary position of a human of 30 years of age or older; the body, which had partly collapsed during decomposition, had probably been buried in a bag, in a semi-sitting position, facing West; the arms were crossed against the chest and his legs completely folded. The list of the ten ceremonial items is as follows: a marine shell, a stone pendant, a very uncommon discoid flint scraper, two small polished axes (one of them broken), a pumice stone, a fragment of ochre, a large flint piercing tool, and several non-retouched flint blades and bladelets. This is the only burial with such a high number of offerings for the whole Preceramic and Aceramic Neolithic in Cyprus.

Vigne, J.-D., Guilaine, J., Debue, K., Haye, L., and P. Gérard (2004), “Early taming of the cat in Cyprus,” Science, 304 (9 April 2004).

Description of the cat grave and skeleton 

The grave was oval (43 x 25 cm) and ca. 15cm deep. It was dug into and filled with the same archaeological layer as the human burial, at the same level and 20 cm away from its southeastern edge. A small asymmetric mound of sediment all along the North edge of the grave was probably composed of the packed down-products of the excavation of the grave, attesting man-made excavation. The cat skeleton was complete, except the last lumbar vertebra, sacrum, pelvis, possible baculum, tail bones and a few elements of the limb extremities. The missing parts were all situated at the highest level, suggesting that the complete body had been buried and that the uppermost parts were destroyed by ploughing; the skeleton laid on its left side, the head to the West and the back to the South, i.e., in the same orientation as that of the human skeleton; the head was bent backwards in relation to the neck; fore and rear limbs were grouped under the stomach, respectively backwards and forwards stretched, but the removal of the limb extremities precludes any explanation to this peculiar arrangement. The finds have been withdrawn as a block, for laboratory excavation and casting. The entire skeleton was articulated, a small amount of movement to the anatomical arrangement being due to collapse during the decomposition process. There is no indication about the origin of the death. Microscopic examination did not reveal any cut or burn marks. The absence of significant quantities of sediments between the right and left rib series indicates that the thoracic cavity had not been opened before the burial.

Though severely damaged, the skull was sufficiently well preserved to allow a good determination of the species among the different small felids of Western Asia, according to the morphological criteria which allow clear-cut distinctions between them. Lengths of the limbs long bones are much larger than the ones of historical and present-day domestic cats

(Source: “Early taming of the cat in Cyprus”, by J.-D. Vigne, J. Guilaine, K. Debue, L. Haye & P. Gérard)

3D reconstruction of Shillourokambos site.