New find shows animal life may have existed millions of years before previously thought

Simple animal life may have existed in Earth’s oceans 890 million years ago, according to new research.

Recently discovered fossils belonging to ancient sponges might be the earliest known remnants of an animal body and pre-date other sponge fossils by 350 million years.

Elizabeth Turner, a professor of paleontology and sedimentary geology at Laurentian University in Ontario, discovered what she believes are possibly the fossilized structures of sponges that once existed in reefs millions of years ago. They were found in rock samples in northwestern Canada.

A study on Turner’s findings published Wednesday in the journal Nature.

Little is known about the earliest days of animal life’s emergence on Earth because the fossil record is sparse. While scientists have used genetic evidence to suggest that sponges first appeared between 541 million and 1,000 million years ago during the early Neoproterozoic era, the lack of fossilized sponges has created a knowledge gap. Turner’s discovery may help fill that gap and provide a glimpse into the earliest marine animal life on Earth.

“I serendipitously came across a few very rare examples of the material during my unrelated PhD research, long ago, on fossil microbial reefs,” Turner said. “When I became a professor and had my own grants, I was able to return to the field sites and collect more material so that I had a more robust collection to work from.”

What she found in the ancient rock samples were fossilized structures that resembled the skeletons like those that exist within horny sponges – the kind you use for a bath sponge. Horny sponges, also called modern keratose demosponges, have a skeleton with three dimensional branching made of a tough organic substance called spongin.

The branched networks of tube-shaped structures were covered by mineral calcite crystal. These also appeared similar to structures found in calcium carbonate rocks that were likely created when horny sponge bodies decayed.

“This organic skeleton is very characteristic and there are not known comparable structures,” said Joachim Reitner, a professor in the University of Goettingen’s department of geobiology who reviewed Turner’s study ahead of publication.

Life as an ancient sponge

The ancient sponges lived in “shadowy nooks and crannies” on and below large reefs made from water-dwelling bacteria that were photosynthesising, or converting light energy into chemical energy.

“They may well have hunkered down and lived a sweet life without having to evolve much for a few hundred million years,” Turner said.

The “oxygen oasis” and potential food sources produced by the bacteria would have been a Goldilocks spot for the sponges.

These sponges appeared 90 million years before events thought necessary to support the appearance and diversification of animal life.

About 800 million years ago, Earth’s oxygen levels increased during what scientists refer to as the Neoproterozoic oxygenation event, when there was a substantial boost in the amount of oxygen in the oceans and atmosphere.

The sponges may have been tolerant of low oxygen levels, so what was provided by the bacteria could have been enough.

Then, there were also the Cryogenian glacial episodes, during which much of Earth likely experienced severe ice ages between 635 million and 720 million years ago. The sponges weren’t likely affected by this either.

The finding in Turner’s paper “is a milestone in the understanding” of the animal family tree and reveals that the origin of it was much earlier than previously thought, Reitner said.

The animal life timeline

Many fossils can be dated back to the Cambrian explosion, a period 540 million years ago when diverse animal life flourished on the planet, according to David Bottjer, professor of Earth sciences, biological sciences and environmental studies at the University of Southern California. Bottjer was not involved in this study.

“The fossil record of animal life is something that many people are interested in and in particular, when animals first evolved on Earth,” he said. “The big discussion has been, was there animal life in a significant way in the pre-Cambrian before the Cambrian explosion or not.”

Researchers use two data sources to address these, he said. One is the fossil record. Then, there are molecular clocks, which are used to help scientists estimate how evolution has occurred in different organisms over time. The idea is that DNA evolves at a constant rate within organisms and genetic evidence can fill the gaps where the fossil record is sparse or entirely bare.

“This molecular clock approach says that animals were on Earth a good deal earlier than the Cambrian,” Bottjer said.

Previously, many scientists believed spicules – the mineralized skeletal structure of sponges – were needed to show the existence of sponges. But some sponges don’t have mineralized skeletons.

If complexly structured and diverse fossils are appearing in the rock record during and before the Cambrian period, it suggests that animals had to evolve ahead of that, Turner said.

This also suggests a time when animals existed, but were not well preserved or preserved at all – prior to skeletons, shells and exoskeletons, Turner said. She understands that the earlier timeline suggested by her research “may be a little alarming for some researchers.”

Bottjer thinks Turner has authored “a very well-founded paper.” He also acknowledges that her findings will certainly ignite discussion among researchers.

“I tell my students that all pre-Cambrian fossils are disputed by somebody because it’s very early in evolution,” Bottjer said. “These animals commonly don’t have all the features that they evolve later on so it can be a little tricky. I look forward to seeing what the response is, but it’s I think it’s a very strong case.”

What isn’t surprising is that the earliest evolutionary animals were probably sponge-like, Turner said. Sponges are simple, basic animals with a long history in the fossil record, and prior research suggests they likely appeared around this time.

Investigating the distant past

Now, Turner wants to investigate when sponges actually emerged if they were already present 890 million years ago.

“The early evolution of animals remains murky, regardless of what I have to offer in this paper,” she said. “What is needed is a lot of really focused work on very thoughtfully chosen rocks of the same age, as well as younger and older rocks, to look for other possible physical evidence of early animals – sponge-like and possibly other more complex types of animals.”

She also suggests keeping an open mind during the search. When it comes to early animal life, researchers really have no idea what they will find.

Turner also said the current academic standard and research grant system is less supportive of the type of time-consuming work, often resulting in unpublishable findings, that will be required to thoroughly understand and investigate the rock record of early animal evolution.

“If we find ourselves looking for something that looks familiarly animal-ish, we will fail, because the familiar is too complex for the earliest animals,” she said. “We need to do some real soul-searching about what early animal preservation might have been like.”

This research could even help in the search for life beyond our planet. While the Perseverance rover searches for evidence of ancient microbial life on Mars in an ancient lake bed, the ancient rock record on Earth could help scientists spot intriguing targets.

“If we’re going to find things on other planets, it’s probably going to be more like the pre-Cambrian stuff than something that is a million years old and has mammoth bones in it,” Bottjer said.

Preserved synthrona of early Christian churches reminiscent of ancient Greek theaters

The ancient Greek theater, before it developed into a Hellenistic entertainment event and then into a Roman arena with beast battles, duels and bloody killings of innocent people to the delight of the enraged citizens of the Roman decadence, had a ritualistic and educational character.

Aeschylus gave to theater its character with the scenery, dialogues and extras and later, after Aristophanes it was desanctified. However, it still had a didactic character.

The early Christian churches on the contrary, the Churches with synthrona clearly had influences from the ancient theater and the Ecclesia of Demos. But it is also possible that its ritual, by Greek scholars and Greek-studied Christian philosophers, may have direct influences from ancient rituals.

---

These are some photos of preserved synthrona of early Christian churches:

Agios Nikolaos, Demre, modern Turkey.

---

Agia Irini, Constantinople, modern Turkey

---

Hagia Sophia, Nice, modern Turkey

---

Amoria, modern Turkey

Thessaloniki, Greece: The oldest mosaic floor with a representation of a palm tree in Europe will be located at the metro station Sidrivani

A richly decorated vine branch with grapes, in between sparrows eating the fruit or playing with the leaves, and in the center the mythical phoenix bird with halo and 13 rays on its head. This representation adorns the mosaic floor of a one-room cemetery church from the 5th AD Century, so far the oldest in Thessaloniki and the only one in Europe with a representation of a palm tree on the floor.

The mosaic floor was located under the sanctuary of the small church from the beginning of the 5th century AD, on which was built around the middle of the same century the three-nave basilica found during the excavations at the Sidrivani metro station in front of the building of the Theological School of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.

The excavator of the basilica, professor of Byzantine archeology and art at AUTH, Melina Paisidou, says that "the palm tree as a central and dominant theme within a tendril surrounded by animals has no other equivalent on a mosaic floor in the European area".

Ms. Paisidou's many years of research have shown that floor mosaics with a palm tree are found in the Temple of the Holy Martyrs in Hama, Syria (442 AD), in the Temple of Umm Jerar in Gaza (6th cent. Century AD) in the Justinian Basilica of Savatra in Tripolitida (Libya), while corresponding mosaics have been found in the Arch of St. Peter in the Vatican and in sarcophagi from the 3rd and especially the end of the 4th century AD from the Vatican necropolis.

A representation of a palm tree is also found in the dome of the Rotunda in Thessaloniki, in the glorification of Christ, in a composition with concentric circles filled with plants and fruits, a rainbow and a starry sky surrounding the figure of Christ as an allegory of paradise. Of the depiction in the Rotunda, only the head of the phoenix with the nine-rayed halo and the beginning of its neck have survived. This has been called the only known representation of a palm tree in the Greek area. But the idea of the mosaic on the floor of the three-aisled basilica at the metro station Sidrivani, changes the facts.

"The palm tree, symbolizing immortality, incorruption and rebirth, with the halo on its head symbolizes Christ and is combined in the mosaic floor with the soteriological and Eucharistic content of the vine, which acts as a condition of immortality through the Holy Eucharist. Paradise is represented by the depiction of birds among the leaves, while the pecking of the grapes represents a participation in the Holy Eucharist," says Ms. Paisidou. According to her, 7 sparrows were found, but she estimates that there were 12 in total, as many as the Apostles.

Moreover, according to Ms. Paisidou, "the regenerative power of the phoenix, which is reborn from its ashes, and the uniqueness of its status led it to become a symbol of the eternal power of the Roman emperors. That is why the phoenix is depicted on Roman coins, namely on earlier coins from the Antonine era, but also on coins of the first Byzantine emperors of the 4th century, such as Constantine, Constantius II, Valentinian II and Theodosius I."

The myth of the palm tree contains common elements with the birth, death and resurrection of Jesus, while the bird's last appearance on earth, as noted in a Coptic text from the first half of the 6th century, coincides with the time of Christ's birth. The phoenix with its radiant halo, depicted on tombs of the first Christian centuries, symbolizes the victory of life over death and the bliss of heavenly life.

The sword of the Gothic warrior

The mosaic floor was found in the sanctuary of the one-room church of the cemetery, where seven tombs were excavated, including that of the Gothic warrior, who was buried with all his weapons, as part of the shield, the spearhead and his sword were found folded in half, as he would no longer use them. The custom of the folded (not broken) sword is known in Western Europe, but was found for the first time in Thessaloniki and in Macedonia in general, according to Ms. Paisidou and her partner, Errikos Maniotis.

As to the question of what a Gothic warrior was doing in Thessaloniki, the sources provide an answer: by the time of Theodosius II, in the middle of the 5th century - exactly as the tomb was chronologically placed, between 430 and 450 AD - Gothic mercenaries had settled in Thessaloniki and the wider Balkan region to protect the borders of the empire from enemy raids. In fact, especially in Thessaloniki, the Goths are associated with the bloodshed and the great massacre of 7,000 Christians in the Hippodrome in 390 AD.

In the bowels of the metro the three-aisled basilica

The one-room cemetery church from the beginning of the 5th century was destroyed and on its foundations, in the middle of the same century, the three-aisled basilica was built, with a visible length of 13.50 meters and a total width of 16 meters, belonging to the small basilicas. The impressive mosaic was kept at the base of the sanctuary, as it was considered a great work of art. Over the years, the temple was renovated twice, while in the 7th century it was destroyed either by Arab-Slavic raids or - most likely - by an earthquake, and finally, sometime in the 8th-9th century, it was abandoned.

"The location of the church, its early age, its duration and its repeated renovations make it one of the most important ecclesiastical institutions of Thessaloniki in the first millennium. It is possible that its construction is related to one of the famous Thessalonian martyrs of the persecution under Maximian and Diocletian. The gradual development of the building and the large adjoining rooms could also indicate a monastic institution of early Byzantine Thessaloniki," says Ms. Paisidou.

To whom was this temple dedicated? Research has not yet yielded any results on this question. The testimony of the French traveler Paul Lucas is considered quite serious, when in 1714, while walking in front of the Kassandreotiki Gate(or else Gate of Rome or Kalamaria Gate) and among the monuments, he saw the site of the once beautiful church of Agios Georgios, of which only 10 or 12 columns remain. In today's archaeological excavation, only the bases of the columns were uncovered, and according to Ms. Paisidou, this is "a charming hypothesis".

The archaeologists excavated, photographed and recorded the three-aisled basilica, for which the Central Archaeological Council had originally decided to move it to the AUTH campus, but a later decision gave it the green light to bury both the church and the seven tombs.

However, all the movable finds have been excavated, preserved and are on display in one of the museums being built for the metro's antiquities. Among them is the mosaic floor with the unique representation of the palm tree, which will be brought back to life.

This is the Trophy of the battle of Marathon

It is dated to 470-460 BC.

In September 490 BC, on the plain of Marathon, 10,000 Athenians and 1,000 of their allies from the Boeotian city-state of Plataea, under the command of General Miltiades, fought and defeated the army of the powerful Persian Empire. The battle led to the ignominious end of the first Persian attempt to subjugate Greece under the rule of Darius I.

On the column was probably placed the statue of Victory, in bigger size than natural and with lively movement.

According to ancient custom, the Athenians erected a wooden trophy on the battlefield, from which they hung the Persians' spoils of arms.

A few years later it was replaced by a monumental trophy made of white marble to commemorate the great victory over the Persians. On the column was probably placed the statue of Victory, in bigger size than natural and with lively movement.

Part of the Trophy is now exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Marathon, while a copy of it is placed near its original location in Panagia Mesosporitissa.

View fullsize

View fullsize

The Trophy was restored in 2004, preserving parts of the column and the capital. In 2016, the capital was completed by Professor Manolis Korre with two parts of the suffix.

You could visit the permanent exhibition of the Archaeological Museum of Marathon, where the history of the region from prehistoric to Roman times is presented through finds from the prehistoric cemeteries of Vrana and Tsepi, the burial mounds of the Athenians and Plataeans who fought against the Persians in the Battle of Marathon (490 BC).

Why Alexander the Great Abandoned the Proposal to Plan a City on Mount Athos?

---

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

---

The Vision Unfulfilled: Alexander the Great and the Unbuilt City on Mount Athos

In the annals of history, few figures loom as large as Alexander the Great, whose conquests reshaped the ancient world. Equally ambitious were his architectural and urban projects, which aimed to immortalize his legacy in stone and mortar. Among the most intriguing of these was a proposal to construct a city on Mount Athos in Greece (now an important center of Eastern Orthodox monasticism). The story of why this project was abandoned offers a fascinating glimpse into the practical considerations that underpinned even the grandest visions of antiquity.

Deinokrates the Rhodian, a renowned architect of the 4th century BC and a technical advisor to Alexander, is known for his significant contributions to ancient architecture. His works include the planning of Alexandria, the funeral pyre of Hephaestion, and the reconstruction of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. However, his proposal for a city on Mount Athos stands out for its audacity and the rationale behind its rejection.

The Proposal

When Alexander sought a location for a new city that would bear his name and reflect his greatness, Deinokrates proposed Mount Athos, a site known for its majestic natural beauty and strategic location. The plan was not merely to build a city but to carve Alexander's effigy into the mountain, creating a monument of unparalleled scale. This effigy would depict Alexander holding a city in one hand and pouring water from a bottle with the other, symbolizing his dominion over both land and sea.

In the only surviving architectural treatise from antiquity, Vitruvius mentions Deinokrates for conceptualizing the carving of one side of Mount Athos with the colossal effigy of Alexander the Great embracing a small town (10,000 residents) with one hand, holding a bottle with the other, and pouring water into a river while touching the sea with his feet.

"I," he said, "have thought, O King, to entrust the image of your body to an incorruptible and living substance, which has eternal foundations and an immovable and unshakable weight. This is Mount Athos in Thrace, where it has its greatest volume and rises most prominently and has a symmetrical height and width and rocky areas and intervals of some form. Athos is strong in the art of processing and transformation, it shall be called Alexander's statue and be his true statue, which will touch the sea with his feet, embrace and support with one hand a city that can hold 10,000 inhabitants. With his right hand holding a bottle, he shall pour libations over the entire river that flows ceaselessly and pours into the sea in honor of the gods. Let’s abandon the idea of the gold and the copper and the ivory and the wooden and colored works, which are easily stolen."

The Rejection

Alexander's decision to abandon this grandiose plan was rooted in practicality. Deinokrates, for all his architectural genius, had overlooked the essential needs of the city's future inhabitants. The rugged terrain of Mount Athos was unsuitable for agriculture, making it impossible to grow grain or sustain a population. All necessities would have to be transported by sea, a logistical challenge that would undermine the city's viability. In contrast, the site chosen for Alexandria in Egypt offered fertile land, access to the Mediterranean, and the potential for a thriving urban center.

The Legacy of Deinokrates

Despite the non-realization of the Athos project, Deinokrates's legacy is cemented through his other works. Alexandria, in particular, stands as a testament to his vision, with its innovative grid layout, sophisticated water supply, and drainage systems. These contributions exemplify the blend of artistic vision and engineering prowess that characterized Hellenistic urban planning.

Deinocrates, in collaboration with Paionius and Demetrius, rebuilt the Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, which had been destroyed by Herostratus on July 21, 356 BC, the day on which, it is said, Alexander the Great was born.

Reflections

The tale of the unfinished city on Mount Athos serves as a reminder that even in antiquity, practical considerations limited the most ambitious plans. Alexander's empire was built on the twin pillars of visionary ambition and pragmatic governance. The decision to prioritize the needs of his people over architectural marvels reflects a leader who understood the importance of sustainable development.

Moreover, Deinokrates's proposal, though never realized, speaks to the human desire to leave a lasting mark on the world. The project envisioned for Mount Athos was not just an architectural endeavor but a symbol of the intersection between nature, divinity, and human achievement. It encapsulates a moment when ambition brushed against the limits of feasibility, leaving behind a tale that continues to inspire and caution future generations.

In September 2015, after the presentation of the results of the excavation team of the Kasta Tomb based on the research carried out from 2012 to 2014, it was announced that the monument was built by order of Alexander the Great, and the builder was Deinokratis.

In sum, the unbuilt city on Mount Athos serves as a poignant narrative of ambition, practicality, and the enduring quest for immortality through architecture. It reminds us that history is not just a record of what was built but also of what could have been, offering lessons that resonate far beyond the ancient world.

Plato's cave, one of the most pictorial metaphors of all times

Here is a view of the human condition.

People sit in a dark cave, watching the shadows that fall on the walls, and believe they are seeing reality.

If you take one of these people and lead him outside in broad daylight, he will be temporarily blinded by the light and see nothing. But then he will look around, see the real world, and even see the source of the light: the sun.

But when this man returns to the cave and tries to explain the truth to the inhabitants, they will not only laugh at him, they will kill him.

This is Plato's cave, one of the most dramatic and remarkable metaphors of all time. It is not so difficult to decipher it.

The inhabitants of the cave are the uneducated masses, the shadows are concrete material, temporal objects and not the eternal, universal values.

The one who steps out of the cave is the philosopher, the sun is good, the source of all truth, and the death at the end is an allusion to the execution of Socrates, whom Plato describes as the narrator of the allegory, thus foreshadowing his death.

The moral lesson is that the reward of philosophy is not fame, honor, and fortune.

Do not be comforted by the thought that the cavemen of today are only those who sit absorbed in front of the television.

It is not easy to escape from Plato's cave. Not only artists, but also natural scientists, in Plato's opinion, do not concern themselves with the really great things. This brings us to the following question: if Plato's truth lies outside the material world, does it exist?

If you live in a cave, think again before you come out. You will never be able to go back.

Journey to Delphi, the navel of the Earth

The viewer of the new interactive tour through the Sanctuary of Delphi, created by the cultural center "Hellenic World'', is first asked if he has ever been to the "navel of the earth" as a visitor. The answer is given by pressing the corresponding button on the seat of the "Dome", the hemispherical virtual reality theater of the "Hellenic World" where the tour is presented, and frankly, it doesn't really matter what one answers. Because whether he has set foot in Delphi or not, he will be taking a complete virtual journey for young and old through the space and time of the Delphic sanctuary and oracle, which for centuries was a cult center and a symbol of the unity of the ancient Greek world.

The start is as it would have been in ancient times: from the meeting point of the religious processions at the beginning of the "Sacred Road", the central axis of the Sanctuary of Delphi. Citizens, princes and representatives of entire cities marched on it, especially from the 6th to the 4th century BC, when the Delphic Oracle was in its heyday, who had come to ask for an oracle and who expressed their gratitude to Apollo with impressive offerings.

These tributes have survived only in the descriptions of Pausanias, on which the interactive tour of the "Hellenic World '' at Delphi is based (as well as on the excavation results). And as it turns out, they were brilliant votive offerings: The bronze bull that the Corfu citizens dedicated to their god after a great fishing success in 480 B.C., the 37 statues with which the Spartans commemorated their victory over the Athenians at Aigos Potamos in 405 B.C., the statue of the Trojan Horse that the Argeans commissioned in 414 B.C. to commemorate their victorious battle with the Spartans at Therea, they are depicted here in all their glory with the help of technology.

"Now let us turn our gaze to the left," exhorts through the microphone the "Hellenic World" museum educator who has taken over the live "guided tour" of Delphi, asking educational questions to encourage audience participation. What is seen now is the "Treasure of the Sifneans", one of the most magnificent and decorated buildings of the Sanctuary of Delphi, which served as the treasury of the inhabitants of Sifnos and their own offerings.

The best preserved part of the building is the north side of the frieze, where the giant battle is depicted. However, with the help of virtual reality, it is possible to see the other representations of the frieze, such as the Judgment of Paris or the Abduction of the Leucippids, in their true colors. In the corresponding building in Athens, the "Treasury of the Athenians", the viewer has the opportunity to enter the interior and admire a variety of vases, weapons and other tributes, while another impressive Athenian votive, the "Stoa of the Athenians", is also presented in its original form.

Encounter with Pythia

And when you come to the temple of Apollo, when you "look" at the bronze statue of the god (dedicated to him by the Greeks after the naval battle of Salamis) up close, when you "marvel" at the tripod of Plataea (which was transferred to Constantinople in 324 AD ), when you admire the column with the dancers, the Sphinx of the Naxians and some other important monuments, above all, when you enter the sanctuary of the temple (leaving behind the inscriptions with the sayings of the seven sages of antiquity or the mysterious Delphic "E" in the Pronaos), when you "meet" Pythia and hear a taste of her oracles, you now feel, as far as technology allows, all of Delphi before your eyes.

The ancient theater is depicted in great detail, and the view of the Delphic landscape from its upper part is magnificent. In that way the virtual reality presented in the previous 40 minutes ends, for which a team of 3D modelers, programmers, archeologists, but also the executive director of the Greater Hellenism Foundation and head of its research and science programs, Dimitris Efraimoglou, were responsible.

The world of Greek clay figurines

For centuries in ancient Greece, figurines were made of baked clay, as it was one of the most malleable and cheapest materials. But for a long time they were considered insignificant mass products. The special exhibition "Perfection and mass - The world of Greek clay figurines" ("Klasse und Masse. Die Welt griechischer Tonfiguren") at the internationally renowned "Altes Museum" in Berlin puts the spotlight on the often underrated clay and an equally undervalued art form. The focus is on the richness of colorful figural representation as well as the production, use and reception of ancient clay figurines. It ties them back into the historical context of their use, opening up a new perspective in scholarly research for the organizers.

The 56 selected figurines, which will be shown together with other individual objects that have rarely or never been exhibited before, such as ceramic and marble statuettes, come from the famous "Collection of Antiquities" (Antikensammlung) of the National Museums in Berlin. It is a collection of ancient Greek, Roman and Etruscan works comparable to those of the Louvre and the British Museum, surpassed only by their counterparts in Italy and Greece, according to the newspaper "Die Welt". The entire "Collection" was exhibited for the first time in 72 years in 2011 in the "Old Museum" which was renovated after the reunification of Germany, as it preceded the Second World War, the transfer to the Soviet Union and the return to what was then East Berlin. The exhibits provide an overall picture of the diverse world of ancient clay figurines and illuminate many aspects of everyday life in ancient Greece.

Clay was used in antiquity not only for the mass production of figurines accessible to the common people, but also for individual, colorful figurines that were very elaborately crafted. These benches were also popular among the ancient social elite. Among them are unique pieces of great value, as evidenced by the impressive "Venus of Haile" (140 BC) found in Myrina in Ionia. The famous clay statuette was acquired in 1930 by the Maican Maximilian von Heil and is considered the masterpiece of the "Old Museum". It depicts the goddess in a garment that glides over her body with incomparable elegance. The former "Queen of Prussia", as the "Süddeutsche" newspaper described her in its first report twelve years ago, is missing the ends of her arms and one leg.

From the 7th century BC, the potters increasingly used hollow molds of fired clay with which they could produce an entire series of similar figures. Their partial use for the head or the body led to numerous combinations and variations. Each finished mold could in turn serve as a die for another generation of figurines. With the help of molds, they could be easily copied or distinguished from each other. However, this technique was used not only to produce mass figures, but also unique figures of very high quality.

In 1870, ancient clay figurines called "Tanagraia", were found near Tanagra, elegant and colorful figurines of young women with artfully folded clothing, mostly tunic and robe, which made this genre famous and established a real fashion. The depictions of mostly young women and their clothing corresponded to the taste of the European bourgeoisie of the time and quickly replaced the then popular - also small - porcelain figurines as decorative elements in living and dining rooms, as the bourgeoisie saw in the figures an equivalent to them. On the art market, the Tanagraia reached top prices, but they eventually ended up in museums. Among them were many fakes, and it was not until the end of the 20th century that scientific research was able to clarify which ones were genuine. In the 19th century, clay figurines were downgraded to mere decorative elements, but artistically some of them could definitely compete with small sculptures. Some from the Hellenistic period, according to experts, even reach the perfection of large sculpture. The masterful figures of Tanagra and Myrin date from this period.

Today, they also impress with their intense colors, some of which are amazingly well preserved and give an impression of the color spectrum that also dominated sculpture. In the 4th century BC, the color palette was expanded, and expensive colors such as blue and gold were used, as well as pastel shades such as pink and light green. From the 3rd century BC, pastel colors predominated, while some particularly important ones were additionally gilded. Their color spectrum changed over the centuries: before the 5th century BC, they preferred clear and bright colors such as red and yellow, but then potters also experimented with shades and light reflections. In painting, garments were highlighted and details or features of the figures were emphasized. Observing such details also makes it possible to reconstruct the lost colors of the marble sculptures, since the ancient colorings in them are rarely preserved as well as in the clay statuettes.

We now know that many of them also played an important role in the daily life of people in ancient Greece, providing us with important information, from social norms to religious beliefs. The scenes and motifs depicted seem almost taken from real life and had important functions in many aspects of life. From myths to bread baking, a variety of subjects were recorded in clay. Findings in tombs, shrines, and houses indicate that the figures were used for very different reasons. Many of them played an important role in religious worship, being consecrated to shrines on certain occasions in life: in the case of women, for example, on the occasion of their marriage and motherhood. In private houses they were placed as part of a domestic cult for the protection of the family. In necropolises, they were found mainly in the tombs of young people as substitutes for objects that would have been consecrated to the gods during ceremonies marking important milestones on the way to adulthood. The function and meaning of the figurines in this context is still being intensively researched.

Archeologist Discover What's Inside the Temple of The Forgotten Pharoah Djeser Djeseru

Today we'll be exploring the lost temple of The Temple of Forgotten Pharaoh Djeser-Djeseru!

The Temple of Hatshepsut, also known as the Djeser-Djeseru, is an ancient temple complex located in the Deir el-Bahri complex near Thebes (Luxor). It was built for the female pharaoh Hatshepsut, who ruled Egypt during the 18th dynasty in the 15th century BCE. She is notably known as the Forgotten Female Pharaoh who fell victim to Damnatio Memoriae. The temple is known for its striking architecture and intricate reliefs and carvings, and it offers a glimpse into the life and reign of one of ancient Egypt's most powerful and enigmatic rulers.

What recently happened to Lake Mead has shocked scientists

Lake Mead - one of the largest man-made reservoirs in the US and the lifeline for millions of people is unveiling some mysteries. Scientists have recently discovered a shocking fact about this lake, which alarms us. What is it and why should you be worried?

Today we will discuss the recent happening with Lake Mead and its shocking discoveries.

Why Do Some Countries Use Different Calendars?

In this video we will talk about the different calendars that exist throughout the world. We will explain how, in general, calendars are categorized as either being Solar, Lunar, or Lunisolar; with the first being related to the position of the sun, the second related to the position of the moon, and the third related to both.

We list some of the more well known calendars in each of these categories - such as the Chinese calendar, the Hebrew, the Islamic, or the Indian National Calendar - explaining in which circumstances they are used and understanding how most of the world, save a few exceptions, has adopted the Gregorian Calendar as its main civil calendar, using local ones for cultural and religious purposes only.

The History of the Balkans: Every Year

In this video we will be exploring the history of the Balkan Peninsula from 2000 BC to modern times. Enjoy!

What were Ronin?

Ronin (Masterless Samurai) have become a very iconic image of old Japan, yet much of their identity has been romanticized over the years. In this video we dive in and discuss the fascinating truth about what Ronin really were.

Medieval Origins of Ukrainians

In this video we will be investigating the medieval origins of Ukrainians, as we explore how the identity of Ukraine as a nation formed starting with the Kyivan Rus and the kingdom of Ruthenia. We will also talk about the Mongol period.

What Life Was Like for the Mayas

You may have scrolled past one of their haunting, crumbling pyramids in the background of your well-traveled friend's Instagram posts. But chances are, you have no idea what everyday life was really like for the ancient Mayans. From ballgames to body piercings to getting hopped up on chocolate, the ancient Mayan culture has a lot more in common with our world today than you'd probably ever think. Today, we're exploring what life was really like for the ancient Mayans.

What Was Aztec Hygiene Like

The Aztec, a collective of Mesoamericans who thrived from the 14th to the 16th centuries, were the inheritors of ancient cultural traditions from their Olmec, Mayan, and Toltec predecessors. Aztec hygiene practices reflected earlier practice, continuing a dedication to cleanliness and purity.

When Spanish conquerors first encountered the Aztec peoples during the early 16th century, they were amazed by their techniques for keeping themselves and their surroundings clean. A stark contrast to European practices at the time, the Aztec empire went to great lengths to provide clean water to the masses, rid the air of perceived pollutants, and use natural ingredients to promote health and hygiene.

Remains of ‘Big John’, the largest known triceratops, fetch nearly €6.6m

At a Paris auction on 2021, a private, anonymous American collector paid 6.65 million euros ($7.74 million) for the fossilized remains of ‘Big John’. Big John is the largest triceratops dinosaur the paleontologists ever unearthed.

Big John roamed modern-day South Dakota more than 66 million years ago. It got the name after the owner of the land where they discovered the dinosaur’s bones.

“It’s being acquired by an American collector, and that individual is absolutely thrilled with the idea of being able to bring a piece like this to his personal use,” said Djuan Rivers, a representative for the buyer.

They found the first bone from the colossal skeleton, the head alone is 2.62 meters in length and two meters in width

Paleontologists found 60% of the skeleton by 2015. It is a rare feat since the skeleton consists of over 200 fragments. They meticulously put the whole skeleton together piece by piece in Italy to prepare for the Paris auction.

Big John the triceratops

There was a traumatic lesion on the skull. Researchers believe that its cause is that another triceratops hit it from behind.

“The history behind this and the duration of it is absolutely impressive. So to be able to be a part of preserving something of this nature that was actually found in the U.S., in South Dakota, is also something extremely special,” Rivers said.

Then, the name Triceratops means “three-horned face”.

Before commission and other charges, the hammer price at the Drouot auction house was 5.5 million euros. The skeleton was likely to sell between 1.2 and 1.5 million euros, according to Drouot. An unnamed private American bidder bought it.

“It’s a record for Europe,” said auctioneer Alexandre Giquello. He described exponential growth in the relatively new market of dinosaur fossils. “We’re creating a market.”

On 2020, Christie’s auction house in New York sold a Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton for $31.8 million.

What Happened to the Real Life Assassin’s Creed After Battling The Mongols

In this video we will be discussing what happened to the real life Assassin’s Creed after battling the Mongols. Watch for more and enjoy!

Ancient mirror and iron sword found in the 4th century Nara burial mound in Japan

Researchers have unearthed a shield-shaped bronze mirror and massive iron sword in an ancient kofun burial mound here, unprecedented discoveries of their kind in Japan.

The unusually shaped mirror and sword of more than 2 meters were discovered at the Tomiomaruyama kofun, Japan’s largest round kofun, which was created in the second half of the fourth century.

The Nara Municipal Buried Cultural Properties Research Center, which excavates and researches kofun, and the Nara prefectural Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, which assists in the excavation, announced the discoveries on Jan. 25.

The Nara center started excavating the Tomiomaruyama kofun in fiscal 2018.

During the current fiscal year, experts excavated a part of the kofun called "tsukuridashi," which is a projected part in the middle portion of the burial mound, and found a burial facility housing a 5-meter-long wooden coffin.

The experts discovered an iron sword and a bronze mirror in the clay that covered the coffin.

Archaeologists have uncovered a massive burial mound in Siberia, revealing a skeleton buried with gold

A Polish-Russian team unearthed the woman's remains accompanied by a gold pectoral ornament along with a bronze mirror inside a large mound that they believe is 2,500 years old. The ancient tomb also held the remains of five people buried with a treasure trove of grave goods, such as a crescent moon-shaped pendant, bronze mirror and gold earrings. The study was conducted at the archaeological site Chinge-Tey is located in the Touran-Uyuk valley in northern Tuva, a republic in the Asian part of Russia.

The site is called the 'Siberian Valley of the Kings' because of the many large mounds filled with treasures.

The Scythians, an umbrella term for nomadic groups that lived on the steppes between the Black Sea and China from about 800 B.C. to about A.D. 300, created the burial mounds.

On 2021, Polish archaeologists from the Jagiellonian University in Kraków discovered two graves at the site after detecting them through “aerial laser scanning” technology.

The first of these was in the central part of a destroyed, almost completely flattened mound with a diameter of approximately 25 metres.

The mounds were actually built as a wooden burial chamber with solid beams supporting the structure.

Inside the mound, the researchers found two bodies, one of a woman who died at the age of about 50, and the other of a toddler, aged about 2-3 years old.

Archaeologists also discovered gold ornaments, an iron knife and a very well preserved decorated wooden comb.

Dr Łukasz Oleszczak from the Jagiellonian University in Kraków told Science in Poland: “A particularly interesting artefact was a golden pectoral ornament, a decoration hung at the neck in the shape of a sickle or crescent.

Dr Oleszczak stressed that such objects, generally found in mounds from southern Siberia, were almost exclusively discovered in the graves of men.

He added: “They were considered symbols of belonging to a social group, caste, perhaps warriors - in any case, men.

“Its presence in the grave of a woman is a very interesting deviation from this custom.

“This certainly confirms the unique role of the deceased in the community of the Valley of the Kings.”

He also highlighted that the woman was buried in the central part of the tomb, which was located very close to great mound that researchers believed belonged to a nomad prince.

He said: “It seems that, like the others buried in this barrow, she belonged to the prince's entourage”.

According to the researchers, the graves come from the 6th century BCE, when the peoples of Scythian origin lived in these areas.