The Ancient Greek Myth of Soulmates: How We Became Human

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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A Comparative Analysis of Greek Mythology and Biblical Narratives

The notion of a soulmate, a person with whom one forms an unbreakable bond, transcends time and culture, permeating the hearts and minds of individuals across the globe. The belief in this powerful concept is deeply rooted in ancient traditions, prominent among which are the ancient Greek myths and the Judeo-Christian narratives. This article will delve into the parallels between these two significant narratives, namely the Greek myth of Aristophanes and the Biblical story of Adam and Eve.

Aristophanes' Speech in Plato's Symposium: The Greek Myth of Soulmates

Humans were born with two pairs of legs and arms with two faces sprouting from each side of the head. | Photo Credits: Elligold

According to Plato's "Symposium," Aristophanes, the comic playwright of ancient Athens, explained the origin of humanity and the concept of soulmates. In the myth, the first humans were spherical beings, with two sets of human limbs, two faces on opposing sides of a head with two necks, and three genders: male, female, and androgynous, which in Greek literally means "man-woman." The androgynous had both male and female genitalia, while each gender had two sets of genitalia. Males were the children of the Sun, while Women were the children of the Earth. This had something to do with the gender of humans. But androgynous were offspring of the Moon, conceived from the union of the Sun and the earth.

Zeus, the King of the Gods, split these original beings into two as punishment for their hubris, resulting in the humans we are familiar with today. This violent act of separation left humans with a perpetual longing to reunite with their other halves. This yearning, Aristophanes suggests, is what we now refer to as the search for our soulmate.

There was a time when people were extremely strong, brave, and courageous creatures who even dared to threaten the Gods. They made threats to overthrow them, establish themselves as the new gods, and govern in their place. The Gods were forced to respond, and they thought about how to handle the threat posed by humanity as well as what had to be done to bring harmony and balance back into the universe.

Zeus punished man by dividing him into two halves. | Photo Credits: Dreamstime

They considered eradicating all humankind, engaging in combat with them, and killing them with lightning, as they had done with the Titans. Nevertheless, if humanity disappeared, there would also be an end to human sacrifices to the Gods, which was an idea that the Gods did not find at all amusing.

Zeus therefore devised a different solution. The humans would be split in half as a form of retribution for their arrogance and conceit. They would double the human population, which would double the amount of tribute that humans would have to pay to them, in addition to the misery that would result from this. And when they did, all of the people split in half.

These new creatures were wallowing in utter despair, saturated in their suffering and anguish. They were so depressed that they didn't care if they died and went for days without drinking or eating.

Apollo, the god of music, prophecy, healing, and light, could not bear to see them in this state. In order to spare them, he stitched them back together, rebuilt their bodies, and only left the navel as a trace of their former selves. Therefore, humans evolved from being creatures with two faces and two sexes and eight limbs to beings with one face and one sex and two arms and legs. And they had an unquenchable desire for their soul and physical counterpart.

Their soul would want for their soulmate, the other half of their soul, to be entire, just as their physical nature would sense a burning need to be completed by the physical nature of the other sex. The myth further states that when these two halves come together, there will be a silent comprehension of one another, a sense of being connected and being in harmony with one another, and there will be no greater bliss than that.

Imagery describes humans eagerly looking for their soulmates after being separated. Photo Credits: Pinterest

The Creation and Separation of Adam and Eve

The idea that God created androgynous souls—souls that are both male and female—remains prevalent in Theosophy even today. According to other ideas, the souls' division into the two genders may have resulted from either their "separation from God" or the karma they accrued during their time on Earth. In some Theosophical schools, it is taught that after many reincarnations in this world, each soul's half searches for the other. The two halves will unite once more in oneness and return to the Ultimate once their karmic debts have been satisfied and they have been set free.

Genesis, the first book of the Bible, narrates the creation of the world and its first human inhabitants—Adam and Eve. According to the account, God created Adam, the first man, out of the dust of the ground. He was alone, the sole human in the divine blueprint of the Earth. Sensing Adam's loneliness, God decided to make a helper suitable for him.

God caused Adam to fall into a deep sleep, took one of his ribs, and fashioned Eve. This narrative underscores Eve as not merely a separate being but an intrinsic part of Adam, created from his bones and flesh. The implication is profound: Eve was not a distinct entity but a division of a unified whole—paralleling the concept of the soulmate in Greek mythology.

Parallels Between the Two Narratives

Despite the cultural and temporal differences between these narratives, their core themes share fascinating parallels, underscoring the universal longing for connection and unity.

The first parallel can be seen in the nature of separation in both stories. In each case, the separation is inflicted by a higher power—Zeus in Aristophanes' narrative and God in the Genesis account. This introduces the theme of divine intervention in human affairs, emphasizing the gods' role in shaping human destiny.

Secondly, both narratives depict the separation as a form of punishment or remedy for a problem, resulting in a lifelong yearning for reunification. This longing is a driving force that influences human behavior and relationships, instilling a ceaseless quest for wholeness through the discovery of one's "other half."

Lastly, both narratives underscore the concept of unity and complementarity between the separated entities. The Bible account depicts Eve as 'bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh,' indicating her innate connection to Adam. Similarly, the Aristophanic humans sought their other halves to restore their original unified state.

The Greek myth of soulmates and the biblical story of Adam and Eve provide profound insights into the human longing for connection, unity, and completion. While they originate from different cultural contexts, these narratives intersect in their depiction of the separation of original unified entities into halves and the perpetual desire for reunification.

These timeless narratives speak to the intrinsic human yearning for connection, suggesting that the search for a soulmate is more than just a romantic endeavor—it's a spiritual journey towards wholeness and completion. The exploration of these parallels ultimately reveals the universality of human experiences across time and culture, reminding us of our shared longing for love and connection.

The Idalion Tablet: One of the Earliest Known Written Contracts in Europe

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

The fascinating field of archeology continually offers glimpses into our shared past. These windows into bygone eras can take many forms, ranging from monumental structures, intricate artifacts, to small but significant objects. One such object is the Idalion Tablet, an artifact of great importance that has significantly contributed to our understanding of the ancient world.

The Idalion Tablet, found in modern-day Cyprus, is a bronze tablet inscribed with a long and complex legal agreement from the 5th century BC. The intricacy of the text and its condition have positioned it as a critical resource for the study of ancient Cypriot society and language, and it provides valuable information about the political, legal, and social practices of its time.

A peasant from the Cyprus village of Dali first came across the tablet in 1850. It was preserved in the old official treasury of the temple of Athena on the western acropolis of Idalion. Honoré Théodoric d'Albert de Luynes bought it, and in 1862 he gave it to the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. It is currently held in Paris' Cabinet des médailles. The Idalion bilingual was discovered in 1870, but the script was not decoded until later.

 

It has a particularly significant role to play in the history of the Cypriot kingdoms. A reward is given to a family of doctors who provided free medical care for the casualties when the city was besieged by the Persians and the Kitians in 478–470 BC. It is engraved on both sides with a lengthy inscription that records a contract entered into by "the king and the city" and records the contract. It provides information about the socioeconomic and political climate at the time of the war. The combined decision made by the monarch and the populace demonstrates the city's democratic nature, which is based on Greek ideals. It also describes the first known social assistance system.

The Historical Context of Idalion Tablet

The Idalion Tablet was found in the ancient city of Idalion, one of the ten city-kingdoms of Cyprus, during the 1st millennium BC. Idalion flourished thanks to its advantageous geographical location and the rich copper deposits in its vicinity. It was here that the tablet was discovered in the 19th century, revealing a wealth of information about the complex societies that inhabited the area in ancient times.

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The Content of the Idalion Tablet

The Idalion Tablet is written in the Arcadocypriot dialect, a form of the ancient Greek language, providing an invaluable reference for linguistic studies. The script used is the Cypriot syllabary.

The text inscribed on the tablet is a legal contract that outlines the agreement between the city's government and a group of doctors. According to the contract, the city commissioned these physicians to provide medical services to injured workers in the city's copper mines. The agreement specifies the compensation for the doctors and stipulates that they should bear the cost of unsuccessful treatments.

The fact that this agreement was inscribed in bronze, a costly material, underscores its importance. It also indicates the high value ancient Cypriots placed on both legal contracts and medical services, revealing much about their society and civilization.

the Mysterious Cypriot Syllabary

The Cypriot syllabary is a deciphered syllabic script used in Iron Age Cyprus from around the 11th to the 4th centuries BC, with the earliest known example found on a clay tablet dating back to the 11th century BC. The script was deciphered in the 19th century by George Smith due to the Idalion bilingual. The script is descended from the Cypro-Minoan syllabary, which was used on the island during the Late Bronze Age; the latter is thought to have descended from Linear A and unquestionably is a member of the group of Aegean scripts.. Unlike its predecessor, the Cypriot syllabary was deciphered in the 19th century, primarily through its usage in writing the known ancient Greek language in its Arcadocypriot dialect, which was spoken in Cyprus at the time.

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The Cypriot syllabary consists of 56 signs. Each sign generally stands for a syllable in the form of "(consonant) + (vowel)" or "(vowel)", but there are some exceptions to this rule. While the language written in this script was primarily Greek, there were also inscriptions made in the native Cypriot languages, Eteocypriot and Eteo-Cretan. Moreover, a Greek and Eteocypriot bilingual inscription was discovered in Amathus. The Cypriot syllabary was eventually replaced by the Greek alphabet, which was introduced to Cyprus after its annexation by the kingdom of Macedonia in the 4th century BC.

The Significance of the Idalion Tablet

Several factors contribute to the Idalion Tablet's significance in archaeological and historical research.

First, it serves as an important linguistic resource. The tablet is one of the few surviving documents written in the Arcadocypriot dialect, which allows researchers to study the nuances of this ancient form of Greek and its evolution. From its discovery until today, a series of scholars published and commented extensively on its text, thus contributing substantially not only to its interpretation, but also to the development of research on the Cypriot syllabary and the history of ancient Cyprus

Secondly, it offers a unique insight into the legal and social practices of ancient Cypriot society. The content of the contract highlights the organization and structure of their society, shedding light on their legal systems, occupational structure, and social values.

Thirdly, the tablet provides valuable evidence of early medical practice and the role of physicians in ancient societies. The fact that the doctors were held accountable for the effectiveness of their treatments speaks volumes about the sophistication of ancient medical ethics and their progressive approach to patient care.

In conclusion, the Idalion Tablet is not just an artifact; it is a testament to a civilization and its practices, capturing a fragment of the rich tapestry of human history in its inscriptions. This ancient piece of bronze continues to be a crucial link between the present and the past, enlightening scholars and enthusiasts alike with its tale of a bygone era. It stands as a powerful reminder of the complexity of ancient societies, inviting us to delve deeper into our shared past, understand our roots, and comprehend the journey of human civilization.

The Lamp of Aeneas found in Tenea, Greece: What it proves about the city's relationship with Troy

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Tenea: An Ancient City with a Rich History and Mythical Connections

Nestled in the region of Corinthia in southern Greece, the ancient city of Tenea boasts a history that dates back to the Bronze Age. Known for its cultural and historical significance, this enigmatic city has been the subject of archaeological studies for decades. Its origin story, which links Tenea to the Trojan War, has intrigued scholars and history enthusiasts alike. In this article, we will explore the history behind the foundation of Tenea, its discovery by archaeologists, and delve into its possible connections to ancient Troy.

Foundation of Tenea

The foundation of Tenea is steeped in myth and legend. According to ancient Greek tradition, the city was founded by Trojan captives who were brought to the Peloponnese after the fall of Troy. These captives, were given the task by Agamemnon of building a new city, which they named Tenea in honor of the goddess Athena, who was also known as Teneatis.

This origin story, while rooted in myth, is believed to hold some elements of truth. It is thought that Tenea was established during the 12th century BC, around the same time that the Trojan War is thought to have taken place. The city's strategic location, between the ancient cities of Corinth and Mycenae, allowed it to grow and flourish throughout the centuries, becoming a prosperous trade center.

Discovery by Archaeologists

Tenea's ancient ruins remained hidden from the world until the 19th century when the first excavations began. However, it wasn't until the 21st century that the significance of the site started to become clear. In 2013, the archaeologist Eleni Korka led a team of researchers to conduct extensive excavations, unearthing a wealth of artifacts and evidence of ancient life.

The archaeological site spans several acres and includes remnants of ancient houses, tombs, and a theater. The discovery of an ancient cemetery, in particular, provided crucial insights into the lives of the people who once inhabited Tenea. The graves, which date from the 4th century BC to the 4th century AD, contained valuable offerings such as pottery, jewelry, and weapons, indicating the wealth and status of the ancient Teneans.

Clues About Tenea's Connection with Ancient Troy

The mythical connection between Tenea and ancient Troy has long captivated historians and archaeologists. While definitive proof of this connection remains elusive, there are several clues that suggest a strong link between the two cities.

Firstly, the mythological origin story of Tenea's foundation by Trojan captives implies a direct connection to Troy. Additionally, the worship of the goddess Athena Teneatis further strengthens this link, as Athena was the patron goddess of both cities.

Furthermore, during the excavations led by Eleni Korka, a stone inscription was found that bore the name of a Tenean man, Sekoundos. This discovery is significant because the name Sekoundos has a Trojan etymology, suggesting that the Teneans may have maintained their Trojan heritage for centuries after their settlement in Greece.

The Lamp of Aeneas - Tenea Under Roman Rule

There were several items uncovered at Tenea in 2018, including a Roman oil lamp depicting Aeneas leaving Troy holding his aged father Anchises on his shoulder and his younger son Ascanius by the hand. This representation was based on Virgil's epic "The Aeneid". A 500-square-meter complex of Roman baths was discovered during this season's dig at Tenea.

The relationship between the Romans and the Trojans is a captivating aspect of ancient history, blending myth and reality to create a powerful origin story. Despite the geographical and temporal distance between the two civilizations, the Romans viewed the Trojans as their ancestors, forging a connection that shaped the cultural and historical narrative of ancient Rome.

The most famous account of the relationship between the Romans and the Trojans comes exactly from the Roman poet Virgil's epic, the Aeneid. Written during the 1st century BC, the Aeneid recounts the story of Aeneas, a Trojan prince and the son of the goddess Venus (Aphrodite in Greek mythology) and the mortal Anchises. Following the fall of Troy, Aeneas and a group of survivors embark on a journey to find a new homeland.

After many trials and tribulations, Aeneas reaches the Italian peninsula, where he marries the Latin princess Lavinia and establishes the city of Alba Longa. According to the myth, Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome, are direct descendants of Aeneas, thus connecting the Romans to the Trojans through a shared lineage.

The relationship between the Romans and the Trojans held significant political implications. By claiming descent from the Trojans, the Romans could assert their divine lineage and elevate their status among the ancient Mediterranean civilizations. Furthermore, this connection allowed Rome to distance itself from the Greeks, who were often viewed as rivals.

The Roman conquest of Greece began in the 2nd century BC, with the Macedonian Wars marking the beginning of Rome's expansion into the Greek world. By the mid-1st century BCE, Rome had effectively annexed the entirety of Greece, incorporating the region into the Roman Empire as the province of Achaea.

During this time, Tenea's strategic location between Corinth and Mycenae made it an important center for trade and communication. Consequently, the city attracted the attention of the Roman conquerors, who sought to integrate Tenea into their growing empire.

The Roman conquerors brought with them their own customs, beliefs, and practices, which influenced the local culture of Tenea. At the same time, Tenea's unique history and connections to ancient Troy likely intrigued the Romans, who themselves believed in a shared lineage with the Trojans through the myth of Aeneas.

This mutual fascination led to a cultural exchange, with the Romans adopting certain aspects of Tenean culture, and the Teneans integrating Roman practices into their own way of life. For instance, the worship of the goddess Athena Teneatis, which was central to the Tenean religious tradition, may have resonated with the Romans due to their own reverence for the goddess Minerva, the Roman equivalent of Athena.

The city of Tenea experienced a period of transformation under Roman rule, as it adapted to the new political, economic, and cultural landscape. Roman influence in Tenea is evident in the archaeological record, which shows the construction of buildings, infrastructure, and monuments characteristic of Roman architecture.

As part of the province of Achaea, Tenea enjoyed a degree of autonomy, allowing it to maintain its local customs and traditions. The city continued to prosper during the Roman period, benefiting from the extensive trade networks that connected the Roman Empire. The ancient cemetery discovered in Tenea, with its rich grave offerings, provides evidence of the city's wealth and status during this time.

While archaeological evidence has not yet provided conclusive proof of a connection between Tenea and ancient Troy, the tantalizing clues unearthed so far invite further exploration and study. As excavations continue, it is hoped that more insights into the captivating history of this enigmatic city will be revealed.

As Tenea continues to be uncovered and studied, it stands as a testament to the rich cultural and historical tapestry of ancient Greece. Its unique history, which blends myth and reality, serves as a reminder of the complex connections between the ancient civilizations that shaped the world as we know it today.

In the meantime, the archaeological site of Tenea continues to draw visitors from around the world, eager to catch a glimpse of the city's ancient ruins and to uncover the mysteries that still lie buried beneath the earth. The ongoing exploration of Tenea promises to shed new light on the complexities of ancient Greek society and the enduring legacy of the Trojan War. As the story of Tenea unfolds, it enriches our understanding of the past and fuels our curiosity for the secrets that remain to be discovered.

Shaking hands: How the ancient Greeks revolutionized the way people around the world greet each other

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Handshaking is just one of many forms of greeting that have been used throughout history and across cultures. Handshaking, as a form of greeting, has evolved and spread across the globe in various ways. Although the ancient Greeks played a role in popularizing the handshake, many other factors have contributed to its widespread adoption as well.

The origin of handshaking is not precisely known, but it is believed to date back to at least the 5th century BCE in ancient Greece, where it was a symbol of peace, as it showed that neither person was carrying a weapon. Handshaking has been depicted in ancient Greek art, such as on funerary steles and in vase paintings, often showing the gesture between two individuals as a sign of agreement or friendship.

However, other cultures and societies have their own traditional forms of greeting that may predate or have developed independently of the ancient Greek handshake. For example, bowing is a common greeting in many East Asian countries, while the Maori of New Zealand have the hongi, a traditional greeting where they press their noses together.

Over time, handshaking has become a more widely adopted form of greeting, especially in Western societies, but it cannot be solely attributed to the ancient Greeks as the source of this global change.

The Roman Empire, for instance, played a significant role in spreading the handshake. Roman handshakes, however, were slightly different than the Greek version, as they often involved clasping the forearms as a sign of trust and friendship. As the Roman Empire expanded, the custom of handshaking was disseminated to many regions under its control, further popularizing the gesture.

The handshake has also been historically associated with chivalry and courtesy, especially during the Middle Ages. Knights would offer their hand in a handshake to demonstrate that they were not carrying weapons and to show respect to their peers.

In more recent times, the handshake has become a standard greeting in many professional and social settings across the world, particularly in Western cultures. It is often used in business interactions, diplomatic meetings, and social events as a sign of respect and trust. In some cases, the handshake has also developed into more intricate variations, such as secret handshakes used by members of certain groups or organizations.

Despite the popularity of handshaking, different cultures have their own distinct greetings that are deeply rooted in their traditions. For example, the Indian "namaste" involves pressing the palms together in front of the chest with a slight bow, while many Middle Eastern countries practice a combination of handshaking and cheek kissing.

In conclusion, the ancient Greeks contributed to the practice of handshaking, but they did not single-handedly revolutionize the way people greet each other worldwide. The handshake has been influenced by various cultural practices and historical contexts, and it exists alongside many other diverse forms of greeting.

A massive ancient Greek city was discovered submerged in the Aegean Sea

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The Aegean Sea has been home to the remains of a sizable Bronze Age city, according to the Greek Ministry of Culture, Education, and Religious Affairs. The settlement, which is 4,500 years old, spans 12 acres and is made up of towers, ceramics, tools, and other artifacts in addition to stone defense constructions, paved surfaces, walkways, and towers.

A group of researchers from the University of Geneva, the Swiss School of Archaeology, and the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities made the discovery while looking for signs of the oldest community in Europe near Kiladha Bay on the Peloponnese Peninsula, south of Athens. The discovery of the old city is no less noteworthy even though they were hoping to find remnants that go back at least 8,000 years.

historical fortifications

According to Spero News, archaeologists discovered several enormous foundations in the form of a horseshoe near a wall line. These foundations are thought to have been towers used to protect the city. The ruins date back to the Bronze Age, although the construction is distinctive and was unheard of at the time. The foundations, according to Professor Julien Beck of the University of Geneva, are of "huge nature, unseen in Greece till now."

"Our discovery is significant in part because of its size. Over a stone base, there must have been a brick superstructure. The likelihood of discovering such walls underwater is really slim. The facility's exact size is unknown at this time. It is encircled by fortifications, but we don't know why "Beck threw in.

Countless Artifacts

Because of the number and caliber of the objects found, including pottery, red ceramics, stone tools, and obsidian blades from the Helladic Period, Beck indicated that the finding of the ancient city is significant (3200–2050 BC). In fact, they had been practicing at the neighboring Lambayanna beach when they saw pottery fragments, and it was by following the trail of relics that they eventually found the city.

The remains, which Beck has referred to as an "archaeologist's paradise," have yielded a total of more than 6,000 objects. The Cyclades archipelago's island of Milos, which has been inhabited since the third millennium, is thought to have provided the obsidian blades with their volcanic rock source.

According to the International Business Times, the study team is hoping to learn more about trade, seafaring, and daily life during the era thanks to the relics.

The walls that the researchers discovered are contemporaneous with the Giza pyramids, which were constructed between 2600 and 2500 B.C., with the Cycladic civilization (3200 to 2000 B.C.), and with the first Minoans on the island of Crete (2700–1200 B.C.), according to Spero News. They did, however, exist 1,000 years before the Mycenaean culture, which was the first significant Greek civilization (1650–1100 BC).

The team is hoping that additional research at and near Lambayanna will shed light on a complex web of coastal villages spanning the Aegean Sea.

The ancient Greeks arrived in Iceland before the Vikings, according to a new theory

There is currently no conclusive evidence that the ancient Greeks reached Iceland before the Vikings. While there are some interesting similarities between certain aspects of Greek and Icelandic cultures, such as the use of similar symbolism and mythological figures, the archaeological and historical evidence linking the two remains scant.

The idea that the ancient Greeks may have reached Iceland before the Vikings is a relatively recent and controversial theory put forward by a few scholars. However, it is not widely accepted in the academic community, and many archaeologists and historians remain skeptical.

There is certainly evidence that the Vikings were the first Europeans to establish a permanent settlement in Iceland, which they did in the late 9th century AD. They called the island "Ísland," which means "land of ice," and went on to create a unique culture that blended Norse, Celtic, and other influences.

The Slendingabók (The Book of the Icelanders), which was composed around 1130, is the oldest known written work.

Landnámabók is another intriguing source from the 12th century (The Book of Settlements).

According to the Icelandic Book of Settlements the island's first permanent resident was a Norwegian named Ingólfr Arnarson, who arrived there in 874.

At a place called Reykjavk, he constructed a house for himself and his wife, Hallveig Fródadóttir.

He was a farmer when more than 400 settlers arrived in Iceland to claim a portion of the land, bringing with them their family, servants, and enslaved people.

Although some arrived from other Nordic nations and the Norse Viking Age settlements in the British Isles, the majority of the inhabitants came from Norway.

The idea that ancient Greeks arrived in Iceland before the Vikings and Norse people has drawn the attention of more and more academics.

This notion is based on the writings of Pytheas of Massilia (350–285 B.C. ), who wrote about his expedition to the Arctic and mentioned a strange land in the north that is now known as Thule.

Greek adventurer, geographer, and astronomer Pytheas is today regarded as the first scientist to have explored and written about the Arctic, polar ice, and Celtic and Germanic people.

In addition to being an excellent astronomer, Pytheas was the first to describe the Midnight Sun to the world.

The stories of Pytheas were rejected for generations, but the concept of Thule sparked the curiosity of those who yearned to know more about this enigmatic region in the North.

"Since classical times, Thule marked the imaginative horizon of the unknown North, first described by Pytheas of Massalia, who in the third century B.C. reported on a strange place far north ('six days sail north of Orcades') where the sun would never set in the summer and where the ocean was solid frozen. Nobody knows for sure how far north Pytheas went himself and how much he relied on secondary knowledge in his own (lost) descriptions of this place." 

Pytheas claimed that people he named the Hyperboreans lived in Thule.

He added that they reside on an island in Britain's north.

It is a location that is "beyond the north wind."

The Hyperboreans were praised by later Greek and Roman writers like Herodotus, Pindar, and Pliny for living pleasant lives and being free from disease.

Thule's exact location is still a mystery.

According to Andrew Breeze, an epigrapher at the University of Navarra, the renowned Thule was actually Iceland based on a new linguistic explanation of the Greek word.

"While the name Thule has no meaning in Greek, Breeze suggests that it could be a scribal error for the original name Thymele, which means "altar" in ancient Greek. This name could perfectly fit the southern coast of Iceland." 

Breeze claims that if we imagine what Pytheas thought when he first saw Iceland, we can find solutions to the enigma.

Breeze describes his theory in an article for The Housman Society Journal, saying that "the dark volcanic cliffs of the south coast (above beaches of black sand) would have an altar's slab-like appearance; and the resemblance would be the more significant if mist and clouds rising from the island (to say nothing of plumes from its volcanoes, several of which are in its southern part) reminded Pytheas of an altar's reeking sacrifices."

No surprise if he referred to the island as "altar, the altar" or "thymele."

Regrettably, his scribes failed to understand his wonder (and possibly awe) at discovering a new continent.

Hence, it would appear that Thymele to Thoule, Thyle, and Thule were corrupted over a period of three centuries."

"According to Breeze, the idea of Iceland as a massive altar meshes nicely with what is known about ancient Greek altars.

Numerous of these altars were extraordinarily huge; one is supposed to have been 600 feet long and stood 40 feet tall at Syracuse."

Breeze contends "Iceland was without a doubt the location Pytheas discovered, a remarkable accomplishment.

Other applicants may be rejected.

Because of its likeness to a temple's sacrificial altar, he gave it the name "Thymele altar (island)".

It is possible to reject the inaccurate and meaningless "Thule" as the result of scribal corruption.

There is no justification for it, any more than there is for "Boadicea," a queen who was appropriately referred to as "the victorious one, she who is successful," in Tacitus.

Yet, anyone who is familiar with academic culture may be certain that, just as we continue to hear about "Boadica," so too will we continue to hear about "Thule" for years to come.

It will be one of the countless scribal monsters that taint copies of classical texts, ancient world histories, and encyclopedias produced by renowned universities.

While the theory of ancient Greek exploration of Iceland is an intriguing idea, it remains a subject of debate among scholars, and more evidence would be needed to confirm it definitively.

How Samos city in Calabria was founded on the same latitude as Samos island in the Aegean?

According to tradition, Samos in Calabria was founded in 492 BC by Greek settlers who came from the island of Samos in the Aegean Sea to escape the invasion of the army of King Darius I of Persia.

The colonists reached the coast of the Ionian Sea and moved inland, near Fiumara La Verde, to Rudina, in the territory of the Epicephyrian Lokrians. Soon the city grew rapidly and extended its boundaries from Capo Bruzzano to the present Gerace.

They built a large port that connected the city of Samos with the nearest Greek islands, and thanks to its maritime, port and trade activity, it achieved a remarkable social and cultural development and became an important transport hub in the heart of the Ionian Sea.

It is believed that Samos Calabria is the birthplace of the famous sculptor Pythagoras of Rhegium. Around 1530 Samos was completely destroyed by a flood that lasted seven days and seven nights. Since then the name of the city was changed to Crepacuore and later to Precacore.

Today, in its place is the small village of Precacore, known for its ruins of Greek-Byzantine art and therefore often visited by foreign tourists. Many of these works of art have been recently restored.

Ancient paths lead to the ruins of the ancient site of Samos and walking tours are organized. Ancient Samos in Magna Grecia is the twin of Samos in Greece.

What is still an unsolved mystery is how they knew and built their city in an almost straight line (northern latitude) with Heraion of Samos, which intersects with Samos of Triphylia and Samis of Kefalonia of Homer?

This means that, for example, in the 5th century, the latitude was already known. Without it, it was not possible to go out to sea and return safely. Undoubtedly, they knew it thousands of years ago!

The Life and Work of the Multi-scientist and great Philosopher Aristotle

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by the archaeologist editor group

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Since the evidence gathered by archaeologists is so abundant that many speak of the discovery of Aristotle's tomb in ancient Stageira, let us look at what we know about this great philosopher.

According to what we know, he was born in Stageira in 384 BC and died in Chalkida in 322 BC. At the age of 17 he entered Plato's Academy in Athens, where he remained until the age of 37. There he is associated with Plato himself as well as with Eudoxus, Xenocrates, and other thinkers.

His works relate to many sciences, such as physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, etc., and form the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy. The period of maturity begins with biological research, the results of which constitute the first systematization of biological phenomena in Europe. Aristotle's thought and teachings, briefly referred to as Aristotelianism, influenced philosophical, theological and scientific thought for centuries until the late Middle Ages.

Life and action

Aristotle was born in 384 BC in the ancient city of Stageira in Halkidiki, 55 kilometers east of modern Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was physician to the Macedonian king Amyntas III, who was Philip's father. Nicomachus, who according to the Suidae Lexicon had written six books on medicine and one on physics, considered the Homeric hero and physician Mahaon, son of Asclepius, as his ancestor. His mother Phaestia was from Chalkida and, like his father, belonged to the family of the Asclepiads. Aristotle's interest in biology was sparked in part by his father, as the Asclepiads taught their children anatomy from an early age; it is also said that Aristotle sometimes helped his father when he was young.

Aristotle was prematurely orphaned by his father and mother, and his guardianship was taken over by a friend of his father's, Proxenus, who had settled in Atarneus of Aeolis in Asia Minor, opposite of Lesbos. Proxenus, who cared for Aristotle as if he were his own child, sent him to Athens at the age of 17 (367 BC) to become a student of Plato. In fact, Aristotle studied at Plato's Academy for 20 years (367 - 347), until the year his teacher died. In the Academy environment, he amazed everyone and even his teacher with his intelligence and philanthropy. Plato called it the "dissertation spirit" and the house of the "reader's house".

When Plato died in 347 B.C., the question arose of a successor in the leadership of the school. Precedence for the post was given to Plato's three best students, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and Speusippus. Aristotle then left Athens with Xenocrates and settled in Assos, a city on the Asia Minor beach, opposite of Lesbos. Assos was then ruled by two Platonic philosophers, Erastos and Koriskos, to whom the ruler of Atarneas and old student of Plato and Aristotle, Hermias, had left the city. The two friends, governors of Assos, had founded a philosophical school there as a branch of the Academy.

In Assos, Aristotle taught for three years and, together with his friends, achieved what Plato could not. They were closely associated with Hermias and influenced him so that his tyranny became milder and more just. But the end of the tyrant was tragic. Because he anticipated the Macedonian campaign in Asia, he allied himself with Philip. Therefore, the Persians captured him and left him to die on a martyr's cross.

In 345 BC, on the advice of his student Theophrastus, Aristotle crossed to Lesbos and settled in Mytilene, where he stayed and taught until 342 BC. In the meantime, he had married the niece and stepdaughter of Hermias, Pythiada, with whom he had a daughter who took her mother's name. After the death of his first wife, Aristotle was later in Athens with Herpyllida from Stageira, with whom he had a son, Nicomachus. In 342 B.C. he was invited by Philip to Macedonia to take charge of the education of his son Alexander, who was then only 13 years old. Aristotle eagerly set about the task of educating the young heir. He took care to instill in him the Panhellenic spirit and used the Homeric epics as an educational tool. Alexander's education took place sometimes in Pella and sometimes in Mieza, a city whose ruins have been brought to light by archeological excavation; it was located at the foot of the mountain on which today's Naoussa in Macedonia is built. There he was informed of the death of Hermias in 341 BC.

Aristotle remained at the Macedonian court for six years. When Alexander crushed the resistance of the Thebans and restored peace in southern Greece, Aristotle went to Athens (335 BC) and founded his own philosophical school there. For the foundation of his school he chose the Gymnasium, also called Lyceum, between Lycabettus and Ilissos, near the Dioharis Gate. The site of the Gymnasium was recently discovered during the excavations for the construction of the new Goulandris Museum behind the Byzantine Museum of Athens in Rigillis Street. This historic excavation site is currently being renovated so that it can be visited. There was a grove dedicated to Apollo and the Muses. With the money generously given to him by Alexander, Aristotle erected magnificent buildings and arcades called "Peripatoi"(walks in Greek). Perhaps that is why his school was called "Peripatetic school" and his students "Peripatetic Philosophers".

The school was organized according to the standards of the Platonic Academy. Classes for advanced students were held in the morning ("eothinos peripatos") and for beginners in the afternoon ("peri to deilinon", "evening walk"). The morning classes were purely philosophical ("auditory"). The afternoon "rhetorical" and "external".

The school had a large library and was so well organized that it later served as a model for the founding of the libraries of Alexandria and Pergamon. Aristotle collected maps and tools useful for teaching physics. Thus, the school soon became a famous center of scientific research. In the thirteen years that Aristotle spent in Athens, he created most of his work, which by its scope and quality evokes our admiration. For it is quite amazing how a single person could gather and record so much information in such a short period of time.

When the news of Alexander's death arrived in 323 BC, the supporters of the anti-Macedonian party thought they had found in Aristotle an opportunity to take revenge on the Macedonians. The priesthood, represented by the hierophant of the Eleusinian Demeter, Eurymedon, and the school of Isocrates with Demophilus accused Aristotle of blasphemy ("blasphemous writing") for erecting an altar to Hermias, writing the Hymn to Areti(Virtue), and the epigram on the statue of Hermes at Delphi. However, realizing the true motives and intentions of his accusers, Aristotle traveled to Chalkida before his trial (323 BC). He stayed there in the house he had received from his mother, together with his second wife Herpyllida and his two children Nikomachos and Pythias.

Aristotle died in Chalkida between the 1st and 2nd of October of the year 322 B.C. of a stomach disease, in sadness and melancholy. His body was taken to Stageira, where he was buried with great honors. His fellow citizens declared him an "inhabitant" of the city and erected an altar over his grave. In his memory they established a festival, the "Aristoteleia", and named one of the months "Aristoteleios". The square where he was buried became the seat of the Parliament.

When he left Athens, he left the direction of the school to his pupil Theophrastus, whom he considered most suitable. Thus, the intellectual institution of Aristotle continued to radiate even after the death of the great teacher.

The work of the author

The Alexandrians estimated that Aristotle wrote a total of about 400 books. Diogenes Laertius calculated his work in verse and found that it amounted to 45 myriads, exactly 445,270 verses. A large part of his work has been lost. It belonged to the category of public or "external" courses and was written in a dialogic form. Of them, only the State of Athens has been preserved in a papyrus found in Egypt. The works that survive today correspond to the lessons that Aristotle gave to his advanced students, which are described as "auditory or esoteric". Therefore, they are written in continuous speech rather than dialogs. The list of Hesychius (appended to the biography of Aristotle) contains 197 titles of works and essentially coincides with the list of Diogenes Laertes.

The epic poem of Iliad on a map: All the Homeric heroes and their origins

This map is inspired by the “Achaeans and Trojans” map on Greek Mythology Link, a website created by Carlos Parantas, author of the "Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology".

It shows all the heroes of the Iliad and their origins in a unique representation of the major and minor characters of the immortal Homeric epic, both on the side of the Achaeans and the Trojans.

So if you want to refresh your knowledge about the "divine" Achilles, Odysseus, the sons of Atrea, or if you are simply touched/moved by Homer's epics, you should take a look at the map below:

click here to enlarge

Greece: A clay inscription with the verses of the Odyssey is exhibited In the Archaeological Museum of Olympia!

The clay inscription P15632 with the first 13 verses of the rhapsody Ξ of the Odyssey (Odysseus' encounter with Eumaeus) is exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Olympia.

It is a recent find, coming from the Roman cemetery at Fragonissi, 1.5 km east of Olympia, and it was used as a building material in a funerary monument from the 3rd Century AD.

It was found in 2018 and is considered one of the most important archaeological discoveries of the year worldwide!

According to the research data, the inscription is the oldest preserved fragment of the specific verses and at the same time one of the oldest texts of the Homeric epics from the Greek area (apart from shells or vases with verses from the Homeric epics).

This underlines the great importance of the find, but also its uniqueness as an archaeological, epigraphic, philological and historical testimony.

The sculptural decoration of the Parthenon

The Parthenon's sculptures were decorated by numerous sculptors, many of whom were students of Pheidias. In the sources, Alkamenes, Agorakritos from Paros, and Myron from Eleftheres are most frequently mentioned. Gold and ivory were used in the construction of the colossal statue of Athena by the sculptor Pheidias. 438 BC marked the completion of the project.

The entire sculptural decoration of the Parthenon

The sculptural decoration of the Parthenon includes the pediments, the metopes, the frieze, the capes and the ivory statue of Athena. The theme of the decoration is inspired by the mythical history of Attica. The Parthenon is dedicated to Athens itself rather than to the patron goddess of the city. It emphasizes the autochthony of the Athenians through the display of its sculptures, and at the same time is a symbol of the economic, intellectual and artistic development of Athens. The Parthenon also houses the treasure of the Athenians, which is also the treasure of their allies. The sculptures also represent the ideas of Athenian democracy and Athenian imperialism, which according to Thucydides lasted from the end of the Median Wars to the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. These two sides are expressed in the representations of the sculptures.

The pediments

The compositions on the two pediments of the Parthenon consist of hologlyphic statues of supernatural size. The pediments were the last to be erected in the temple. The birth of the goddess Athena was depicted on the eastern pediment. According to mythological tradition, the daughter of Oceanus, Metis, became pregnant by Zeus. According to an oracle, after this pregnancy, which produced a daughter, a son was to be born who would become ruler of the sky. Zeus, who knew this oracle, devoured her. When the time came for the daughter to be born, Hephaestus struck Zeus' head with his ax and Athena came out armed.

The western pediment represents the dispute between Athena and Poseidon for supremacy in Attica, where, according to legend, the inhabitants preferred the olive tree given by Athena to the water source given by Poseidon.

The metopes

The entablature of the Parthenon was decorated with 92 metopes. There were 14 metopes on the narrow sides and 32 metopes on the long sides. The metopes of the Parthenon were the first sculptures to be carved since construction began. The theme of the sculptures was inspired by mythical battles. The metopes were inserted between the triglyphs. On the east side the metopes represent the battle of the Giants, on the north side the Iliu Persis, on the west side the battle of the Amazons and on the south side the battle of the Centaurs. The 14 metopes on the east side depicted Hercules and the Olympian gods, and although their theme was uniform, there were separate scenes every two or three metopes.

Photo Source: @Acropolis Museum

The 32 metopes on the north side depicted scenes from the epic mentioned above. Today, only 12 of the 32 remain. On the west side, all the fronts are preserved and in each one two or three figures are depicted. The well-preserved metopes on the south side depict the battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, while many of the metopes are dominated by well-known figures from the myth such as Peirithus, the king of the Lapiths, and his friend Theseus. The reliefs of the faces are extraordinary and in some places stand out from the background in a completely hologlyphic way. The total number of metopes is 92.

The frieze

The presence of the frieze in the Parthenon represents an Ionic element for the sculptural decoration of the temple. The frieze was 160 meters long and 1 meter high and surrounded the wall of the temple on the outside. For this reason it was inaccessible to the visitor, and Pausanias, the traveler who wrote about the Parthenon, does not mention it. The Panathenaia is depicted in the frieze with hundreds of human figures and animals, chariots and pedestrians, heroes and Olympian gods.

by PHOTO NIKOS DANIILIDIS

Colors used for the painting of the statues

Of great interest are the colors used for the decoration of the temple. According to ancient building tradition, the use of colors and the design of sculptures completed the appearance of the temples. When the temple was still being built, the white Pentelian marble shine dazzlingly. The problem was solved when the white surfaces were covered with colors. The present rose gold color of the marble is due to the passage of time. The podium, columns and portico were painted in bright white. The metopes and triglyphs were alternately blue and red. The color blue was used for the depth of the frieze and the drum. The sculptures were decorated with polychrome and gilded brass fittings.

Alexander the Great: The Siege and Conquest of the Rock of Sogdiana - The first campaign to conquer a fortress using mountaineering methods in world history

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by the archaeologist editor group

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The siege of the Rock of Sogdiana by Alexander the Great in 327 BC was an insignificant military event but of enormous strategic importance. It was a mountain fortress and the fate of the Sogdians depended on its liberty since they were once again ready for revolution. Oxyartis had organized the defense in this shelter and many revolutionary Sogdians and their families had gathered there. The steep cliffs and the thick snow that covered everything made the fortress inaccessible. The Sogdians had enough supplies to withstand the siege and also secured plenty of water from the snow. When Alexander the Great suggested that they surrender, they defiantly replied that he would have to find "winged soldiers" to take the fortress, which enraged him tremendously.

After the Sogdians refused, Alexander decided to attack the fortress. Thereupon he raised the first group of mountain commandos, or more precisely, the first group of elite Mountain Infantry Battalion. He selected 300 warriors who were the most skilled and experienced in climbing the cliffs and asked them to handle the operation, giving 12 talents to the one who climbed first.

According to Curtius, he told the elite soldiers, "Nature has placed nothing so high that courage cannot overcome it. By striving to achieve what others have not dared, we have Asia under our control."

Alexander's elite unit used today's climbing methods, making small iron nails like the ones they used to stabilize their tents. Then they fastened ropes over them and climbed up the steepest part of the rock at night to avoid being seen by enemies. They stuck the nails into crevices or ice and began to climb higher and higher. About thirty were lost in this attempt. The rest reached the summit at dawn and hoisted the flags as arranged.

Without wasting time, Alexander sent a herald to the Sogdians to shout to their vanguard that Alexander had found the winged soldiers, that he already possessed the top of the mountain, and that they must now surrender, at the same time urging them to look up. When the Sogdians saw the flags flying, they were disheartened by this unexpected news. Considering that many more Macedonians were standing on the summit and were armed to the teeth, they decided to surrender and yield to Alexander's psychological rather than physical advantage.

Oaths of the ancient Greek hoplite warriors

The ancient Greek hoplites were heavily armed infantry soldiers who fought in close formation in battles. The hoplites were often required to swear oaths before battles to demonstrate their commitment to their city-state and their fellow soldiers.

There were various oaths that hoplites might swear, depending on the context and the specific circumstances. Some of the most common oaths included:

1. The Oath of Tyrtaios: This oath was attributed to the ancient Spartan poet Tyrtaios and was often used by Spartan hoplites. The oath required the soldiers to pledge their loyalty to their city-state and to fight with courage and honor.

2. The Oath of the Ephebes: This oath was taken by young men who had completed their training as hoplites and were about to join the army. The oath required them to swear allegiance to their city-state and to obey their commanders.

3. The Oath of the Sacred Band: The Sacred Band was a unit of elite soldiers in ancient Thebes, consisting of 150 pairs of male lovers. The members of the Sacred Band swore an oath to protect their fellow soldiers with their lives and to never abandon their positions in battle.

4. The Oath of the Athenian Hoplites: This oath was taken by hoplites from Athens and required them to swear to fight for their city-state and to protect their fellow soldiers.

These oaths were meant to instill a sense of duty, loyalty, and courage in the hoplites, and to bind them together as a cohesive fighting force.

Oath of the Athenian teenagers

With the weapons entrusted to him by his fatherland, the Athenian youth took the following oath before the temple of Aglauros:

I will not let my weapons be ashamed, nor will I abandon my comrade wherever I am ordered to fight, I will defend the sacred and the holy, both alone and with many, and I will not deliver the country smaller, but larger and more militant than before when it was handed over to me. I will believe in the Gods and I will obey the laws in force and everything else that will be established by law. And if anyone abolishes or challenges the institutions, I will not allow it, but will fight him either alone or with many. And I will honor the sacred legacies of the fathers. My witnesses are the gods Agraulos, Enyalios, Ares, Zeus, Thallus, Auxo, Hegemoni.

Paean of the Spartans

On the march to battle, the Spartan warriors sang the paean:

Before mighty Sparta, you children of the citizen fathers, with your left hand you raise your shield, and with your right hand you boldly raise your spear, without sparing your life, for this is not customary in Sparta!

Oath of the Greeks at Plataea

I will not consider life more precious than freedom. I will not leave any of our leaders in battle, alive or dead, but I will also bury all our allies who have fallen in battle. And after we are victorious in the war against the barbarians, I will not destroy any of the cities that fought for Greece. But the cities joined the barbarians in battle, I will decimate them all. And of the temples that were set on fire and destroyed by the barbarians, I will not rebuild a single one, but will leave them standing for future generations as a reminder of the injustice of the barbarians.

Lost part of the Mechanism of Antikythera was found

A new exciting discovery has been made in the Aegean Sea. It is perhaps one of the most important archeological finds of recent years.

A lost part of the famous ancient computer of Antikythera was found in the Greek waters and shocked the whole mankind.

This is the first computer that may have been built by humans, and this fact has the world scientific community in an uproar.

It's a complex, advanced analog "computer" that was found in a shipwreck many years ago.

Divers have discovered a highly technical device with the image of a bull, which they suspect is the missing part of the mechanism.

The Antikythera mechanism was discovered by Greek sponge divers in 1901.

Of course, at that time they themselves did not immediately understand what exactly it was. It took decades and the use of advanced X-ray technology for scientists to realize that it was the first human computer, a wonderfully advanced, sophisticated analog calculating machine made up of dozens of paired gears.

The device could calculate the movements of the sun and moon, predict solar eclipses and equinoxes, and simultaneously track the planets of the solar system, constellations, and more.

We never found out how many gears the original Antikythera mechanism had. Estimates are based on expert guesses and range from 37 to over 70. For comparison, the most modern Swiss watches have four gears.

The ship that carried the mechanism was huge and loaded with valuable cargo.

"In the 1970s, the famous explorer Jacques Cousteau and his team discovered some parts of the mechanism's casing," Dr. Brendan Foley of Lund College told the Israeli newspaper Haaretz.

In 2012, divers discovered hundreds of artifacts in the wreck, including two massive bronze spears, the bronze representation of an arm, other pieces of marble and bronze statues, a mosaic, pieces of furniture, blue game pieces, a sarcophagus lid, gold rings and silver coins.

What is the Antikythera mechanism?

Known as the first computer in history, the Antikythera Mechanism is a complex system of tools dating back to 60 BC and was used by the ancient Greeks to determine the position of the sun, moon and planets.

This 2,000-year-old astronomical computer may have had another function: predicting the future, researchers say.

When was it discovered?

The Antikythera Mechanism was discovered in a shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete.

According to the shape of the Greek inscriptions it bears, it dates from between 150 BC and 100 BC, well before the date of the shipwreck, which may have occurred between 87 BC and 63 BC. It could have been built up to half a century before the wreck. The wreck was discovered in 1900 at a depth of 40 to 64 meters, and many treasures, statues and other objects, were recovered from Simi island sponge collectors and are now in the National Archeological Museum in Athens.

On May 17, 1902, Valerios Stais, archeologist and director of the Archeological Museum, noticed that one of the finds had a gear inscribed with astronomical terms.

The mechanism is the oldest preserved gear mechanism, and a very complex one. It is made of bronze and has a wooden frame. Since its discovery, it has puzzled and fascinated many historians of science and technology. The most accepted theory about its function is that it was both an analog and a digital computer used to calculate and display the movements of celestial bodies, solar and lunar eclipses, and the phases of the moon.

It could display solar and lunar eclipses based on the Babylonian cycle of Sarus. Its dials also featured at least two calendars, a Greek one based on the Metonic cycle, and an Egyptian one, which was also the common "scientific" calendar of the Hellenistic era, and which researchers believe even predicted the dates of the Olympic Games!

The first uses of this instrument presented (mainly before World War II) are: Astrolabe, Dromometer, Reference Clock, Planetarium, Astronomical Ship's Clock or Ancient Navigator. All these uses are not mutually exclusive.

But in essence, it is a mechanism that has changed and continues to change modern technology, demonstrating at the same time the high technological level of the ancient Greeks.

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New Research: The ancient Greeks were very close to inventing the steam-powered water pump

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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According to National Technical College professor Theodosis Tassios, the ancient Greek engineers were only ten to a maximum of 100 years away from inventing a normal steam-powered water pump, so they would have started the industrial revolution long before their time. This finally happened in 1776, when the Scottish engineer James Watt invented such a steam-powered pump.

As Mr. Tassios said, by the time of the Ptolemies, engineers had gradually invented all the necessary mechanical components (belts, pipes, gears, turbines, etc.) that enabled them to harness the energy of air and water to make pumps, thus harnessing both wind and hydrodynamic energy. They had also taken the first step toward steam propulsion by converting thermal energy into kinetic energy and creating rotary motion through steam.

Although the professor of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Mr. Tiverios, pointed out that only about 2.5% of the ancient historical texts have been preserved, it cannot be excluded that the final step of steam propulsion took place, even if only a prototype of a pump was built as a toy and the corresponding technology was then forgotten, but - at least so far - there are no corresponding testimonies and evidence.

Mr. Tassios - who is also president of the Society for the Study of Ancient Greek Technology - estimates that the ancient Greeks, thanks to their impressive scientific and technological advances, came very close to the goal, but they did not definitively advance to the use of steam to move a pump and eventually an engine.

Mr. Tasios and Tiberios referred to the important technological works of Ctesivius (3rd century BC, founder of the School of Engineering and Mathematics in Alexandria), Philo of Byzantium (student of Ctesivius) and Heron (probably 1st century AD), whose inventions showed how advanced Greek applied science and technology was. Many works of Greek engineers have been preserved in Arabic translations, as Mr. Tiverios pointed out.

Mr. Tasios emphasized the passion of the ancient Greeks for technology, pointing out that robots and robotic ships are already mentioned in the epics of Homer. Later, the combination of cosmopolitanism (especially in Alexandria), the emerging bourgeoisie, and the interest of the Ptolemies led to important inventions, as shown by the mechanism of Antikythera. However, the question remains whether these technologies found wider application or remained the privilege of a small group of people.

80 Shackled Skeletons Found in Greek Grave After Ancient Mass Execution

A mass grave was recently discovered four miles outside of Athens in the historic harbor city of Phalaeron. But this wasn't just any mass grave—36 of the 80 skeletons were restrained in iron shackles and were arranged in a row next to each other. Because of this, some researchers speculate that they might be adherents of Cylon, a despot who attempted to conquer Athens in the seventh century B.C.

About 1,500 skeletons have been discovered in a 1-acre cemetery near Phalaeron, according to Tia Ghose of LiveScience. But, this most recent set was discovered in a location where the Greek National Opera and a new branch of the Greek National Library are being built. Scientists were able to date the cemetery between 650 and 625 B.C., a time period that ancient historians claim was full of unrest for Athens, thanks to two tiny vases discovered among the bound skeletons.

The teeth of the remains, according to AFP, indicate that they were largely from younger, healthy individuals. This supports the hypothesis that they were political outlaws who attempted to take control of Athens. A bioarchaeologist from the University of West Florida in Pensacola named Kristina Killgrove, who was not involved in the study, tells Ghose that "these might be the bones of persons who were part of this coup in Athens in 632 [B.C. ], the Coup of Cylon."

The ancient historians Plutarch and Thucydides claim that Cylon participated in the 640 B.C. Olympic Games as an athlete. His triumph there earned him a higher position and the hand of the Megarian tyrant's daughter. Because of the bad harvests and social disparity, Athens experienced unrest during the following 10 years. In 632, Cylon launched a coup with the aid of his father-in-army, law's expecting that the citizens of Athens would follow him. Though most didn't, some did.

As a substitute, Cylon fled the city, and his rebels sought refuge on the Acropolis. They eventually started to hunger, but Megacles, the city archon, guaranteed them safe passage. But he killed them as soon as they exited the shrine. According to Thucydides, "They even killed several of them in the very presence of the dreadful Goddesses at whose altars they had sought sanctuary while passing by." "The killers and those who follow them are considered cursed and transgressors against the Lady."

Nonetheless, it is far from definite that the skeletons belong to Cylon's disciples. Killgrove explains to Ghose that one of the issues is that there aren't many historical records from that century; as a result, "we really have no history" and "it might be a stretch for them to connect these shackled skeletons with this coup." "There are any number of possibilities for why a mass grave — really, many mass graves — of shackled skeletons were uncovered in Athens," says Killgrove in Forbes.

Less archeological sites from the time period do, however, depict people from lower socioeconomic levels. According to Killgrove, these skeletons could provide researchers with information about the working-class Athenians of the time.

What did ancient Greeks think about snow? - Scientific and philosophical views

In many parts of the world, winter is the season when it snows. Although this is less common in Greece than in northern Europe, it has become more common in recent years - especially in February.

Homer used it as the basis for several metaphors and similes in his epic poems. But what did the Greeks really think about snow? There are several myths about snow, such as its origin and causes. There are also comments of the Greek philosophers on this subject.

Did the Greeks like the snow?

Homer's mentions of snow in his epic poems show how the Greeks generally viewed it. The Odyssey describes the Elysian Fields, which in Greek mythology are equated with the afterlife, reserved for those who have the approval of the gods. It was supposed to be a kind of paradise. Homer describes it as a place "where life is easier for people. There is no snow, no heavy storm, and no rain there."

(Elysian Fields is a conception of life after death that developed over time and was maintained by certain Greek religious and philosophical sects and cults. It was originally separate from the Greek underworld - the realm of Hades. Only mortals associated with the gods and other heroes could cross the River Styx. Later, the concept of who could enter the river was expanded to include the chosen of the gods, the righteous and the heroes. They would remain on the Elysian Fields after death to live a blessed and happy afterlife, indulging in all the pleasures they had in life.)

Accordingly, snow was apparently considered a burden in life and not something to be enjoyed. It was viewed as an annoying evil in everyday life, like storms or rain. Whether Homer's comments reflect the views of most Greeks living at the time, we cannot say.

What is clear, however, is that everyone involved in a campaign thought poorly of snow. Various ancient accounts of troops marching through snowy terrain illustrate the dangers involved. Their troops and animals often got stuck in the snow and died from the cold.

Snow in Greek mythology

«Chione killed with an arrow supported by her two sons » tapestry executed after the cartoons of Toussaint Dubreuil (Paris 1561 - Paris the 22/11/1602) around 1633 by Raphaël de la Planche, adorning the desk of Nicolas Fouquet in the castle of Vaux-le-Vicomte - Maincy.

In Greek mythology, there are several stories that deal with how snow came to be or what role it plays in the world. One simple belief was that it was caused by Zeus. In the Iliad, Homer mentions that Zeus brings the snow to the people with his arrows. So it seems that his arrows were blamed for certain weather phenomena, including snowfall.

Another myth attributes snow to a nymph (a type of minor deity) named Chione. This name derives directly from the ancient Greek word for snow. She was the daughter of Boreus, the god of the north winds. There seem to be few, if any, surviving myths about this snow-bringing nymph, but her name strongly suggests that the Greeks believed so.

However, she was not the only figure in Greek mythology with this name. Another Chione was the wife of Boreus. Given the name and the association with the god of the north wind, the Greeks probably thought she had something to do with snow.

Of course, the Greeks had also associated Boreus himself with snow. As the god of the north winds, he was supposed to bring the cold air from the north - especially from Thrace - to Greece.

The early poet Pindar describes Boreus as "of gloomy and icy breath" It is therefore quite possible that some Greeks held Boreus directly responsible for snow.

A third woman named Chione was the daughter of Callirrhoe, one of the Oceanids - a group of nymphs - and Nile, the god of the Nile in Egypt. It is said that Zeus carried her in the clouds and snow fell from her into the desert.

Scientific and philosophical views

The Greeks did not only write about snow in their mythology. Ancient Greek scientists and philosophers also discussed it from time to time.

One of the philosophers who had an interesting view of snow was Anaxagoras. He lived in the fifth century before Christ. Anaxagoras held that snow, although it appears white to us, is actually dark. He reasoned that snow is just frozen water, and water, according to Anaxagoras, is dark.

The word he used to describe the actual color of the snow, "melaina," is usually translated as "black". In reality, however, it usually means "dark". It was sometimes used to describe the color of wine and/or the dark color of the ocean. Perhaps Anaxagoras had in mind the dark color of the seabed.

Despite his unusual idea of the color of snow, this statement tells us something important. At least since the fifth century B.C., the Greeks have known that snow is formed from water.

Another interesting perspective comes from Seneca the Younger, a Roman philosopher of the first century AD, whose views are interesting because he was a Stoic philosopher.

This is a form of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the third century BC. He stated that snow contains more air than water. Modern science has proven this to be absolutely true. In fact, snow is about ninety percent air.

Ancient Greek inscription in the mountains of Tajikistan: traces of Alexander the Great in ancient Bactria?

Ancient Greek letters carved into a rock were found in a mountainous region of Tajikistan, Central Asia.

In particular, a message was written on a stone that, according to Nicholas Sims-Willions, an expert in the study of the Bactrian language, means "This is the... of the King of Kings, Vima Taktu". Due to the natural landscape of Tajikistan, archaeologists do not usually have the opportunity to discover new monuments. Since the surrounding area is inaccessible, local people offered to help archaeologists to collect information.

In 1932, a local shepherd found a basket of documents on Mug Mountain, which he brought to the archaeologists, who then learned that it was the first written text of the historical Sogdian language, which led to the discovery of the ancient settlement of Penjikend. Sogdiana (formerly Transoxiana) was a province of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Although the Sogdian states were never politically united, they were concentrated around the capital city of Samarkand.

How was the rock discovered?

Similar to the shepherd, a resident of a nearby village discovered the engraved rock in the mountains. Bobomulloev Bobomullo, a researcher at the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography of the National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, became interested in the news and took it upon himself to investigate it. After detailed examination, it turned out that the inscriptions were written in ancient script. It was located in the northernmost part of the gorge near the Almosis River. According to the man who found the inscription, there were other inscriptions on many different rocks, but due to avalanches, many of the inscriptions were damaged and fell into the mountains.

What was Bactriana and its history?

According to the World History Encyclopedia, Bactria is a historical region in Central Asia that was part of the Persian Empire. Historically, it was a unified region, but it was divided into what is now Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan. Even after the defeat of the Persian king Darius III, a self-appointed successor of Darius III named Bessus led the resistance against Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great finally conquered Bactria between 329 and 327 BC and held it until his death. After his death, it became part of the Seleucid Empire, which dominated most of the Middle East during the Hellenistic period. Bactria was famous for its gold. Darius I mentions Bactria as a supplier of gold to his imperial palace at Susa. Trade in gold originating from Siberia flourished.

What was the "Seisachtheia" regulation of debt that saved ancient Athens

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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In ancient Athens, Solon's legal regulation of debt was known as the Seisachtheia.

This was Solon's first legislation, but not, as some of the ancient authors claim, for the complete cancellation of debts, which Solonian laws prevented, but only for the relief of debtors beset by usurers.

To this end, he reduced the silver drachma by a quarter and a bit more, so that 100 new drachmas contained as much silver as 72.5 old ones. He reduced the debts of the poor to such an extent that it was said that he abolished mortgages on the lands, since this made it easier to repay the debts. However, he left the determination of the interest rate free and forbade the barbaric custom of "indebtedness on one's own body". He declared honorable those who had been convicted of dishonor by debt or for any other reason, except murder and tyranny.

The term comes from ancient Greek and is composed of "seio" (shake) and "achthos" (burden, debt). It essentially meant "to shake off the burdens".

Current regulation before the Seisachteia

Prior to Solon's prohibition of seisachtheia, debt bondage was in effect in Athens: a citizen who could not repay his creditors lost his freedom.

The legislation of Solon

Solon's legislative measures were very bold but also drastic. They were based on the principle of just inequality rather than absolute equality, trying to prevent unrest and the disintegration of the Athenian political community while maintaining social organization and the primacy of that organization in the province of power.

The Seisachtheia was among the reparation measures taken by Solon

Specifically, the existing debts of private individuals to private individuals and to the city were abolished; lending secured by the "body" (personal freedom) of the borrower and his family members was abolished; and those Athenians who had become slaves due to debts were freed. Athenians who had been sold abroad in the meantime were returned to the city.

It is known that Solon ended the dependence of the poor peasants in Attica with the "Seisachtheia". What is not known and remains controversial in research is the procedure by which he restored those who had fallen victim to the arbitrariness of the rich, precisely because there were no written provisions (Solon also says so in one of his poems).

The measure is sometimes associated with the dependent peasants who cultivated the land of the privileged with the agreement to give them 1/6 of the production instead of rent, while sometimes it is associated with all those who borrowed and cultivated the land of the rich and powerful with their personal freedom as a pledge.

The seisachtheia was not created to abolish slavery but to free slaves from their debts. Solon's reforms allowed for two exceptions: The guardian of an unmarried woman who had lost her virginity had the right to sell her into slavery, and a citizen could abandon an unwanted newborn.

Asclepius: The hero and god of medicine

The biography of Asclepius is indeed fictitious. Of course, we are not in a position to know the boundaries between myth and reality.

Whether, for example, a resurrection was some kind of epiphany or not So we could study the texts and nothing more.

So let us read what these texts say about Asclepius:

Asclepius (Latin: Aesculapius) is known to be both a hero and a god of medicine. He is the son of Apollo, but the myths surrounding his birth vary widely. Mostly—here we are specifically concerned with the version accepted by Pindar—it is said that Apollo fell in love with Coronis, the daughter of the Thessalian king Phlegyas, and left her pregnant; but when Coronis was expecting a child, she gave herself to the love of a mortal, Ischis, the son of Elatos.

Apollo learned of this transgression through a crow (or else through his gift of divination) and killed the unfaithful; at the moment when Coronis' body was placed on the funeral pyre and would soon burn, Apollo pulled the still-living child from her entrails. This is how Asclepius was born.

According to another version, to explain why Asclepius was the great god of Epidaurus in the Peloponnese, Phlegyas, a great robber, came to the land to explore its riches and study how he could become its master. He was accompanied by his daughter. During the journey, she was seduced by Apollo and gave birth to a son in the land of Epidaurus, at the foot of Mount Myrtios.

Then she abandoned her son. But a goat came to suckle the child and a dog to guard it. The shepherd Arestanas, who owned the goat and the dog, found the child and was dazzled by the light around it. He understood that there was a secret and did not dare to take the child, so it followed its divine destiny.

According to another version, the mother of Asclepius was Arsinoe, the daughter of Leucippus. This was the tradition of Messinia, which they tried to reconcile with the other ones, claiming that the child was the son of Arsinoe but raised by Koronis.

The number of people he brought up was significant

It is said that Asclepius' father entrusted him to the centaur Chiron, who taught him medicine. In a short time, Asclepius acquired great skills in this art. He even discovered a way to bring the dead back to life. Namely, he had taken from Athena the blood that had flowed from the veins of the Gorgon; while the veins of the left side spread a strong poison, the blood of the right side was healing, and Asclepius knew how to use it to bring the dead back to life.

The number of people he revived was considerable. They include Kapaneus, Lycurgus (probably in the war against Thebes, where two heroes of this name appear among the victims), Glaucus, the son of Minos, and the most frequently mentioned, Hippolytus, the son of Theseus. Zeus, seeing these revivals, feared that Asclepius would disturb the order of the world and struck him with lightning. To avenge Zeus, Apollo killed the Cyclops. After his death, Asclepius transformed into the constellation Ophiuchus.

Is Asclepius outside the mythical circle?

Some later accounts indicate that Asclepius participated in the Calydonian boar hunt and the Argonaut expedition. In general, however, Asclepius stands outside mythical circles.

Two children are attributed to him, the two physicians Podalirios and Mahaonas, who are already mentioned in the Iliad.

Later forms of the myth attribute to him a wife, Ipion, and daughters, Akeso, Iaso, Panakeia, Aigli, and Hygieia. The worship of Asclepius, attested at Trike in Thessaly, where it probably originated, established itself mainly at Epidaurus in the Peloponnese, where it developed into a veritable school of medicine, the applications of which, though based mainly on magic, nevertheless prepared the advent of a more scientific medicine. This art was practiced by the Asclepiads, or the descendants of Asclepius. The most famous of these is Hippocrates, whose family was associated with the god.

Common symbols of Asclepius were snakes coiled around a staff, as well as pine cones, laurel wreaths, and sometimes a goat or a dog!