Two 1,800-Year-Old Roman Cavalry Swords Unearthed in England

In an astonishing discovery, a metal detectorist by the name of Glenn Manning unearthed a pair of 1,800-year-old Roman cavalry swords in the North Cotswolds region of southern England. These remarkable swords, still encased in the remnants of their wooden sheaths, provide a fascinating glimpse into the martial history of Roman Britain. The find has ignited excitement among archaeologists and historians, who are eager to unravel the secrets concealed within these ancient blades.

The swords, with their long and slender blades, are believed to be of the type known as a "spatha." Roman soldiers and even civilians often carried such weapons while riding on horseback during the Roman Empire's heyday, from around 160 to the third century C.E. This practice was not unusual, as Roman provinces were frequently plagued by banditry, making it entirely legal for civilians to possess and carry such weapons for their protection during travel.

Paul Hodgkinson, a Cotswold District Council member responsible for leisure, culture, and health, aptly pointed out the historical significance of this find by saying, "People famously asked, 'What have the Romans ever done for us?' Well, they have just given us some amazing examples of weapons used almost 2,000 years ago when Cirencester was the second biggest town in Britain." Indeed, this discovery adds another layer to the rich tapestry of Roman influence in Britain.

One notable feature of the spatha swords is their elongated, straight blades. This design made them particularly suited for Roman officers and riders, allowing them to wield the weapon effectively while on horseback. Compared to the more famous Roman gladius, which was a shorter sword typically used by foot soldiers, spatha swords catered to the needs of equestrian soldiers.

What makes this discovery even more intriguing is the rarity of finding multiple Roman swords together in Britain. Simon James, an archaeologist at England's University of Leicester who analyzed the swords, noted, "In terms of parallels, I can't think of finds of more than one sword being deposited in any similar circumstance from Roman Britain." He goes on to mention a comparable find in Canterbury, where a pair of similar swords were discovered alongside their owners in a clandestine burial, most likely the result of a double murder.

To gain deeper insights into the swords' history, archaeologists are planning to take X-rays of the artifacts and revisit the site where they were found. Additionally, in close proximity to the swords, Glenn Manning also discovered a broken bowl made of copper alloy. These additional finds could potentially shed light on the context of the swords' burial.

Emma Stuart, director of the Corinium Museum in Cirencester, England, expressed the curiosity surrounding this discovery, stating, "The question is—and the mystery is—why were those swords buried in the north of the Cotswolds? What were they doing there?" These are questions that researchers hope to answer in the coming months as they delve deeper into the historical significance of these ancient Roman cavalry swords.

This remarkable discovery in England is not the only recent find of Roman-era swords. Earlier in the summer, archaeologists in Germany uncovered the remains of a Frankish medieval warrior buried with a 1,300-year-old spatha. Just last month, the Israel Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of four 1,900-year-old Roman-era swords in a cave near the Dead Sea. Three of these swords resembled the spatha with their long blades, while the fourth was a shorter ring-pommel sword.

The unearthing of these ancient swords serves as a vivid reminder of the enduring fascination with the Roman Empire and its legacy, which continues to captivate both historians and the general public alike. As researchers work to unravel the mysteries surrounding these relics, they provide us with a tangible connection to a distant past and a deeper understanding of the Roman presence in ancient Britain. These swords, now under the care of archaeologists, are poised to reveal more of their secrets and enrich our understanding of history in the years to come.

Ancient Bronze Mirrors Unearthed at Sakurai Chausuyama Burial Mound Shed Light on Japan's Enigmatic Past

In a remarkable archaeological discovery, more than 100 ancient bronze mirrors have been unearthed at the Sakurai Chausuyama burial mound in Sakurai, Nara Prefecture, Japan. This incredible find provides valuable insights into Japan's history and raises questions about the power structures and connections with other ancient civilizations in the region. Let's delve deeper into this exciting discovery and what it means for our understanding of Japan's past.

The Sakurai Chausuyama Kofun

The Sakurai Chausuyama Kofun, also known as the Tobi Chausuyama-kofun Tumulus, is a colossal keyhole-shaped mound constructed during the early Kofun period, which spanned from 250 AD to 552 AD. This tumulus, measuring 207 meters in length, is categorized as an Ekagami-shiki tumulus, characterized by its hand-mirror-shaped front square part. Situated on the left bank of the Hasegawa River in Sakurai City, Nara Prefecture, this site holds significant historical importance and is designated as a "historic site" by the central government.

A Glimpse into Royal Power

The scale of the findings at the Sakurai Chausuyama burial mound suggests that the individual buried here wielded immense power and potentially had royal status. Archaeologists examining the mirrors have discovered a variety of mirror types, including what are known as "Himiko's mirrors." These mirrors feature a triangular rim and intricate depictions of gods and animals.

Mirror fragments discovered at the Sakurai Chausuyama burial mound are shown on top of an image of a triangular-rimmed mirror with gods and animals discovered from another tumulus on Sept. 7 at the Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara Prefecture. When the mirrors are superimposed, it is clear that the artifacts are identical in shape and pattern. Photo: Kenji Shimizu

Himiko, a Queen of Mystery

Himiko, the namesake of these mirrors, is a semi-legendary figure from early third-century Japan. Although absent from Japanese historical records, she briefly appears in Chinese historical texts. Himiko was renowned as a shaman queen who ruled the Yamatai-koku kingdom. However, the exact location of Yamatai remains disputed among scholars.

The Mirrors' Historical Significance

The mirrors discovered at the Sakurai Chausuyama burial mound include some that were made using the same mold as the Sankakubuchi Shinjukyo mirrors. These mirrors bear inscriptions of Seishi Gannen, representing the first year of the Seishi era, which corresponds to 240 in the Wei-dynasty China's calendar. It is believed that Himiko received 100 mirrors from the Wei dynasty during that year, as recorded in historical texts.

The Power of Central Kingdoms

The recent excavation has provided invaluable information about the central power structures of ancient Japan. Shinya Fukunaga, an archaeology expert from Osaka University, commented that this discovery could significantly alter our understanding of the political structure of the Yamato State.

Photo: Heritage of Japan

A Record-Breaking Discovery

During the course of various excavations at the Sakurai Chausuyama burial mound, a total of 385 fragments of bronze mirrors have been uncovered. In 2010, a study attributed the finds to 81 bronze mirrors, surpassing the previous record of 40 mirrors found at the Hirabaru archaeological site in Itoshima, Fukuoka Prefecture. However, a recent re-examination of the fragments has led researchers to conclude that at least 103 bronze mirrors were discovered, setting a new record for Japan.

The discovery of more than 100 ancient bronze mirrors at the Sakurai Chausuyama burial mound is a momentous event in Japanese archaeology. These mirrors offer a glimpse into the enigmatic world of Himiko and her kingdom, challenging conventional historical narratives and shedding light on the intricate connections between ancient Japan and other civilizations. As researchers continue to unravel the mysteries surrounding this incredible find, our understanding of Japan's rich and complex history is certain to evolve.

Early Medieval Cheddar Brooch Takes Center Stage in Taunton

In a momentous occasion for history enthusiasts and curious visitors alike, the Museum of Somerset in Taunton is set to unveil a remarkable artifact that has lain hidden for centuries—the Early Medieval Cheddar Brooch. This extraordinary discovery, dating back to approximately AD 800 to 900, provides a captivating window into a pivotal era in English history, when the fate of Saxon Wessex hung in the balance, and Somerset offered refuge to none other than King Alfred the Great himself.

The Cheddar Brooch, a large silver and copper alloy disc brooch, has emerged from obscurity thanks to the efforts of a dedicated metal detectorist, Iain Sansome, who unearthed it on farmland near Cheddar, Somerset, in 2020. This remarkable find, one of the most important single objects ever discovered in the county, has since undergone meticulous conservation work by Pieta Greaves of Drakon Heritage.

The brooch, which is well over a thousand years old, has been carefully restored to reveal its exceptional craftsmanship and intricate design. The decoration on the brooch features interlaced animal and plant motifs in bright silver and black "niello," set against a gilded background. Among the depicted creatures are wyverns, dragon-like beings with two legs, wings, and long tails, which would later become symbols of Wessex.

Amal Khreisheh, Curator of Archaeology at the Museum of Somerset, commented on the fascinating details uncovered during the conservation process, including fine scratches on the reverse side that may have been used by the maker to outline the design. Additionally, a tiny contemporary mend on the beaded border suggests that the brooch was cherished and worn for an extended period before being lost to history.

Tom Mayberry, Chief Executive of the South West Heritage Trust, highlighted the historical significance of the Cheddar Brooch, explaining that it hails from a time that marked a turning point in English history. In 878, King Alfred the Great rallied his forces in Somerset and successfully defeated an invading Danish army, securing Wessex and laying the foundations for a unified English kingdom.

The Cheddar brooch before conservation (Image: South West Heritage)

The acquisition of the Cheddar Brooch was made possible through the Treasure Act 1996, with generous support from the Arts Council England/V&A Purchase Grant Fund, the Art Fund, and the Friends of the Museum of Somerset. Leanne Manfredi of the Victoria and Albert Museum praised the acquisition, emphasizing the long-term benefit it would bring to audiences.

The Cheddar Brooch will be prominently displayed in the museum's 'Making Somerset' gallery, allowing visitors to immerse themselves in its historical significance. The museum, open from Tuesday to Saturday, offers free entry, making this ancient treasure accessible to all. In addition to viewing the brooch, visitors can participate in a range of talks and family activities over the autumn season, shedding light on the brooch's historical context.

As part of its commitment to community engagement, the South West Heritage Trust is collaborating with partners in Cheddar to develop a series of activities related to the Cheddar Brooch. This initiative will culminate in a community event in Cheddar in the spring of 2024, offering local residents and history enthusiasts the opportunity to see the brooch in the parish where it was discovered.

The unveiling of the Cheddar Brooch is a testament to the enduring allure of history and the dedication of individuals and organizations committed to preserving and sharing the rich cultural heritage of Somerset. As this remarkable artifact takes its place in the spotlight, it promises to captivate the imaginations of all who come to witness it, connecting the present with a pivotal moment in England's past. Don't miss the chance to embark on a journey through time and explore the legacy of the Early Medieval Cheddar Brooch at the Museum of Somerset in Taunton.

Viking Treasure Unearthed in a Norwegian Family's Backyard

In a quaint corner of Norway, an ordinary family embarked on a treasure hunt of their own, only to stumble upon an extraordinary piece of history. The Aasvik family, residing on the serene island of Jomfruland off the country's southern coast, had a rather unique experience while searching for a lost gold earring in their backyard this month. Little did they know that their quest would lead them to a trove of Viking-era artifacts dating back over a millennium.

The Aasvik family's remarkable discovery unfolded as they dusted off a trusty metal detector to assist in the search for the missing earring. While their intentions were to find a single piece of jewelry, they unwittingly embarked on an archaeological adventure. Instead of the earring, their metal detector signaled the presence of something much older and more profound: Viking relics.

Among the unearthed treasures were a bowl-shaped buckle and another item believed to be linked to a ninth-century Viking burial. These artifacts, now in the hands of experts, have reignited fascination with the Vikings and their presence on Jomfruland. According to the Cultural Heritage of Vestfold and Telemark County Council, the family may have inadvertently discovered the remains of a woman's grave, carefully preserved beneath the roots of a large tree in their garden. Radiocarbon dating suggests that these items date back to around the year AD 800.

The two Viking-era artifacts discovered under a tree in the Aasvik family’s yard. Kulturarv i Vestfold og Telemark fylkeskommune

The Aasvik family acted responsibly upon their discovery, promptly contacting local authorities to report their findings. Their vigilance ensures that these precious historical artifacts will be properly preserved, studied, and shared with the world.

Prior to this serendipitous find, archaeologists had scant evidence of Viking settlements on Jomfruland, with their knowledge extending primarily to the Middle Ages. This newfound trove represents a groundbreaking discovery, as it is believed to be the first tangible evidence of a Viking-era presence on the island. It promises to shed light on the lives and customs of the Vikings, who inhabited this remote corner of the world more than a millennium ago.

The Aasvik family's story is not the only remarkable Viking discovery to unfold in Norway recently. On the southern island of Rennesøy, amateur archaeologist Erlend Bore made headlines with his metal detector. Initially mistaking his find for foil-wrapped chocolate coins, Bore uncovered nine pendants, three rings, and ten gold pearls, believed to be from around AD 500. Archaeologists have referred to this remarkable discovery as "the gold find of the century in Norway."

However, it's important to note that in Norway, the law strictly prohibits individuals from keeping artifacts dating before 1537 and coins that predate 1650, as they are considered state property. These regulations are in place to preserve the nation's historical heritage for the benefit of all.

The Aasvik family’s garden where the Viking-era artifacts were unearthed. Kulturarv i Vestfold og Telemark fylkeskommune

The Aasvik family's accidental discovery serves as a testament to the enduring allure of history, which often lies just beneath the surface, waiting to be uncovered. Their find not only enriches our understanding of Viking history but also highlights the importance of responsible stewardship of our cultural heritage. As the artifacts are examined and preserved for future generations, we can only wonder what other hidden treasures may lie beneath the earth, waiting for their moment to be revealed.

Abydos: 5,000-Year-Old Wine and Clues to a Mysterious Queen's Reign Unearthed in Egyptian Tomb

In the vast and enigmatic realm of Egyptian archaeology, discoveries continue to shed light on the ancient civilization's rich history and the lives of its prominent figures. Recently, an Egyptian-German-Austrian archaeological mission working in Upper Egypt unearthed a remarkable treasure trove in the tomb of Queen Merneith, located in Abydos, Sohag.

Among the findings were well-preserved sealed vessels containing 5,000-year-old wine, offering a tantalizing glimpse into the past. The discovery was made by a dedicated team of archaeologists, led by Christiana Kohler, who are tirelessly working to unravel the secrets of Queen Merneith's life and reign. Mostafa Waziri, the Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, described the vessels as large in size and remarkably intact, having remained unopened for millennia.

This find represents a remarkable opportunity for researchers to study ancient wine and gain insights into the winemaking practices of the time. Dietrich Raue, the director of the German Archaeological Institute, emphasized that the discovery goes beyond the ancient wine. The mission has also unveiled new details about the life of Queen Merneith, who has long been shrouded in mystery.

Inscriptions on one of the tablets found inside the tomb indicate that Queen Merneith held a position of significant authority, overseeing central government offices. This revelation challenges previous assumptions about the roles of women in ancient Egyptian society, highlighting the potential prominence of Queen Merneith's role in governance. As the team continues to explore the tomb, Christiana Kohler expressed her excitement about the insights gained thus far.

The tomb itself is a fascinating testament to ancient construction methods, constructed using raw bricks, clay, and wooden planks. This provides valuable information about the architectural techniques of the time, further enriching our understanding of ancient Egypt's craftsmanship.

One of the most intriguing aspects of this discovery is the rarity of Queen Merneith's royal tomb in Abydos. Kohler explained that, to date, Queen Merneith may be the only woman from the First Dynasty whose royal tomb has been uncovered in Abydos. This makes the findings all the more exceptional, offering a unique opportunity to delve into the life and legacy of this enigmatic queen.

The tomb not only contains insights into Queen Merneith's life but also provides a glimpse into the social structure of ancient Egyptian society. Buried near the queen are 41 tombs belonging to her courtiers and servants. These individuals played vital roles in the queen's life and were given a place of honor in her final resting place. Intriguingly, the mission is far from over, and researchers are tirelessly working to uncover more information about Queen Merneith's life, her reign, and the significance of the sealed wine vessels.

Each discovery offers a new piece of the puzzle, gradually bringing Queen Merneith and her time back to life in our collective imagination. The archaeological mission in Abydos serves as a testament to the enduring allure of ancient Egypt and its endless capacity to surprise us with glimpses into the past. As researchers continue to meticulously study the contents of Queen Merneith's tomb, we can look forward to even more revelations about this remarkable queen and the civilization she was a part of. The 5,000-year-old wine, once enjoyed by the queen, now offers a toast to the enduring curiosity and dedication of modern archaeologists.

Ancient Manifestations of Monotheism: From Akhenaten and Moses to the Greek Philosophers

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The evolution of monotheistic thought within the ancient civilizations surrounding the Eastern Mediterranean provides a rich tapestry, interweaving cultural, philosophical, and religious transformations. From the revolutionary religious edicts of Akhenaten in Egypt to the moral and ethical directives handed down to Moses and culminating in the complex metaphysical musings of Greek philosophers, monotheism began to take shape in various forms and conceptions.

Akhenaten: An Early Foray into Monotheism

Pharaoh Akhenaten of Egypt introduced a form of monotheism in the 14th century BC, shifting traditional Egyptian polytheism towards the exclusive worship of the Aten, the sun disk. Although the reasoning behind Akhenaten's shift towards monotheism remains a subject of debate among historians, his reign represents one of the earliest recorded instances of monotheistic practice. The cult of Aten rejected the multitude of gods traditionally worshiped in Egypt, positioning Aten as the singular, supreme deity.

Moses and the Emergence of Israelite Monotheism

Concurrently, or perhaps shortly after, the emergence of monotheism can be seen within the Hebrew Bible's figure of Moses, who purportedly received divine laws from Yahweh, the singular God of the Israelites. The Covenant established between Yahweh and His chosen people set forth a unique relationship, distinguishing it from the surrounding polytheistic practices and thereby shaping the trajectory of Abrahamic religions. Although the exact date of Judaism's origin is not pinpointed, the covenant between the patriarch Abraham and God, which is also considered a fundamental event in the formation of Judaism, is traditionally dated to around 1800 BC.

Troels Myrup / Flickr

The Philosophical Monotheism of Greece

Moving ahead to Greece, intellectual explorations into the nature of divinity, existence, and the cosmos led several philosophers towards postulating singular principles or entities that bear resemblance to monotheistic deities.

Xenophanes of Colophon criticized anthropomorphic deities, positing instead an eternal, unmoving, singular god that permeates all things with the power of thought.

Anaxagoras, on the other hand, introduced "Nous" (Mind) as an infinite, self-ruled, and imperishable entity responsible for the creation and order seen in the cosmos.

Plato’s realm of forms was ruled by the “good,” a superior, singular entity. His cosmological dialogues, such as "Timaeus," further introduced a divine craftsman, or demiurge, organizing chaos according to eternal forms.

Aristotle proposed a Prime Mover, an ultimate, unchanging reality that moves everything else in the cosmos as the object of ultimate desire.

Synthesizing Ancient Monotheistic Threads

Although these figures and cultures expressed divergent and often incompatible forms of monotheism, they collectively illustrate an intriguing intellectual and spiritual journey towards understanding a unified, singular divinity. The cultural, social, and political implications of these monotheistic tendencies were profound, influencing the moral, ethical, and legal structures of their respective societies and those that followed.

From the stringent devotion to Aten, the covenantal monotheism of the Israelites, to the philosophical explorations of divinity by Greek thinkers, these ancient manifestations of monotheistic belief showcase humanity's perpetual quest to comprehend the divine, exploring the fundamental questions regarding existence, morality, and the cosmos.

Xenophanes, ancient Greek philosopher. From Thomas Stanley, (1655), The history of philosophy: containing the lives, opinions, actions and Discourses of the Philosophers of every Sect, illustrated with effigies of divers of them.

Cross-Cultural Interplay and Theological Syncretism in eastern MEDITERRANEAN

The intricate web of interactions and influences among ancient cultures around the eastern Mediterranean was pivotal in shaping theological and philosophical discourses. Akhenaten’s radical religious reformation, for example, may have reverberated across borders, potentially influencing early Israelite monotheism. Similarly, the exodus of the Israelites and their interactions with various civilizations, as documented in biblical texts, might imply a sharing and borrowing of religious and philosophical ideas, although the exact historical accuracy and timelines remain subjects of scholarly debate.

Furthermore, the ancient Greeks were not isolated in their philosophical endeavors. Their interactions with Eastern philosophies and the wider Mediterranean world—through conquests, trade, and cultural exchanges—undeniably impregnated their thought processes. The confluence of Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and later Persian ideas provided fertile ground for the Greeks' metaphysical speculations.

Such cross-cultural exchanges and syncretism were not mere appropriations but rather complex, reciprocal interactions that enriched and diversified the evolving theological and philosophical paradigms in the ancient world. This syncretism underscores the importance of considering the interconnectedness of these civilizations when examining the emergence and development of monotheistic ideas and practices within their respective contexts.

The eastern Mediterranean, with its diverse cultures and geographies, became a vibrant cradle for the evolution of theological and philosophical thought as both isolated and interconnected societies explored the concept of a singular divine entity or principle. These multifaceted manifestations of monotheism, whether strictly religious or philosophical, reveal a profound, sustained human impulse toward understanding the universe and our place within it, ultimately shaping the theological and philosophical foundations of the civilizations that succeeded them.

The Amazon Rainforest Hides at least 10,000 Pre-Columbian Structures, According to New Research

Long before the Amazon rainforest captured the world's imagination as a pristine wilderness teeming with biodiversity, it was home to a thriving population of Indigenous people who created a staggering number of earthworks, still largely hidden beneath the dense canopy. A recent study published in Science has shed light on this fascinating aspect of Amazonian history, revealing the existence of over 10,000 pre-Columbian earthwork structures, and the implications of this discovery are far-reaching.

Earthworks: A Hidden Legacy

The research, led by Vinícius Peripato, a doctoral candidate in remote sensing at Brazil's National Institute for Space Research, and his colleagues, harnessed the power of light detection and ranging (lidar) technology to uncover these hidden marvels. Lidar is an aerial scanning technique that uses lasers to map the Earth's surface with incredible precision. While initially focused on studying biomass in the Amazon, the researchers stumbled upon 24 novel earthworks during their analysis, adding to the approximately 1,000 known examples.

These earthworks, ranging in age from 500 to 1,500 years, included a fortified village, settlements, religious sites, and even intricate geoglyphs. The discovery of a fortified village with a central plaza hints at the existence of complex urban networks in the southern Amazon. Moreover, geoglyphs, a form of land art created by shaping dirt into designs that can only be appreciated from above, added another layer of intrigue to this ancient civilization's creativity.

The Invisible Amazon

To arrive at their estimate of 10,000, or possibly even double that number of hidden earthworks, the researchers employed computer modeling. This modeling considered various geographical factors, including proximity to water, elevation, and soil type. This comprehensive approach illuminated the immense scale of human involvement in the Amazon rainforest.

The significance of this revelation extends far beyond mere numbers. Archaeologist Eduardo Neves of the University of São Paulo suggests that the Amazon is not merely a "natural" region but a "biocultural" one, shaped by the interaction of humans with their environment. This study underscores the idea that the Amazon has a rich history of human habitation and is not just a wild expanse of nature.

People and Their Mark on the Forest

Intriguingly, the research also uncovered the presence of certain tree species, such as the Brazil nut and breadnut, near earthwork sites. This observation suggests that the Indigenous people were cultivating these trees and reaping their nutritional benefits at sites they frequented. This intriguing aspect not only aids archaeologists in pinpointing potential earthwork locations but also provides a tangible connection to the past.

Ratanabá laser scanning. Photo credit: Ecossistema Dakila.

A Political Tool for Indigenous Stewardship

Perhaps the most compelling aspect of this discovery is its potential impact on the Indigenous people of the Amazon. As they battle to protect their ancestral lands from encroaching agricultural interests and other threats, the research serves as a powerful testament to their deep connection with the rainforest. The study lends credence to Indigenous claims of having inhabited and shaped the Amazon for millennia.

Eduardo Neves argues that "there's no future for the forest without a future for the people who have been living there for the last millennia." The study supports the Indigenous people's plea for official stewardship of the forest, recognizing their role in the Amazon's ecological and cultural history.

The revelation of over 10,000 hidden pre-Columbian earthworks beneath the Amazon rainforest is a testament to the enduring power of technology to unveil the secrets of our past. Beyond the sheer number of structures lies a profound story of human interaction with the environment, shaping the Amazon into a "biocultural" landscape. This discovery not only highlights the importance of preserving the Amazon's rich heritage but also strengthens the Indigenous people's claim to the forest they have called home for countless generations. As lidar technology continues to advance, we can only anticipate more surprises waiting to be unearthed in the depths of the Amazon, further enriching our understanding of this enigmatic rainforest and its ancient inhabitants.

Pyramids of Purpose: Probing the Multidimensional Mysteries of Ancient Giza

The Timeless Majesty of the Pyramids of Giza: Function and Enduring Significance

Nestled on the Giza Plateau, just on the outskirts of Cairo, the Pyramids of Giza have long stood as paragons of ancient Egyptian ingenuity and are a testament to their civilization’s complex belief systems and architectural prowess. While the pyramids primarily functioned as elaborate tombs, they also served as an enduring symbol of the sophisticated socio-religious dynamics of ancient Egypt. This article endeavors to delve into the primary function of these monumental structures and explore their persistent significance in contemporary culture and global history.

Function: Monumental Tombs and Astronomical Significance

The primary function of the pyramids was to serve as tombs for the pharaohs and, occasionally, their consorts. Not merely graves, these structures facilitated the king's journey to the afterlife, ensuring eternal life and prosperity.

The orientation and location of the pyramids also bear astronomical significance. The pyramids are aligned with incredible precision with cardinal points and celestial bodies, such as the stars in Orion's Belt, which were associated with Osiris, the god of the afterlife and resurrection.

Within the confines of the pyramids, a pharaoh’s body, along with a wealth of treasures, artifacts, and texts (like the Pyramid Texts), were interred to assist and sustain them in the afterlife.

Symbolizing the pharaoh's divine status and authority, the construction of the pyramids also served to showcase the state’s resources, organizational skills, and control over labor and materials.

Enduring Significance: Historical, Cultural, and Scientific Implications

The Pyramids of Giza, especially the Great Pyramid, stand as an iconic representation of ancient Egypt, symbolizing its rich history, culture, and technological advancements.

The construction of the pyramids, involving the precise placement of massive stone blocks without the aid of modern machinery, continues to be a subject of study and admiration for architects, engineers, and archaeologists.

Serving as a link between the earthly and divine, the pyramids convey the complex religious beliefs and practices of ancient Egypt, encapsulating themes of death, the afterlife, and divinity.

The pyramids facilitate ongoing scientific and archaeological research, offering insights into ancient Egyptian society, beliefs, practices, and technological capabilities.

Reflection on Collective Human Achievement

The Pyramids of Giza, while rooted in the specific religious and social contexts of ancient Egypt, transcend their original function and context in their significance. They stand not just as a reflection of the achievements of ancient Egyptian civilization but also as a mirror through which we can view the capacities, aspirations, and mysteries of the collective human spirit. These structures echo with the endeavors, beliefs, and capabilities of a society that, while distant in time and context, shares with all of humanity a quest for understanding, immortality, and a desire to bridge the temporal and the eternal.

As we gaze upon the lofty peaks of the Pyramids of Giza, we are invited to ponder not only the mysteries they hold within their ancient chambers but also the undying human spirit that endeavors to touch the divine. The pyramids, while emblematic of ancient Egypt, belong not only to the past but continue to cast their shadow, weaving a timeless tapestry that encompasses history, culture, science, and the eternal quest for meaning and transcendence. In their silent majesty, the pyramids continue to tell a story that is at once ancient and perpetually new—a narrative of humanity’s ceaseless journey towards understanding the cosmos, life, death, and the divine.

Who Created Money and What Is the Oldest Currency in the World?

Money has existed among humans for thousands of years. Find out more about the earliest forms of money in history, such as coins, shells, and livestock.

Pull out some change from your pockets. If you're in the United States, you'll probably find some tattered bills and a few dull coins. What you are carrying is a small amount of history, even though they may not seem like much.

Your worn-out dollar bill is one of many that have been produced in the United States since 1862. The penny first debuted in 1793, three years before the quarter was introduced in 1796. Some of them are possibly in your possession, forgotten at the base of your bag.

Of course, human cash has a much longer history than only the 18th and 19th centuries. The usage of money and coins has been a major component of human culture for thousands of years. But when did it begin, and what were the first kinds of money in existence?

Coins from different countries of the world (Liiiz/shutterstock)

Inventors of Money

Money's origins are hazy and tangled up in uncertainty. Archaeologists and historians can only guess at the history of ancient civilizations because they arose at various times and used a variety of diverse methods to document it (some of which were more rigorous or permanent than others).

But in general, money emerged as a means of exchange. Since its creation, commodities and services have been exchanged for physical items like coins and pieces of paper. Many economists now maintain that the development of currency was necessary to replace the barter system, which allowed for direct exchanges of commodities and services without the need of money.

Who Made Money?

The Wealth of Nations, written by Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith in 1776, promoted the notion that barter will eventually give way to cash. However, several contemporary economic anthropologists disagree with this assertion.

Adam Smith was a pioneer in the thinking of political economy (Credit: ismailyildiz/Shutterstock)

The late anthropologist David Graeber argued that there is little proof that currency has replaced barter in his 2011 book Debt: The First 5,000 Years. Instead, Graeber proposed that before coins and cash took over, humans employed mediums of account—systems of debt and credit, recorded in items like ledgers and promissory notes.

The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland released a paper by British anthropologist Caroline Humphrey in 1985 that came to a similar result. "No example of a barter economy, pure and simple, has ever been described, let alone the emergence from it of money," the author said. Because of this, the debates over "money from barter" and "barter from money" are still debatable, complex, and far from being resolved.

Whatever occurred first, though, one thing is for sure: Humans eventually began using objects as currency, giving those objects a tremendous amount of value.

What Types of Currency Were the First?

Shell money (made of shells or beads) and commodity money (made of things with a practical use, like grain), both of which appear to have made up early forms of currency all over the world—from the Indigenous tribes of America to the villages of Africa to the people of Asia and the South Pacific islands—appear to have existed at the same time.

Chinese shell money from 3,000 years ago. (Credit: PHGCOM, CC BY-SA)

Numerous other items, including tea bricks, animals (think "The Price Is Right" with cows), diamonds, and metal bits, were probably utilized as early kinds of payment. However, along with a few other prehistoric civilizations, ancient China, ancient India, and ancient Greece are the only known places where coins were used as currency.

Coins were first created when?

Cowrie shells were used as the country's earliest form of money, but these little trinkets were quickly augmented and replaced with metal coins. Some academics believe that during the 8th and 5th centuries B.C., during the Spring and Autumn Period, this transformation took place.

Similarly, the first attempts at metal money in India were "punch-marked coins," which were primarily made of silver and imprinted with organic shapes and symbols beginning in the sixth century B.C.

Chinese coin from early 1400s found in Kenya (Credit: Chapurukha Kusimba)

The drachma, a coin called after the Greek phrase that means "to grasp," was introduced by the ancient Greeks at the same time in the 6th century B.C. That moniker makes more sense when you realize that it supposedly had an original worth of a few arrows. Up until 2002, the drachma served as the country's official tender before being replaced by the euro.

The silver sigloi (shekel) and the gold daric, which were produced in the Achaemenid Empire, situated in present-day Iran, between 550 and 330 B.C., are other coins from the 6th century B.C.

Lydian Stater Coins, Early Turkish Money

However, according to tradition, the Lydian stater is the oldest of the old. This piece, which was manufactured by King Alyattes in a region that is now a portion of Turkey in the seventh century B.C., is often regarded as the earliest state-produced coin. These Lydian coins are constructed of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver that occurs naturally.

The Lydian stater was introduced in the kingdom of Lydia over 2,600 years ago. (Credit: lego 19861111/Shutterstock)

In contrast to modern coins, the ancient coins were less homogeneous and frequently resembled oval or bean-shaped bits of metal that had designs stamped into them. The Lydian Lion, a lion and bull confronting each other, came to be known as the Lydian Lion. The coins were produced in Sardis, the Lydian capital.

The stater, like the drachma, deric, and shekel, was expected to meet a specified size requirement, therefore the Lydian coins were all roughly the same size and weight.

Spade Coins: Ancient Chinese Currency

The Lydian Stater held the record for the oldest coin for a long time. However, a study released by Cambridge University Press in August 2021 gave credence to the idea of even earlier currency.

Two ancient Chinese Spade coins on exhibit at the Shanxi Museum (Credit: Freer/Shutterstock)

Clay molds for manufacturing spade coins were discovered during excavations of a bronze foundry at Guanzhuang, in the Henan Province of China. According to a study by Chinese researchers, the features of the molds showed that the location was probably used as a mint to produce uniform coins, and radiocarbon dating suggests that coin minting may have started as early as 640 B.C., roughly the time Lydia's King Alyattes was born.

With any coins created there potentially being older than even the Lydian stater, this would make the Chinese foundry, which was located close to the city's administrative center, the earliest known coin minting location in the entire world. Additional research will be necessary to determine which coin is actually the oldest, but this much is known from the study: Whatever the exact date of its minting, Guanzhuang money was unquestionably old.

Significant Archaeological Find in Egyptian Pyramid

Scientists have discovered previously undiscovered chambers in the Sahure pyramid at Giza, Egypt.

Mohamed Khaled, an Egyptologist at Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (JMU) in Germany, oversaw the excavation. His crew discovered several rooms (or "magazines") that were probably used to store "funeral furniture." They claim to shed new light on both the pyramid itself and the Fifth Dynasty pharaoh Sahure, who ruled approximately 2500 B.C.

Khaled's goal, according to his results report, was to maintain the integrity of the pyramid. He began stabilizing the building from the inside in 2019 by moving from room to room. They discovered the chambers that earlier explorers had been unable to access during this operation.

That was undoubtedly a wonderful moment, Khaled told Men's Journal. We were jumping with joy because we had accomplished something no one had ever done before. His group and the building crew had a hastily organized celebration.

Mohamed Khaled examines the passageways within the pyramid.

John Perring had observed clues of corridors that he believed went to storage rooms during a related mission in 1836, but they were inaccessible due to rubble and general disrepair. Khaled and his team gained a slight advantage by meticulously mapping the inside and outside of the pyramid using 3D laser scanning. Their work has finally shown John Perring's theory to be correct. Our technology and the skilled staff allowed us to accomplish this, Khaled remarked.

Describing their discovery, the Egyptologist told us: “The rooms are magazines for the funerary furniture of King Sahure. Unfortunately, we did not find anything inside, but one can imagine that King Sahura had more treasures than King Tutankhamun. The state under Sahura's reign had a very strong economic situation.”

So far, eight chambers have been discovered. Some of the original walls and some of the floor can still be seen, but the majority of them have undergone considerable deterioration over time. Khaled and his colleagues restored the broken walls with new retaining walls to make sure the pyramid wouldn't eventually collapse.

Khaled and his crew intend to open it to guests after the renovation is finished so that everyone can explore King Sahure's hidden chambers.

'Exceptional' 2,000-Year-Old Female Marble Statue Found by Archaeologists

According to archaeologists, an "exceptional" Roman-era marble statue has been found in Italy.

Between the middle of the first century B.C. and the middle of the first century A.D., the female figure was created approximately 2,000 years ago.

The statue was discovered during excavations at the Tusculum archaeological site by researchers from the Spanish School of History and Archaeology of Rome (EEHAR), a division of the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC).

The life-sized statue, according to EEHAR director Antonio Pizzo, is "a true rarity."

The Alban Hills, which are on the outskirts of Rome, are where Tusculum is located. The wealthy used this neighborhood—known for its opulent palaces and country estates—as a retreat from the capital in ancient times.

According to the researchers, the statue is of exceptional quality and condition despite being lacking its head and some of its arms. It most likely formerly belonged to a city's historic bathhouse.

"This is an exceptional discovery. At the time of discovery, only part of the statue's back was visible and it was lying on a thin layer of painted stucco, so it would be part of the ornamental program of the thermal baths," Pizzo said in an EEHAR press release.

He later told Newsweek: "It is a unique find in the panorama of current archaeology.

"It is not at all common to find statues in current archaeological excavations in this state of conservation and with this level of execution, rich in details and ornamental elements."

The detail of the attire, the anatomical features, and the representation of a deer skin hanging from the breast are some of the highlights of the statue's "absolutely exceptional" quality of execution, according to Pizzo.

The researchers hypothesize that the presence of this fawn skin indicates a connection to the worship of the god Dionysus. Dionysus, also known as Bacchus, was a Greco-Roman deity who was associated with, among other things, wine, fruit, greenery, fertility, ceremonial lunacy, and ecstasy. His adherents were frequently portrayed with deer skins on.

German researchers revealed in August that they had discovered a Roman-era bath complex beneath a city's streets.

The find was made while a fountain was being built in Neumarkt, the city's center and a city with a roughly 2,000-year history in the west of the country.

Researchers in Israel claimed in September that they had found a hoard of Roman-era weapons stashed away in a distant cave.

According to the Israel Antiquities Authority, the stash contained four Roman swords from 1,900 years ago that were remarkably well-preserved. A pilum, a sort of spear used by the Roman army and often measuring around 6 feet in length, was also found within.

In the En Gedi Nature Reserve, just west of the Dead Sea, sits the cave where the weapons were discovered. According to the antiquities office, the tiny cave is concealed amid a group of remote rocks that are inaccessible.

A prehistoric village exhibits an advanced drainage system

Reader Jo Bird has raised the issue of where the original inhabitants of Thixendale obtained their water once more. You may recall that the discovery of stone tools in barrows, or burial mounds, scattered across the landscape, provides evidence of human activity in the Thixendale region dating back to the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods (Middle Stone Age, 7,000–10,000 years ago, and New Stone Age, 5,000–7,000 years ago). For obvious reasons, communities sprang established near water sources, although Thixendale is located in a dry valley.

Jo observes: “I suspect that even if there has never been a water course, that in previous centuries when the water table was higher, there were wells…I was brought up in Norfolk where the underlying geology is chalk, as at Thixendale, and the village where I lived had no water course, but there were several wells which were in use until mains water was supplied, I recall in the early 1950s, but there is no sign of them now.”

She adds: “I remember the location of two wells in my Norfolk village, but there has been no trace of them for simply ages. There would have been more, I’m sure. You could perhaps ask anyone who lived at Thixendale before about 1950 if they knew of or used wells…it’s likely that there are lots of villages that once had wells but no trace of them now. People of 80ish or more might recall.”

Jo makes a valid point concerning wells, and anyone who is old enough to remember how they obtained water for their homes before to being connected to the mains is encouraged to share their memories. We concurred with Jo's assertion that wells would probably have provided Thixendale with water in later centuries, but we questioned whether the Mesolithic and Neolithic era's early inhabitants would have had the engineering know-how to penetrate deeply enough into the chalky layers below the ground to reach the fresh water that lay there.

Naturally, that prompted us to do some research online, and it astonished us to discover that they did. The first human-made drinking water well was discovered in Israel's Jezreel Valley and dates to about 6500 BC. Nothing comparable from that time period has yet been discovered on our beaches, but on Mainland, the main island of the Orkneys, there is a community known as Skara Brae, a stone-built Neolithic village. With a sophisticated water and drainage system that includes toilets with the ability to flush waste away from the house through specially created channels, it is one of the best-preserved prehistoric communities in Western Europe. It was inhabited from about 3000 BC until 2500 BC. Even though there is no mention of a well, this is evidence that prehistoric Europeans had the necessary engineering abilities. This is probably because fresh water was easily accessible from the adjacent Loch of Skaill.

We were engrossed as soon as we started reading about Skara Brae. We frequently give the Romans credit for teaching us complex engineering, but it appears that the inhabitants of this isolated island were already rather knowledgeable, as evidenced by the establishment of a thriving society concealed behind a collection of huge middens (mounds of garbage). This underground manner of life made sure that homes were protected from the severe northern coastal weather and that valuable heat was conserved. Flat stone slabs were used to construct a collection of one-room homes that each measured around 40 square feet, connected by covered passageways. Each home also had a working drainage system and "built-in" stone furnishings like beds, chairs, dressers, a central hearth, and a tank dug into the ground that researchers think was used to contain the filth from the preparation of their primary food source, fish. Tools, dice for games, food and drink containers, stone carvings, and jewelry in the shape of beads, necklaces, and pendants were among the artifacts found.

As previously established, Skara Brae's ancient inhabitants had no need to drill any wells. Nevertheless, we contemporary people have a propensity to desire for our dreams to come true while throwing loose coins down anything that resembles a well. Visitors to Skara Brae have been dropping their coins into what they believed to be a wishing well for years in the hopes of winning the lottery. Unfortunately, as one funny tour guide observed, they have literally been flushing their money down the drain!

Remains of a secret castle were discovered beneath a parking lot in Devon

In Great Torrington, archaeologists are hard at work locating the remains of a long-lost ancient fortress. Interesting finds, including medieval pottery, glass, metal, and perhaps even building materials, have already been made.

A continuous stream of people have visited the site to see what is being accomplished, and many of them were eager to get involved even though the deadline for closing the community involvement register was weeks past.

The Barley Grove parking lot, the nearby "tump," and the bowling green have concealed the presence of a big and significant castle in the town's center. The castle is once again center stage for the neighborhood after being mostly forgotten about and, as late as the 1970s, judged to be of no historic interest. A team of expert archaeologists is currently excavating a number of trenches and pits to see if any relics of the castle's past are still present.

The dig, which started on Saturday, September 23, will provide over 100 community members and 120 schoolchildren the chance to participate in every facet of a real excavation. It will last until October 8.

TRENCH ONE WELL UNDERWAY CREDIT P.SEED

On September 30, the dig organized a general open day from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. so that anybody may attend, view the findings, and speak with team members. The following day is a family day, which is fully booked, so that adults and their younger family members can participate together.

A GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar) search of the nearby Bowling Green area, which is known to contain many building remnants from later-built portions of the ancient castle, has also been granted permission to the team. The events occurring throughout the older castle ruins will be perfectly complemented by this.

Local resident and lead archaeologist of the voluntary group, Emily Wapshott, says: "Torrington's Norman motte and bailey castle site has not received much specific research attention in the past and there is much we still don't know about the site. We hope to be able to gain a better understanding of what remains of the early earthworks and how they may relate to the areas under the bowling green, some parts of which have been previously excavated. The castle was the seat of one of Devon's great Norman Baronies, so deserves to be put back on the map."

WITH STAFF AND VOLUNTEERS LOOKING ON. CREDIT P.SEED

The Dig the Castle administrative team has spent the last 18 months laying the groundwork for the ambitious project with funding provided by grants and collaborations from the numerous Torridge and Great Torrington councils, councillors, and businesses.

John Eeles, lead administrator, says that the “opportunity for the whole of the community to ‘do’ a bit of archaeology, in their own town, and learn more of the history of the place they live, is exciting, and allied to the recently opened Heritage Trail and website within the town, will provide a legacy for the town’s residents and visitors for the future.”

Scythian Sceptre from 2,500 Years Ago Discovered Near Provadia

In the final days of this season's excavations at the prehistoric salt mining and urban center "Provadia - Solnitsata" in Northeast Bulgaria, archaeologists discovered a 2,500-year-old Scythian sceptre, according to Vasil Nikolov, who is in charge of the project. The scepter was discovered in a cemetery that Kalina Samichkova and Violeta Stoitsova investigated.

According to Nikolov, the excavated pit is distinct from those already discovered. He emphasized the rarity of Scythian tombs in modern-day Northeastern Bulgaria. Only four or five have been found thus far, he continued.

The burial of the Scythian warrior is shaped like a hollowed-out boot. It was reportedly dug later, but when workers came across the man's missing upper skeleton and skull, they halted right away, according to Nikolov. The scholar referred to the bone scepter as "an incredible achievement of the art of that time" and archaeologists have finally discovered it. They also discovered the remains of a horse, a tiny dog, and a turtle in addition to the human bones. The iron knife that was used to bury the warrior has corroded over time and is in very bad shape.

According to Nikolov, the Scythians were a steppe and semi-steppe people who arrived on the Danube in the seventh century BC. There is no proof that they engaged in combat with the people after entering the area that is now Bulgaria. After the fifth century BC, there is information indicating that they engaged in conflict with the Thracians. Scientists assert that during the Early Bronze Age, the Scythians interred their dead in pre-existing mounds. Nikolov noted that this is the first time a grave has been discovered in a settlement mound.

Bone cutting was a highly skilled tradition that the Scythians had. Nikolov remarked that the sceptre was evidence of the masters' talent and that it most likely belonged to a commander of a small military force. The horse's bones in his tomb imply that the deceased was a cavalryman.

Its length is 39 centimeters. Two pieces of bone that have been cemented together form the handle. The sceptre's link between the head and handle is expertly made. From one angle, it appears to be an eagle's beak, but the ancient carver sculpted a human figure on which the beak appears to be a hat.

“I consulted one of the best experts on Scythian culture, the director of the Varna History Museum, Igor Lazarenko, but he, too, does not know of such a bone sceptre having been found before,” Nikolov said. “Those found so far are usually cruciform, with an ornithomorphic upper part. Most often the craftsmen carved an eagle, because this bird is part of the Scythian religious-mythological system,” he added.

Discover the Face of a Scottish Bronze Age Woman Before 4,000 years

A team of archaeologists working in Scotland in the 1990s discovered the 4,000-year-old skeletal remains of a young woman. She had been interred in a stone-lined cemetery while squatting. She was known as the Upper Largie Woman by archaeologists after the Upper Largie Quarry where she was discovered.

Now, a reconstruction of her possible appearance from the early Bronze Age has been made by an artist. The restored bust is presently on exhibit at the Kilmartin Museum in Scotland after her remains were meticulously reburied. According to Sandra Dick of the Herald, the museum reopened earlier this month following a three-year closure for a $8.4 million (£7 million) remodeling project.

Swedish artist and archaeologist Oscar Nilsson is the creator of the new reconstruction. In his portrayal, the woman has black, wavy hair that falls down her back and is braided in a little bun that is held in place by a thread close to her face. Her brow is slightly wrinkled as her amber eyes puzzle the viewer.

Nilsson frequently imagines that viewers of his reconstructions are peering into the world of a historical figure from the past, who is unaware of their presence. He chose to attempt turning that idea on its head in this instance, though: What if Upper Largie Woman was staring out at museum visitors?

“As you can see, she looks a bit critical to us (I don't blame her for that...)!” writes Nilsson in an email to Live Science’s Laura Geggel.

The bust has captured people's attention in the few weeks since the museum's reopening.

“The people who have already seen her are surprised,” says Sharon Webb, director and curator at the museum, to the London Times’ Mike Wade. “If you see a human skeleton in a museum, it might give you a sense of your own fleeting life, but when you look directly into the face of a person who lived in Kilmartin Glen 4,000 ago, and walked near here, the impact is altogether different.”

Nilsson started with a 3D-printed scan of the woman's head to produce the lifelike bust. Nilsson had to reconstruct her lower jaw and the left half of her cranium because they were both absent.

Then he thought about her gender, race, age, and weight. By examining her bones and teeth, archaeologists were able to infer that she passed away in her late 20s or early 30s after suffering from periods of disease or famine. She most likely spent her formative years in what is now Scotland and lived between 1500 and 2200 BCE.

Since archaeologists could not extract DNA from her remains, the woman's hair, eye and skin color remain unknown. Oscar Nilsson

Nilsson used this knowledge to attach pegs to the duplicate skull and start sculpting the woman's face tissue and muscles.

“For more than 100 years, there have been analyses made of tissue depth in the human face,” Nilsson tells the Times. “If I know the woman is from Scotland and of normal weight, 30 years old, I can search charts and tables for the context.”

The woman's burial also contained shards of Beaker pottery, which suggests she may have been a member of the Beaker civilization, which is distinguished by its bell-shaped pottery. Around 2400 B.C.E., this culture probably developed in Central Europe before spreading to modern-day Britain. Beaker people quickly took control, displacing the Neolithic settlements and other inhabitants.

“The carbon dating suggests she might be a descendant of the first Beaker newcomers,” Webb tells Live Science.

Nilsson had to make educated assumptions about the complexion, hair, and eye colors of Upper Largie Woman because archaeologists were unable to extract any DNA from her skeleton. She had a big, slightly raised nose, a broad mouth, a rounded forehead, and wide-set eyes, according to his analysis of her skull. "Some might even say there's a passing resemblance to Spice Girl Victoria Beckham," the Herald says.

Among the numerous fascinating archaeological finds uncovered nearby is Upper Largie Woman. According to the Times, archaeologists have discovered more than 800 structures that date back thousands of years within six miles of the museum. Additionally, they have found more than 22,000 items.

Remains of an Ancient Greek Courtesan Found in Israel

Archaeologists in Israel have recently made an extraordinary discovery that sheds new light on the lives of ancient Greek courtesans. In a burial cave near Kibbutz Ramat Rachel, not far from Jerusalem, the remains of a young woman have been found, alongside a remarkably well-preserved bronze box mirror, dating back to sometime between the late 4th century and early 3rd century BCE.

This discovery, a result of collaborative research by Tel Aviv University and the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), has the potential to rewrite history books and provide a glimpse into the world of these enigmatic figures from antiquity. The excavation team, led by Guy Stiebel from Tel Aviv University's department of archaeology and the Ancient Near East, believes that this find could be the first-ever discovery of a hetaira, a term used in Ancient Greece to describe courtesans.

According to Stiebel, "If we are correct with our interpretation, it appears that this burial points to the very unique circumstances of what we call a hetaira, a Greek lady who accompanied one of the Hellenistic government officials, or more likely a high general." This discovery could potentially provide valuable insights into the lives and roles of these intriguing women in the Hellenistic period.

The Hellenistic age, which spanned from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE to the conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 BCE, marked a significant cultural and political transformation in the Middle East and the eastern Mediterranean. Stiebel and his team believe that the woman buried in this cave might have been among the first Greeks to arrive in the region, possibly accompanying a high-ranking military figure during this pivotal period in history.

The centerpiece of this discovery is the perfectly preserved bronze box mirror found alongside the cremated remains of the young woman. Liat Oz, the director of the excavation on behalf of the IAA, described the mirror as "only the second mirror of this type that has been discovered to date in Israel, and in total, only 63 mirrors of this type are known around the Hellenistic world." Its exceptional quality and condition provide a fascinating glimpse into the artistic and cultural sophistication of the time.

Folding box mirrors like this one were commonly found in tombs and temples throughout the Greco-Hellenistic world, often adorned with engravings or reliefs of idealized female figures or goddesses. Stiebel suggests that a woman of high status might have received such a mirror as part of her dowry, although this is unlikely in this instance, as married women rarely left their homes in ancient Greece.

An alternative possibility is that the young woman was a courtesan, similar to the role of Japanese geishas. Hetairai, like geishas, were not only companions but also providers of culture and entertainment, receiving gifts from the men they entertained. The decision to cremate the woman's remains is a significant clue about her origins. Cremation was not a practice in the region or the religion, making it an intriguing anomaly.

Stiebel speculates that the remote location of the tomb, far from any settlement, suggests a connection to a military campaign, possibly linked to the time of Alexander the Great or shortly thereafter. "We are suggesting that maybe she was with one of the generals," he says.

Another intriguing aspect of the discovery is the presence of four iron nails alongside the mirror and remains. Stiebel explains that these nails may have been used both to protect the deceased and to ensure that the dead would not return to the world of the living, a belief that was prevalent in ancient cultures. The research into this remarkable find is ongoing, with the hope of uncovering more about the mirror's origin, the history of its owner, and the context in which it was buried.

The findings will be presented at an Israeli archaeology conference, promising to be a significant contribution to our understanding of ancient Greek culture and the enigmatic lives of courtesans in the Hellenistic era. This discovery not only brings a woman who lived over two millennia ago back to life but also rekindles our curiosity about the rich and complex tapestry of history that continues to unravel before us.

Beauty Secrets from Ancient Rome: Cosmetics Unearthed in Aizanoi, Turkey

In the heart of Anatolia, modern Turkey, lies the ancient city of Aizanoi, where the sands of time have revealed a treasure trove of beauty secrets from the Roman era. Archaeologists have recently unearthed remnants of cosmetic products, jewelry, and makeup materials, offering us a fascinating glimpse into the daily lives of Roman women over 2,000 years ago.

Aizanoi, known for its well-preserved Temple of Zeus, listed on the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List in 2012, has once again made headlines in the world of archaeology. Headed by Gokhan Coskun, an archaeologist at Dumlupinar University, the excavation team focused their efforts in the agora (marketplace) east of the Temple of Zeus. What they found surpassed their expectations.

Coskun explains that their work extended not only inside the shops but also around them, leading to a wealth of discoveries. Inscriptions uncovered during these excavations provide insights into how these ancient shops were established and operated, shedding light on the city's commercial and social structure. One of the most exciting finds was a shop that specialized in selling cosmetic products.

Coskun elaborates, "During the excavation here, we encountered a large number of perfume bottles. In addition to these, there are jewelry items. Among these, there are various beads belonging to products such as hairpins and necklaces used by women." These remnants leave no doubt that makeup and adornment were important aspects of Roman women's lives. Perhaps the most intriguing discovery was the makeup materials themselves.

Coskun reveals, "One of the most surprising findings was that we came across makeup pigments similar to blush and eyeshadow used today. Of course, they are not in a very well-preserved state. Sometimes they are found in 1 or 2-millimeter pieces. We also found well-preserved pieces during the excavation." Intriguingly, these makeup pigments were often housed inside oyster shells, a clever and innovative packaging choice by the Romans.

Coskun adds, "We also encountered a large number of oyster shells in the shop we excavated." The predominant colors discovered were red and pink, with makeup pigments found in 10 different hues, showcasing the diversity of cosmetics available even in ancient times. Aizanoi's history is a tapestry woven with threads from various eras. Located 57 kilometers from the city center of Kutahya, the ancient site enjoyed its golden age in the second and third centuries AD, eventually becoming the center of the episcopacy in the Byzantine era.

Recent excavations around the Temple of Zeus have revealed multiple layers of settlement dating as far back as 3000 BC. In 133 BC, it fell under the rule of the Roman Empire, leaving behind traces of their rich culture and lifestyle. The rediscovery of Aizanoi by European travelers in 1824 marked the beginning of its modern archaeological exploration. Subsequent efforts by the German Archaeology Institute between 1970 and 2011 unearthed a wealth of ancient structures, including a theater, stadium, public baths, gymnasium, bridges, a trading building, necropolises, and the sacred cave of Metre Steune, a cultist site believed to predate the first century BC.

Since 2011, Turkish archaeologists have taken the reins of exploration, with this year's excavations transferring to the Kutahya Museum Directorate, allowing them to continue uncovering the secrets of Aizanoi's past. The unearthing of Roman-era makeup materials in Aizanoi not only offers a captivating glimpse into the past but also underscores the timelessness of human desire for self-expression and adornment. These cosmetic remnants, carefully preserved for over two millennia, are a testament to the enduring pursuit of beauty, connecting us with the Roman women who once walked the same streets of Aizanoi, their beauty rituals echoing through the ages.

Anadolu Agency

Ancient Pompeii's Political Clientelism: Electoral Inscriptions Shed Light on Aulus Rustius Verus

Pompeii, a city frozen in time by the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, continues to astonish archaeologists with its remarkable discoveries. Recently, the ancient equivalent of today's electoral posters and pamphlets, electoral inscriptions, were unearthed in a surprising location—inside a house on the Via di Nola, a central area of ancient Pompeii.

These inscriptions provide valuable insights into the political landscape of ancient Rome, revealing the prevalence of clientelism and its intricate ties to bread and public service.

The Surprising Location of Electoral Inscriptions

Traditionally, electoral inscriptions were displayed on the exterior facades of buildings, allowing citizens to read the names and qualifications of candidates vying for city magistracies. However, the recent discovery inside a house has puzzled archaeologists. According to experts, the practice of organizing events and dinners within the homes of candidates and their friends was common in ancient Rome to promote electoral campaigns. This context explains the presence of electoral propaganda within the house.

Aulus Rustius Verus: Aspiring Aedile

Among the discovered inscriptions, one stood out—the endorsement of Aulus Rustius Verus, a candidate for the position of aedile. Aediles was responsible for maintaining public buildings and regulating public festivals, typically held by young men aspiring to higher political office. Aulus Rustius Verus was not an unfamiliar name in Pompeii, having held the highest public office in the city in the 1st century AD.

Political Clientelism and Bread

One intriguing aspect of the discovery is the presence of a bakery with a large oven within the house. Near this bakery, the bodies of three victims—two women and a child—were found, victims of the attic collapse during the eruption. This combination of a bakery and electoral inscriptions sheds light on the ancient practice of political clientelism.

Maria Chiara Scappathiccio, a professor of Latin at the Federico II University of Naples and co-author of the study on these findings, explained that councilors and bakers "collaborated to the limits of legality" in ancient Rome. Aulus Rustius Verus, during his electoral campaign, seemingly recognized the importance of providing voters with bread.

This connection is reinforced by the discovery of the candidate's initials, ARV, on a volcanic stone millstone within the house, suggesting direct financing of the bakery by Aulus Rustius Verus for both economic and political purposes.

Rituals and Offerings

In addition to the electoral inscriptions, researchers found the remains of a last votive offering on the altar of the Lararium within the house. This ritual, likely performed shortly before the eruption, involved offering figs and dates that were burned in front of the altar. The rite was concluded by placing a whole egg directly on the masonry altar, which was then covered with a tile.

Previous offerings included vine fruits, fish, and mammal meat, providing a glimpse into the religious practices of the residents.

The recent discovery of electoral inscriptions inside a house in ancient Pompeii has provided fascinating insights into the world of ancient Roman politics. The presence of Aulus Rustius Verus's endorsements, the connection between political clientelism and a bakery, and the rituals at the Lararium all contribute to a richer understanding of life in Pompeii before its tragic end. These findings continue to underscore the enduring fascination of this remarkable archaeological site and its ability to shed light on the intricacies of daily life in the ancient world.

Greece: Riddle of an Unknown Ancient City in Eastern Macedonia - What is the Name of the City?

What was the name of this mysterious city?

In the footsteps of an ancient city of the Lower Valley of Strymonas in the "Paleokastro" location of Terpni in the municipality of Visaltia, with a lifetime from the end of the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD, is the systematic archaeological research that is being conducted for the second year in the area by the Serres Ephorate of Antiquities in collaboration with the French School of Athens.

The archaeological research reveals impressive monuments and complements not only the knowledge of the archaeologists but also the puzzle of the ancient map of the area. As the Head of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Serres Dimitria Malamidou states, "the Paleokastro site is identified with one of the ancient cities of the lower Strymonas valley known from ancient historical sources".

"We hope that with the new research, there will be findings (inscriptions, coins) that will allow her name to be safely identified. However, it is already clear that its strategic position between the fertile valley of the river Strymonas and the slopes of the ore-rich mountains of Kerdyllion and Vertiskos contributed to its long-standing successful historical course. It's no coincidence that among the oldest finds there is an inscription that mentions the word "adamas", a term that refers to gold and probably to its exploitation", points out Ms. Malamidou.

Excavations on the hill have so far revealed building phases of the Hellenistic period, including part of the fortification, a Roman basilica (public building) with a complex of thermal baths, and a workshop area with wine presses.

The views of the archaeologist Efthimios Rizos, archaeologist of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Serres and member of the excavation team of the project in Terpni, are in the same climate.

"We know from the sources that various cities flourished here in ancient times, but for many reasons, most of these cities cannot be identified with certainty. We do not know which city each of these settlements is in. The settlement of Terpni, with its archaeological research, has given us clear evidence that its life began at least in the archaic era, perhaps even earlier. What we can say for sure is when the life of this city stops where it is after the end of the 6th century AD. In no case was it inhabited during the Byzantine era.

The name of the city is still one of its mysteries. What we are hoping to have is some epigraphical confirmation to give us her name. There is an inscription that confirms that in the Roman imperial years, this settlement had the status of a city and had political institutions. So it is indeed one of the ancient cities of ancient Visaltia", emphasizes Mr. Rizos, pointing out that this settlement flourished because of the exploitation of gold.

"The reason this settlement thrives at this point is the exploitation of the gold that was carried down by the adjacent stream. This may explain, to some extent, the city's prosperity in both the Roman and early Byzantine periods. Some of the inscriptions from the Roman era give us the basis to say that here we have a systematic exploitation of gold", says the archaeologist.

What the archaeological findings in the area reveal

"This geographical zone was initially under the control of the Thracian wing of the Visalts but quickly attracted the interest of the Greeks from the cities of the South and the Macedonian kingdom. The findings of the excavations prove the presence of Greek ceramics as early as the 6th century, e.g.

Excavations on the hill have so far revealed building phases from the Hellenistic period, part of the fortification, a Roman basilica (public building) with a complex of thermal baths, a laboratory area with wine presses (lineonas) from Roman times, and two Christian churches in the three-bay basilica type. So it is a city with a life span from the end of the 6th century BC until the 6th century AD.

Several tombs from different eras have been excavated from time to time on its territory, as well as a "Macedonian" type tomb that belonged to the brothers Hipponaktas and Dioskouridis, sons of Apollodorus, who was, according to historical sources, a partner of Alexander the Great," points out the Head of the Serres Ephorate of Antiquities.

When did archeological research begin?

As Mrs. Malamidou narrates, "the first investigations in the area were carried out by Eugenia Iouris in 1965, with the excavation of a "Macedonian-type" tomb at a distance of about 2 km east from the Paleokastro site. It was dated according to a coin around 328 BC, and according to the inscriptions engraved inside the burial chamber, it belonged to the brothers Hipponaktas and Dioskouridis, members of the Macedonian aristocracy, sons of Apollodorus, who is probably identified with the one settled in Amphipolis a partner of Alexander the great.

Shortly afterwards, in 1981, extensive leveling work caused damage to the top of Paleokastro hill, bringing to light parts of ancient buildings, architectural members, reliefs, as well as a 3rd c. inscription. A.D. The first exploratory excavations carried out in 1985 revealed a Roman building and lower walls from the Hellenistic period.

In 1993, under the direction of Marianna Karaperis, an archaeologist of the then 13th EPKA Kavala, the first systematic excavation was carried out at the site". A total of three zones were investigated at the time:

A 1.70-meter-wide part of the fortification was uncovered, which, on the northern side of the hill, is preserved at a height of 1.80 m.

In its sector, the excavation of a part of a Roman building that includes linums and sublinums, tanks, and pithos, a set that is obviously related to wine production, continued. At greater depth, the excavation reached Hellenistic-era walls. Several coins from the beginning of the 4th to the 1st centuries BC are included among the finds.

In the sector that suffered illegal leveling operations in 1981, a large building with a typical Roman basilica plan and floors paved with marble slabs was revealed, in the immediate vicinity of a thermal installation. An inscription of the 2nd-3rd century AD which is today in the Museum of Serres and probably comes from the cemetery of the ancient city, refers to the building of a basilica with the assistance of Iulia, from a bequest of her husband Philippou under the supervision of Poplius Ailios Klaranos Alexander. It is quite possible that this is the building revealed by the excavation. The building seems to have been in use for quite a long time, from the 2nd to the beginning of the 4th c. AD, with several phases of reconstruction and its possible conversion into a Christian church that functioned at least until the 6th century", emphasizes the Head of the Antiquities Ephorate.

The 'Mythlab' initiative: Nurturing Ancient Greek Mythology in the Digital Age

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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In a world where ancient myths often seem distant and shrouded in mystery, Mythlab emerges as a beacon of light, bringing the captivating stories of Greek mythology to the digital forefront. This innovative platform is a home for those who are passionate about Greek myth and its enduring relevance in our modern lives.

Mythlab is not just a website; it's a collection of ambitious initiatives designed to gather, explore, and explain Greek mythology for the digital generation.

MANTO: Unveiling the Digital Dataset

At the heart of Mythlab lies MANTO, a digital dataset of Greek myth that serves as a rich and comprehensive resource for myth enthusiasts, scholars, and curious minds alike. Manto provides a meticulously curated collection of ancient Greek myths, complete with detailed summaries, character profiles, and historical context. Whether you're a student delving into the world of Greek mythology for the first time or a seasoned scholar seeking specific information, MANTO is a treasure trove of knowledge that invites exploration.

The Greek Myth Files Podcast: A Sonic Journey into Ancient Myth

For those who prefer a more immersive experience, Mythlab offers "The Greek Myth Files," a captivating podcast that takes listeners on a deep dive into the fascinating world of ancient myth. Each episode of this engaging podcast explores different aspects of Greek mythology, unraveling the tales of gods, heroes, and mythical creatures. With expert storytelling and insightful commentary, "The Greek Myth Files" breathes life into these age-old stories, making them accessible and enjoyable for all.

Canopos: A Repository of Translated Mythography

One of Mythlab's invaluable contributions to the world of Greek mythology is Canopos, a repository dedicated to translations of surviving mythography. Here, you'll find a collection of translated texts that offer unique insights into the interpretation and understanding of Greek myth throughout history. Canopos bridges the gap between ancient and contemporary perspectives, making ancient texts more accessible to modern readers and scholars.

Stay Informed with the Mythlab Blog

To stay updated on the latest developments, discoveries, and initiatives within Mythlab, be sure to visit the blog section of the website. Here, you'll find regular updates, articles, and in-depth explorations of various aspects of Greek mythology. The Mythlab blog serves as a dynamic platform for sharing knowledge and fostering a sense of community among those who share a passion for ancient myth.

Join the Mythlab Community

Mythlab is not just a static website; it's a thriving community of individuals who are passionate about Greek mythology. To be part of this community, follow Mythlab on Facebook and Twitter, where you can engage in discussions, share your thoughts, and connect with like-minded individuals. Additionally, you can join the Mythlab mailing list to receive updates directly in your inbox, ensuring that you never miss a moment of the exciting journey through Greek mythology.

Mythlab stands as a digital sanctuary for ancient Greek myth in our modern world. Through its initiatives like MANTO, "The Greek Myth Files" podcast, Canopos, and a dynamic blog, it offers a multifaceted approach to exploring and understanding Greek mythology. By bridging the gap between the ancient and digital realms, Mythlab brings the timeless stories of gods, heroes, and monsters into our contemporary lives, enriching our understanding of our shared cultural heritage. Join the Mythlab community today and embark on an extraordinary journey into the heart of Greek mythology.