Lost Relics of the Great Sphinx Revealed

Not many people know that there was once an ancient temple, shrine, or santuary between the paws of the Great Sphinx of Giza in Egypt. It was excavated in the 19th century, and it contained a number of artifacts that have been lost to time, and very little is known about them today.

These include smaller lion statues, two more stele of Ramesses II, which sat adjacent to the Dream Stele, the beard of the Sphinx, a horned altar, and much more. There was also a grand staircase and more infrastructure built by the Greeks and the Romans.

It is thanks to Giovanni Caviglia's excavations and the writings of Henry Salt that we know what was discovered in the 19th century, and you can read Salt's words in Howard Vyse's book 'Operations Carried on at the Pyramids of Giza in 1837' Volume III, linked below.

In this video, we will reveal all of the lost relics of the Great Sphinx. Enjoy!

12 Most Mysterious Ancient Finds That Really Exist

The discovery of a collection of mysterious Sandstone jars in India, similar to the famous plane of jars in Laos, raises questions about their purpose and connection to ancient burial rituals.

The discovery of a Greek noblewoman's untouched grave, filled with valuable gold jewelry, raises questions about how it remained hidden for so long within a well-known archaeological site.

The tomb of Le, an ancient Chinese king, contained over 10,000 artifacts made of precious materials like lacquer, jade, bronze, silver, and gold, suggesting a rich and opulent burial.

The discovery of a surgeon's tomb in Northern Peru from 1,000 years ago reveals primitive surgical tools, including knives with high arsenic content, raising questions about their purpose and medical practices of the time.

The mysterious Roman stone with an unknown inscription raises questions about the identity and motives of the person who erected it.

The great Buddha of Nara in Japan may have had an entire head transplant, suggesting that the current head may not be the statue's original.

Over 100 sets of mummified human remains, some dating back almost 2,000 years, have been discovered on the Canary Islands, suggesting that the guanes practiced mummification similar to the ancient Egyptians. The wheel's 28 spokes align with the 28 days in the lunar cycle, showcasing the ancient knowledge and understanding of celestial phenomena.

Maya Mysteries | The Hochob Earth Monster | Ancient Mexico Exploration

In today’s video, we will discuss the Hochob Earth Monster in the area around Merida in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. The area is known for its Chene-style decoration, with remarkable 3D relief carvings, stucco, and pyramids. The Hochob Earth Monster site has three rooms called "The Palace," a decorative slab, and a room on the left side.

The site was first settled around 400 BC and is decorated in the classic Chene style, with crossed eyes and a slightly different style than the rioback style. The site has three rooms, with the space between the eyebrows being left empty. It has a small platform that serves as access to within, decorated hooks or teeth, and a lower jaw bone of Mana, one of the great gods of the Ancient Maya. The video shows the Earth monster, which serves as armor and a rain guard and has elements of shark in it, and suggests that this architectural tradition may have been part of the Mayan civilization's geomantic nature, bringing shamanic psychedelic elements into their building style.

The 5 Most Incredible Archaeological Discoveries of Recent Times

In the following video, we will highlight five incredible archaeological discoveries from recent times. One of the discoveries is that of an ancient Roman forum in La Cabaneja, Spain. Excavation has uncovered the most important part of a Roman city and where its most prominent political and religious institutions were located.

Another discovery is the excavation of the Temple of Zeus in Ephesus, Turkey, which was used for sacrificial ceremonies for the cult of Zeus. Harput Castle in modern-day Turkey is also mentioned, which has seen the decline and fall of many empires throughout history. The discoveries at Harput Castle have uncovered artifacts, architecture, and structures, as well as the former purpose of the ancient wooden bridge in Cepstow, Wales. Lastly, excavations in Tel Aviv University's city of David National Park have uncovered two mysterious installations found deep in the rock that are still trying to be interpreted.

15 Worst Military Disasters In History

In this video, we explore some of the worst military disasters in history, analyzing the strategic missteps, the cost in lives and resources, and the broader historical impacts of these ill-fated campaigns. More specifically, we will focus on four battles:

1. The Battle of Cannae (216 BCE): Hannibal Barca, leading a much smaller army of Carthaginians, defeated the numerically superior Roman army in a deadly trap, resulting in the encirclement and annihilation of the Roman army. The defeat was catastrophic for Rome, with an estimated 50,000 Romans killed.

2. The Battle of Teutoburg Forest (9 CE): Three Roman Legions were lured into the dense forest by Arminius, a chieftain of the Karuski tribe and a former ally of Rome. The dense forest, incessant rain, and marshy terrain disoriented the Roman Legions, disrupting their formation and communication and leading to their annihilation.

3. The Battle of Adrianople (378 CE): The Eastern Roman Emperor Valens, hoping to secure a swift victory, rashly engaged the Gothic Rebels near Adrianople before the arrival of reinforcements from the Western Roman Emperor Gratian. Valens underestimated the strength of the Gothic Cavalry, resulting in a catastrophic defeat, with an estimated 10,000 to 15,000 soldiers killed.

4. The Battle of the Somme (1916): During World War I, the British and French armies launched a joint offensive against the German army, resulting in one of the bloodiest battles in history, with an estimated 1 million casualties.

13,000 Ostraca Discovered in The Al Sheikh Hamad Archaeological Site, Egypt

A joint German-Egyptian archaeological mission has discovered a collection of 13,000 ostraca at the Al-Sheikh Hamad archaeological site in Tel Atribis, Sohag, according to the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities and Tourism. The clay fragments are engraved with text in demotic, hieratic, Coptic, Greek, and Arabic, relate mostly to financial transactions, such as buying wheat and bread, and contain lists of the names of people and their families. The ostraca date back to the Ptolemaic era, the beginning of the Roman era, the Coptic era, and the Islamic era.

The mission also found a collection of ostraca that date back to the Roman or Byzantine eras. The discovery is significant as it provides an opportunity for researchers to study the economic life of the city of Atribes and the dealings of the city’s residents during ancient times. The discovery highlights the importance of the archaeological site as the second most important source of discovered ostraca after the site of Deir al-Madina west of Luxor.

5 Mysterious Artifacts of Ancient Battles

Excavations at a site named The Meadows on Alken in Denmark have revealed the remnants of a savage conflict that took place two millennia ago. Recent publications have detailed the archaeological dig, which has unearthed over 200 skeletons, with many more suspected to be buried beneath the bog. The remains of combatants suggest that many were novices in warfare, with a scarcity of healed injuries and a startling revelation that some fighters were as young as 13. Scholars speculate that the skirmish was primarily among the region's dramatic tribes, with the encroaching Romans likely not involved.

The post-battle treatment of the fallen is also deeply unsettling, with evident marks on the bones indicating that the deceased were left exposed for six months to a year, subjected to the ravages of wildlife. The dead were stripped, their limbs grotesquely rearranged, skulls shattered and joints dislocated, all post-mortem. Some bones were severed and mounted as stakes. The absence of weapons and the altered positioning of the remains hint at a deliberate relocation, leading to speculation that this macabre post-battle ritual may relate to claiming the spoils of war or perhaps a ceremonial cleansing of the battlefield.

The Enigmatic Language of the Etruscans: Non-Indo-European?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Etruscan language, once spoken in the region of Etruria (modern Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio) in Italy, remains one of antiquity’s greatest enigmas, its secrets only partially unlocked. Though no longer living, its legacy endures through inscriptions and a handful of bilingual texts, offering a window into the lives of the enigmatic Etruscans.

From Greek Columns to Etruscan Inscriptions: The Alphabet's Journey

The Etruscan alphabet is the earliest recorded script in the Western world after the Greek script. It was adopted from the Greek alphabet of the Euboean variant, used by Greek colonists in Italy, specifically in Ischia and Cumae. This adoption likely occurred during the 8th century BC, coinciding with the flourishing of Etruscan civilization. The Etruscan script underwent a transformation tailored maybe to their non-Indo-European linguistic structure; some Greek letters were repurposed to represent Etruscan sounds, and a few were discarded as they were unnecessary for Etruscan phonetics.

The Etruscans

The Etruscans emerged as a distinct civilization by the beginning of the first millennium BC, dominating the cultural and economic landscape of pre-Roman Italy. They were skilled metalworkers, merchants, and seafarers, leaving a durable imprint on Roman religion, architecture, and society. Their social structure was complex, with evidence of significant roles for women, and their art and culture were rich with religious symbolism.

A Tale of Two Origins: Myth and Modern Inquiry

According to ancient lore, the Etruscans were the descendants of the mysterious Lydians, as narrated by Herodotus. He recounts a myth where the Lydians, under King Tyrrhenus, left their famine-stricken lands in Asia Minor, sailing westward to find a new home in Italy. This narrative has long colored the perceptions of the Etruscan origin, casting them as an exotic people with an eastern heritage.

Maximum extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an ancient Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, provided a contrasting viewpoint to the prevailing theories of his time concerning the origins of the Etruscans. In his work "Roman Antiquities," Dionysius presented a strong argument in favor of the Etruscans being autochthonous, meaning originating from the land itself, in this case, the Italian Peninsula. He contested the then-popular belief, as recounted by Herodotus, that the Etruscans were of Lydian descent.

Dionysius' opinion was rooted in several observations: the uniqueness of the Etruscan language, which did not resemble any other known tongues; the distinctive nature of their customs and laws; and the lack of any migration stories in their own historical records, which he presumed would exist if they had migrated from Asia Minor. He critiqued Herodotus' account as being based on mythical tales rather than concrete evidence. Moreover, Dionysius argued that the Etruscans shared physical characteristics with the indigenous peoples of the region, further supporting his autochthonous theory.

He went to considerable lengths to refute the Lydian origin theory, appealing to logical arguments and existing knowledge about the Etruscans and their culture. This stance by Dionysius of Halicarnassus has been one that modern archaeology and genetics have, to some extent, corroborated, showing a continuity of the Etruscan lineage within Italy and challenging the once widely accepted tale of their foreign origins.

Genetic studies suggest that the Etruscans were local to the Italian peninsula, with their DNA showing continuity with Neolithic farmers. This indigenous development theory is further supported by archaeological evidence, which indicates a gradual evolution of Etruscan culture from the earlier Villanovan civilization.

The Cippus Perusinus, a stone tablet bearing 46 lines of incised Etruscan text, one of the longest extant Etruscan inscriptions. 3rd or 2nd century BC.

A Historical Overview of Etruscan Language Theories

The Etruscan language, originating from the ancient Etruscan civilization within the regions of Etruria, Etruria Padana, and Etruria Campana in what is now Italy, has left a legacy of approximately 13,000 inscriptions dating from 700 BC to AD 50. Although most inscriptions are brief, there are some longer and bilingual texts, suggesting that while Etruscan influenced Latin, it was eventually replaced by it. Linguists and Etruscologists generally agree that Etruscan was a pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language related to the Raetic and Lemnian languages.

Inscriptions reveal the geographic spread of the Etruscan language across Italy and beyond. The consensus is that Etruscan was related to Raetic and Lemnian, forming part of the Tyrsenian language family, which predates Indo-European languages in southern Europe. Recent archeogenetic analysis supports the autochthonous nature of the Etruscans, genetically similar to the Early Iron Age Latins.

Historically, various theories have attempted to classify the Etruscan language, ranging from Indo-European to Semitic connections, most of which have been dismissed in favor of its status as a non-Indo-European and Paleo-European language.

Throughout history, numerous theories have been posited regarding the origins and classification of the Etruscan language, many of which have been deemed speculative or unfounded. The general scholarly consensus is that Etruscan, part of the Tyrsenian language family, is neither Indo-European nor Semitic but rather a pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language, closely related to Raetic and Lemnian.

One hypothesis considered Etruscan as part of a Paleo-European "Aegean" language family, alongside Minoan and Eteocretan, with potential ties to pre-Indo-European Anatolian languages. However, this connection has been largely dismissed.

The Anatolian Indo-European hypothesis, which suggested a relationship between Etruscan and the languages of Anatolia, such as Luwian, has been influenced by Herodotus' account of the Lydian origins of the Etruscans. Despite these theories and attempts to link Etruscan to Anatolian Indo-European languages or propose that the Etruscans brought the alphabet from Anatolia, scholarly evidence has not supported these claims.

Other fringe theories have ranged from Etruscan's origins being connected to Aramaic, Semitic languages, Armenian, Albanian, Uralic languages, and even Altaic languages. These theories have included suggestions of genetic relationships with Hungarian and connections with Northeast Caucasian languages. Such theories, including those positing that the Etruscan language influenced Hungarian, have been largely rejected by specialists in Etruscan, Finno-Ugric, and historical linguistics.

While there have been many attempts to classify Etruscan within various language families, the prevailing view among experts is that it shares kinship only with the Raetic and Lemnian languages and is an indigenous language of the Italian peninsula with no proven connection to the major language families of Indo-European or Semitic origins.

The Capua Tile, one of the longest Etruscan inscriptions, possibly 5th C BC. Image from Wikipedia.

The Etruscan language, a beacon of a civilization that influenced the course of Western history, still poses significant questions. Its alphabet, a product of cultural exchange with the Greeks, reveals the interconnectedness of ancient societies. The identity of the Etruscans, entangled with myth and history, reflects the complex narratives that ancient civilizations left behind. Whether as travelers from distant lands or children of the Italian soil, their legacy continues to captivate scholars and enthusiasts alike, a testament to the enduring allure of the ancient world.

Record Of Atlantis At The Egyptian Temple Of Edfu?

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Does the Edfu Text at the Horus Temple in Egypt Confirm Plato's Account of Ancient Atlantis?

Introduction to the Edfu Texts

The Edfu texts, inscribed on the walls of the Temple of Horus at Edfu in Egypt, are one of the richest sources of Egyptian mythology and have been interpreted by some as containing echoes of historical events. These inscriptions include what some scholars refer to as the "Building Texts," which describe the foundation of the temple itself and the mythical origins of temples in Egypt. They tell of a primeval time when gods ruled the earth and of a sacred island where the first temple ever built emerged from the primordial waters.

Plato’s Atlantis: A Philosophical Tale or Historical Account?

Plato's account of Atlantis, detailed in his dialogues "Timaeus" and "Critias," describes a sophisticated island civilization that existed 9,000 years before his own time and eventually fell out of favor with the deities, leading to its destruction in a great cataclysm. According to Plato, Atlantis was a naval power that lay "in front of the Pillars of Hercules" and conquered many parts of Western Europe and Africa 9,000 years before the time of Solon, or approximately 11,600 years ago. Following a failed invasion of Athens, Atlantis sank into the ocean "in a single day and night of misfortune."

Comparative Mythology: Universal Archetypes or Specific Histories?

Comparing the Edfu texts to Plato’s Atlantis narrative, there are thematic overlaps that have excited the imagination of some researchers and historians. The Edfu Building Texts speak of a "homeland of the primeval ones" that was destroyed by a disaster. This homeland was said to be an island, similar to Plato’s Atlantis, and there are references to a great flood that seems to have engulfed this primeval place.

However, any direct corroboration between the Edfu texts and Plato's account is tenuous and speculative. The Edfu Building Texts do not explicitly describe an advanced civilization like Atlantis, nor do they mention a continent beyond the "Pillars of Hercules" or provide a timeline that matches Plato's narrative. The descriptions of the destruction and great flood in the Edfu texts are also notably mythological, typical of creation myths around the world, which often include cataclysmic floods and other disasters.

The idea of a flood or divine cataclysm is a common motif in many ancient cultures, found in narratives ranging from the Biblical story of Noah's Ark to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. While such stories may be rooted in real events—such as local floods or other natural disasters—they are often mythologized and do not serve as reliable historical accounts.

Concluding Reflections: The Enduring Enigma of Atlantis in the Light of Edfu

In conclusion, while there are thematic similarities between the Edfu texts and Plato’s story of Atlantis, particularly in the motifs of destruction and water, there is no concrete evidence to suggest that the Edfu texts corroborate the existence of Atlantis as a historical reality. The texts from Edfu are valuable for understanding ancient Egyptian mythology and religious beliefs but should be interpreted with caution when used as sources for historical events. The search for Atlantis, as described by Plato, remains a topic of speculation and debate among scholars, with no universally accepted historical or archaeological evidence to confirm its existence.

Liqian: A city founded in China by Roman legionaries?

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EDITOR GROUP

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Did Roman Legionaries Find a City in China?

In the annals of history, tales of lost legions and ancient encounters between disparate civilizations have always captured the imagination. The city of Liqian in China stands as a testament to such a captivating historical mystery—could it have been founded by Roman legionaries, remnants of a once-mighty army lost to the annals of the East?

The monument that graces Liqian depicts a Chinese and a Roman figure in mutual greeting, a symbolic representation of a tale that intertwines the fates of the Roman and Chinese empires. This beguiling narrative finds its roots in the aftermath of the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, where the Romans suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of the Parthians. Ancient chroniclers like Pliny and Horace recount the tale of a captured legion, condemned to toil in the mines of Margiana or to serve as human bulwarks along the distant borders.

Source: Antiokhos in the East

Yet, it is a Chinese chronicle penned twenty years later that fuels this enduring legend, describing foes with combat formations echoing the Roman testudo—a tactical formation resembling a tortoise shell. Could these have been the Roman soldiers, somehow integrating into the fabric of Chinese military might?

The plot thickens with linguistic intrigue. 'Liqian' was once a name used by the Chinese to refer to Rome or the Hellenistic cities before adopting the term 'Daqin.' Some posit that 'Liqian' could be a linguistic corruption of 'Alexandria,' suggesting a deeper Hellenic connection.

Despite the romanticism of such theories, empirical evidence remains elusive. Archaeological excavations in Liqian have yet to yield any artifacts that betray a Mediterranean heritage. The famed testudo formation could have been adopted by another, non-Roman force, effectively dismantling the basis for asserting a Roman presence.

Skeptics argue that the notion of Roman origins may be a modern contrivance, an inventive ploy to stimulate tourism through the erection of commemorative monuments and the weaving of alluring legends. Thus, the enigmatic origins of Liqian remain shrouded in myth, a confluence of historical coincidence and creative interpretation rather than substantiated fact.

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As it stands, the story of Liqian is a patchwork of ancient texts and modern desires, a reflection of our yearning to connect dots across time and space. Until incontrovertible evidence comes to light, the legend of the Roman legionaries in China remains just that—a legend, as ephemeral and intriguing as history itself.

A Saharan civilization flourished for eight centuries until the groundwater ran out

In the heart of the Sahara Desert, in what is now southwestern Libya, there once existed a thriving civilization known as the Garamantes. These remarkable people built cities and towns in an environment that is now considered one of the harshest and most arid on Earth. Their story, dating back 2,400 years, sheds light on the remarkable human capacity for adaptation and ingenuity in the face of challenging conditions. Yet, it also serves as a stark warning about the unsustainable use of natural resources, a lesson we must heed in our modern world.

The Sahara of today is a vast and unforgiving desert, characterized by scorching temperatures and a severe scarcity of water. But it wasn't always this way. Over 5,000 years ago, the Sahara resembled a savanna similar to the modern Serengeti, replete with waterholes and abundant wildlife. This region, with its ancient pastoral landscape, is even considered one of the two places where pottery was invented. However, by the time the Garamantes established their society, the Sahara had transformed into the challenging desert we know today.

What makes the Garamantes' story so extraordinary is their ability to tap into a hidden natural resource that would sustain their civilization for centuries - groundwater. The key to their survival lay in a clever irrigation technique that involved the construction of angled tunnels, known as qanats or foggara in the Berber language, into water-rich hillsides. These tunnels allowed them to access groundwater and channel it to irrigate the arid valleys below.

The Garamantes' genius was to find the one place in the Sahara where the groundwater sat high enough above the valley floor to be tapped

Image Credit: NASA/Luca Pietranera

This ancient technique was not unique to the Garamantes, as other civilizations in dry regions had employed similar methods. Professor Frank Schwartz of Ohio State University suggests that the Garamantes may have borrowed the idea from Persia, where such irrigation systems had been in use for over a thousand years.

While the Garamantes were referenced by writers of their era, much of the historical accounts were plagued by inaccuracies. Some even erroneously attributed their accomplishments to the Romans. It was not until the 1960s that archaeology began to correct these misunderstandings. Still, the question remained - why did the Garamantes have access to such a vast and sustainable source of groundwater?

Professor Schwartz has shed light on this puzzle. He has shown that the sandstone aquifer beneath this part of the Sahara is one of the largest in the world when full. Although the Sahara had experienced periods of being a fertile grassland with rainy seasons, it had been millions of years since it had been genuinely wet. During this wetter period, water from a vast catchment area flowed to the base of the Messak Settafet massif, providing a consistent water source for the Garamantes over centuries.

For the Garamantes, Wadi el-Agial must have appeared as a paradise. With an ample water supply and a buffer of vast deserts separating them from potential invaders, they likely enjoyed a higher standard of living than any other civilization in the Sahara. Their success is a testament to human resourcefulness and adaptability in the face of extreme environmental challenges.

Water flows downhill, even when it is underground, but if the floor of a valley sits below the top of the groundwater in the hills it can be available without pumping

Image Courtesy: Frank Schwartz

However, as with many stories throughout history, the inevitable outcome was driven by human behavior and our tendency to exploit resources until they are depleted. The Garamantes constructed an impressive network of tunnels, stretching over 450 miles, to access the aquifer. The longest of these tunnels extended for over 2.7 miles. As the region became increasingly arid and the groundwater recharge ceased, their once-abundant water source began to dwindle.

Professor Schwartz notes that "the qanats shouldn't have actually worked" because they relied on annual water recharge, a process that no longer occurred. The groundwater eventually dropped below the level of the tunnels, and around 1,600 years ago, the Garamante civilization was abandoned.

The fate of the Garamantes serves as a warning for our own time. As we look at modern examples like the San Joaquin Valley in California, we see that people are depleting groundwater at a faster rate than it can be replenished. While our methods of water extraction may differ from the Garamantes, the underlying issue remains the same - we are draining our precious groundwater reserves at unsustainable rates.

California's recent history of droughts, followed by a wetter year, illustrates the precarious balance we face. If the trend of drier years continues, we may find ourselves in a situation similar to that of the Garamantes. Replacing depleted groundwater supplies can be expensive and ultimately impractical. We must learn from the Garamantes and take steps to manage our natural resources wisely, ensuring their sustainability for future generations. The ancient Sahara civilization's story is a powerful reminder that we must cherish and protect the gifts the Earth provides, rather than squandering them in pursuit of short-term gains.

Archaeologists find a mysterious prehistoric monument that is described as "very rare."

Archaeologists in southwestern Spain have made a groundbreaking discovery that challenges long-held beliefs about prehistoric societies in Europe. A remarkably well-preserved prehistoric monument, known as a stela, was unearthed in the necropolis of Las Capellanías, located in the town of Cañaveral de León. This extraordinary find is described as "very rare" and has the potential to revolutionize our understanding of ancient cultures from approximately 3,000 years ago.

Stelae are carefully carved stone slabs designed to stand vertically and are often adorned with intricate decorations or inscriptions. In the Iberian Peninsula, where Spain and Portugal are now situated, about 300 such artifacts, including similar monuments called statue-menhirs, have been found. These stelae were crafted between 1250 and 700 B.C., marking the transition from the Late Bronze Age to the early Iron Age in the region. Previously, these stelae were thought to serve as monuments to commemorate important individuals within the community.

Archaeologist Marta Díaz-Guardamino, who is associated with Durham University in the U.K., noted that researchers had identified two main types of figures represented on Iberian stelae from this period. The first type, often referred to as the "warrior" figure, was thought to depict males due to the presence of weaponry, despite the fact that only a few displayed unmistakable male characteristics. The second type of figure was identified by headdresses and frequently featured depictions of necklaces, leading to the assumption that they represented females, even though few exhibited distinct female traits. The actual use and significance of these prehistoric stelae remained largely enigmatic and a subject of intense debate among archaeologists.

The recent discovery of a stela at Las Capellanías has not only added to the overall understanding of these monuments but also challenged conventional interpretations. This stela was found within the context of a circular cremation structure, making it the third such monument to be discovered at the site. This context provides an invaluable opportunity to better grasp how these monuments were used and their importance in late Bronze Age and early Iron Age societies.

The unique aspect of this latest stela lies in its artistic representation. It features a human figure with a headdress, a necklace, and two swords, along with detailed facial features, hands, feet, and male genitals. This unexpected combination of traits from both the "warrior" and "headdress" figures suggests that these social roles were not confined to specific genders but were more fluid than previously thought. This discovery underscores the complexity of prehistoric societies and challenges simplistic, modern conceptions of gender.

Decorated stelae from the period 1250 to 700 B.C. are already considered rare in Europe, but the Las Capellanías find is exceptional not only for its rarity but also for the way it defies traditional categorizations. It is the first stela to combine features of both "warrior" and "headdress" figures, and it was discovered within its original context.

The Las Capellanías necropolis is believed to have been in use from the 9th to the 6th century B.C., although further investigation is required to confirm these dates through radiocarbon dating techniques. The site has already yielded several graves containing human cremations and an array of unique grave goods, which are currently under analysis. These findings are expected to provide insights into the temporal and geographical aspects of the necropolis, as well as information about the individuals interred there.

Determining the precise age of stelae is a challenging endeavor, primarily because rock carvings cannot be dated scientifically, and these monuments may have been used repeatedly. Nevertheless, based on the nature of the decorations and the context, researchers have tentatively dated the latest stela from Las Capellanas to the ninth to seventh centuries B.C., subject to confirmation by radiocarbon dating efforts at the site.

This remarkable discovery at Las Capellanas not only sheds light on the enigmatic world of prehistoric societies but also underscores the need to continually question our assumptions about the past. As archaeologists continue to unearth secrets buried beneath the sands of time, our understanding of history and culture continues to evolve.

The Mysterious Archaeological Site of Cochasquí: A Window into Pre-Columbian Andean Culture

Nestled within the northern highlands of Ecuador, the Cochasquí Archaeological Park stands as a testament to the advanced civilizations that once flourished in the Andes long before the Incan empire's prominence. The park, spread across 84 hectares, is a monumental complex comprising 15 truncated pyramids and 21 burial mounds known as tolas. These structures collectively narrate a tale of the sophisticated social and cultural practices of the Caranqui people, who thrived in this region over seven centuries leading up to the 16th century.

Perched at an altitude of 3100 meters, close to the equator, Cochasquí offers an unparalleled 280-degree view encompassing a scenic vista of snow-capped mountains and volcanoes. This breathtaking vantage point not only served as a backdrop for the Caranqui's architectural achievements but also as a pivotal astronomical observatory from which they could monitor celestial events with precision.

The site, less than an hour's drive north of Quito, encapsulates a blend of cultural and natural history within its museums, which feature an array of archaeological and ethnographic collections, botanical gardens, and a compilation of indigenous musical instruments. The importance of Cochasquí cannot be overstated; it is one of Ecuador's most respected archaeological resources. Pioneering investigations by notable archaeologists such as Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño in the early 20th century, Max Uhle in 1932, and Udo Oberem in the mid-1960s have focused on its earthen pyramids, which soar to heights of around 20 meters, dominating the landscape and serving as silent sentinels to a bygone era.

In summary, Cochasquí is more than just an archaeological park; it is a cultural beacon that shines a light on the ingenuity and the astronomical wisdom of the pre-Columbian Andean civilizations. As modern-day explorers traverse its grounds, the echoes of the past continue to resonate, offering insights into the sophisticated knowledge systems and the cosmological significance that these monumental structures held for the people who built them.

Six Locations Outside the Middle East, Once Suggested for a Jewish Homeland

The International Quest for a Jewish Homeland: The Historical Proposals for Jewish Sovereignty

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as the Zionist movement sought a homeland for the Jewish people, several locations outside the traditional borders of the Middle East were considered. These proposals emerged from the complex interplay of geopolitics, colonial interests, and the urgent need for a safe haven for Jews facing persecution in various parts of the world. Here are five notable locations that were once suggested as potential Jewish homelands:

1. Ararat city (U. S.)

In 1820, in a precursor to modern Zionism, Mordecai Manuel Noah tried to found a Jewish homeland at Grand Island in the Niagara River, to be called "Ararat" after Mount Ararat, the Biblical resting place of Noah's Ark. He erected a monument on the island that read, "Ararat, a City of Refuge for the Jews, founded by Mordecai M. Noah in the Month of Tishri, 5586 (September, 1825), and in the Fiftieth Year of American Independence." In his discourse on the restoration of the Jews, Noah proclaimed his faith that the Jews would return and rebuild their ancient homeland. Noah called on America to take the lead in this endeavor. Some have speculated whether Noah's utopian ideas may have influenced Joseph Smith, who founded the Latter Day Saint movement in Upstate New York a few years later.

2. British Uganda Program (The Uganda Scheme)—East Africa

In 1903, the British government offered an area of the British East Africa Protectorate, today part of Kenya, as a potential Jewish homeland. This was following the Kishinev pogroms in the Russian Empire, which underscored the dire situation for many Jews in Eastern Europe. The British proposal, known as the Uganda Scheme, was seriously considered by the Sixth Zionist Congress. While it was viewed by some as a temporary refuge, fierce debate ensued, and the idea was ultimately rejected by the Zionist movement, which was committed to establishing a homeland in Palestine.

3. Madagascar Plan, Madagascar

The island of Madagascar, off the southeast coast of Africa, was proposed as a site for Jewish resettlement several times. The most infamous of these was the Nazi plan in the late 1930s to forcibly relocate European Jews to Madagascar. This plan was never realized due to the outbreak of World War II and the subsequent shift in Nazi policy towards the Final Solution. However, earlier proposals for Jewish settlement on Madagascar had been floated since the 19th century, including by the French government, as a means of both assisting Jews and promoting colonization.

4. Kimberley Plan, Australia

During the 1930s, as persecution of Jews intensified in Europe, the Freeland League for Jewish Territorial Colonization, led by Isaac Nachman Steinberg, explored the possibility of establishing a Jewish homeland in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. The plan received some support within Australia and from American philanthropists, but it was eventually vetoed by the Australian government in 1944, largely due to the opposition of the Minister for the Interior, who did not support mass migration.

5. Birobidzhan, Soviet Union

In the 1920s, the Soviet government established the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, with its capital in Birobidzhan, located in the Russian Far East near the border with China. The idea was to create a homeland for Jews within the Soviet Union, encouraging them to contribute to the region's development. It was also a strategic move to bolster the population in a remote area near the vulnerable Soviet-Chinese border. Despite efforts to promote Jewish culture, Birobidzhan never attracted a significant Jewish population, and the region remains sparsely populated today.

6. Suriname, South America

In the mid-1600s, the idea of Jewish autonomy in the New World was realized on a small scale in Suriname. Jewish settlers were granted a measure of self-rule and established a community known as Jodensavanne. Although it never became a Jewish state, it represented an early example of Jewish self-governance. In the 20th century, as European Jews faced increasing threats, Suriname was again considered as a possible location for a larger-scale Jewish settlement, although this idea did not progress far.

Each of these locations represents a different facet of the Jewish struggle for a safe and sovereign homeland. The debates and decisions surrounding these proposals reflect the enduring hope for self-determination as well as the complex realities of global politics and colonial ambitions. The eventual establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 marked the culmination of these aspirations within the historic homeland of the Jewish people, although the journey to that point was marked by numerous alternate visions and proposals.

10 Documentaries to Watch About the History of the Israel-Palestine Conflict

The history of the Israel-Palestine conflict is complex and multi-faceted, with numerous narratives and perspectives. For those seeking to understand this history through cinema, the following list provides a range of documentaries that explore different aspects of the conflict:

1. Al-Nakba

This documentary by Benny Brunner and Alexandra Jansse is based on the book "The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949" and examines the events that led to the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight, a pivotal moment known as the Nakba or "catastrophe" to Palestinians.

2. Six Days in June

The 1967 Six-Day War is the focus of this documentary, which looks at the enduring conflict that arose from this brief yet impactful war.

3. The War in October: What Happened in 1973?

A three-part series marking the 50th anniversary of the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, this documentary explores the events of the war through the perspectives of those who fought on both sides and the political aftermath that continues to shape the region.

4. The Price of Oslo

This two-part series examines the secret negotiations leading to the Oslo Accords and the continued quest for peace that remains elusive 30 years later.

5. Jerusalem: Dividing Al-Aqsa

This film explores the history and significance of the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound to both Muslims and Jews, including the current tensions and the potential implications for the future.

6. Palestine, 1920

The Other Side of the Palestinian Story: This Al Jazeera Arabic film presents the history of Palestine at the dawn of the 20th century as a thriving province of Greater Syria and the Ottoman Empire, countering the narrative of "a land without a people for a people without a land."

7. Gaza, Sinai, and the Wall

This film focuses on the lives of Palestinians affected by the 1982 wall built by Egypt and Israel, which divided Sinai and Gaza.

8. Israel’s Automated Occupation: Hebron

This two-part series examines Israeli surveillance in Hebron and Jerusalem.

9. Weaponizing Water in Palestine

This film explores how occupation and the climate crisis have made Palestinians some of the most water-insecure people in the world.

10. Rebel Architecture: The architecture of violence

Israeli architect Eyal Weizman explains how architecture plays a key role in Israel’s occupation of Palestine and modern warfare.

These documentaries provide a tapestry of perspectives and historical insights that contribute to a deeper understanding of the long-standing conflict between Israel and Palestine. Watching them can offer viewers a more nuanced grasp of the region's history and the challenges that lie ahead for peace.

Experts Restore With High-Technology Xi'an's Terracotta Warriors

The dedicated experts at the Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum in Xi'an, China, are undertaking a meticulous mission to restore the world-famous Terracotta Warriors, likening their work to operating a 'hospital' for these ancient relics. Lan Desheng, a restoration specialist at the museum, leads this critical conservation effort.

It has been established through archaeological studies that the Terracotta Warriors were once adorned with colorful pigments. However, these layers are incredibly delicate, and exposure to varying humidity and temperature levels upon excavation leads to rapid dehydration and flaking of the painted surface. Compounding this issue are the deteriorating effects of microorganisms and soluble salts that contribute to the fading of colors.

To combat these challenges, Lan's team employs a suite of sophisticated techniques. Each warrior undergoes a thorough diagnostic process that includes X-ray detection, ultrasonic scanning, and 3D imaging. Restorers then use an array of tools, such as bamboo slips, scalpels, and small brushes, to delicately clean and repair the painted fragments.

Further personalizing their approach, every terracotta figure is assigned its own identification number, ensuring detailed tracking and tailored restoration work. Over recent years, this careful process has led to the successful restoration of over 140 warriors.

The Terracotta Army, unearthed in 1974 and declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, stands as a monumental creation by Emperor Qinshihuang of the Qin Dynasty (221 B.C.–207 B.C.), symbolizing the artistry and might of ancient China. The ongoing conservation work not only preserves this historical treasure but also provides insights into the scientific and cultural practices of restoration, safeguarding the legacy for future generations to study and admire.

Amphipolis, Greece: 25 Architectural Members Are Returning to the Tomb of Kasta, After 21 Centuries

The didactic restoration of part of the ancient precinct of the Kasta Tomb, which is being implemented by the Department of Restoration of Ancient Monuments of the Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports as part of the project of fixing and restoring the monument, is being completed.

Based on the approved architectural study by the architect Michalis Lefantzis, 25 scattered marble members were identified and assigned to their original position out of the 375 that, in 2019, were collected, grouped, and arranged in the western part of the tomb, arranged in groups according to the type and structure that belonged to the ancient masonry.

As stated by the Minister of Culture Lina Mendoni, "these 25 architectural members are returning to their original position after 21 centuries, having been moved, at times, kilometers away from the monument, bearing the wear and tear of time but also damage to its surfaces from human intervention due to the successive changes of use. In order to maintain their authenticity, the scattered marble members were placed in their identification positions as they are, without additions, so that they will always bear witness to their centuries-long history."

In order to assign the members to the place where they belonged, an architectural document was made of the scattered material and the object, which indicated that the tallest members belong to the southern part of the enclosure, near the Burial Monument. Also, a key performance parameter was the change in the direction of the pegs and lever holes, which indicated the opposite direction of placement of the enclosure members by at least two different workshops during its construction.

From the study, it emerged that the point where the members were assigned, in the southern part of the enclosure and 22 m west of the Burial Monument, resulted in the two opposite, mutually, times of placement during construction.

The majority of the marble members are in good structural condition, with the exception of two: a post and a plinth with broken sections, which did not require filling for their installation.

To support the marble members, artificial stone fillings were made in the broken, missing masses of the stone plinths of the ancient counter, and the mortises and grooves of the ancient links were reused.

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In the execution of the project, the assistance of the six most experienced marble craftsmen of the Ministry who came from the South Slope of the Acropolis of Athens to Amphipolis for its timely completion played a very decisive role.

As part of this project, the Department of Restoration of Ancient Monuments is continuing the fixing and restoration work on the tomb and the outer shell of Room 1.

Expert Suggests 2700-Year-Old Lamassu Statue Was Reburied Due to Political Instability

The discovery of a 2700-year-old Lamassu statue in Northern Iraq has piqued the interest of historians and archaeologists worldwide, revealing as much about the region's ancient past as its more recent history. June Ishtar Jako, a Sydney-based academic with a master's degree in research from Macquarie University, has offered a compelling narrative surrounding the statue's excavation and preservation, particularly in light of Iraq's political challenges over the past few decades.

The Lamassu, an iconic deity of Mesopotamian mythology, typically depicted with a human head, the wings of an eagle, and the body of a bull or lion, was believed to serve as a guardian to cities. The recently unearthed alabaster statue, according to Pascal Butterlin, leader of the French excavation team, would have stood at the gates of the ancient city of Khorsabad during the reign of King Sargon II.

Jako's insights, however, suggest that the Lamassu's body was not a new discovery but rather a rediscovery. The head of this monumental statue was reportedly excavated back in 1993 but had to be reburied to safeguard it against the looting and destruction that ensued during periods of turmoil, including during Saddam Hussein's regime. The head was nearly smuggled out of the country but was recovered at the border with Syria and subsequently restored and displayed in the Iraqi Museum.

The rest of the statue, Jako posits, was intentionally reburied as a protective measure, a precaution that proved its worth when ISIS, designated as a terrorist organization, took control of Mosul and destroyed numerous historical artifacts and sites. The re-emergence of the Lamassu's body is a testament to the foresight of those who sought to protect Iraq's cultural heritage.

With the statue now fully excavated, the Iraqi government faces the challenge of how to preserve and display this significant artifact, particularly given the current limitations of the Iraqi Museum to accommodate it. The Lamassu's journey—from its creation nearly three millennia ago to its recent unearthing—echoes the turbulent history of the land it once stood to protect, and it now awaits a new chapter as part of Iraq's rich historical legacy.

Greek Archaeologists Unveil 7-Room Ancient Stoa Complex at Ancient Salamis

The submerged remains of an ancient stoa complex, a significant public structure from classical times, have been uncovered off the east coast of Salamis, Greece, by a team of marine archaeologists. This notable find was made in the waters of Ampelakia Bay and has been publicized by the Greek Ministry of Culture.

The discovery of the stoa is part of a comprehensive three-year investigation conducted on the island's eastern shores in the Ambelaki-Knosoura marine area. This collaborative effort involved the Institute of Marine Archaeological Research, the Ephorate of Marine Antiquities, and the University of Ioannina. The research builds on previous findings in the area, which include sections of a sunken sea wall and ruins of public buildings.

The unearthed stoa, characterized by its narrow and elongated form, stretches at least 32 meters in length and 6 meters in width. Within the structure, several rooms have been identified, one of which was thoroughly investigated, revealing large storage pits and robust walls constructed from sizeable hewn stone blocks.

Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports

This structure, traditionally used as a sheltered walkway or promenade in ancient Greece, typically featured a walled back and a front colonnade. Stoas not only provided space for civil activities and commerce but also housed public art and monuments and were integral to religious practices and the definition of public spaces.

The excavation team has recovered various objects from the site, including ceramics dating back to the classical and Hellenistic periods, amphora stoppers, marble fragments, and 22 bronze coins. Among the marble artifacts, two notable 4th-century BC items stand out: an inscribed column and a stele with the muscular right hand of a large statue, similar to one in Salamis’ Archaeological Museum.

Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports

The stoa's orientation and architectural features suggest it marked the eastern edge of the city's Agora, the central public area of the classical-helistic city. This contrasts with earlier assumptions that it might have been associated with the port area.

This stoa complex's identification adds a significant piece to the puzzle of Salamis' ancient topography and urban organization. Notably, the ruins of this structure were recorded by the ancient traveler Pausanias in the 2nd century.

This project represents the first interdisciplinary underwater research initiative intensively pursued by Greek institutions in the historic strait's areas since 2016, revealing yet another layer of the rich historical tapestry of Greece.

A Multipurpose 3,400-Year-Old Pyramid Unearthed in Kazakhstan

The discovery of a 3,400-year-old pyramid in Kazakhstan has sparked interest among archaeologists and historians worldwide. The structure, uncovered near the Taldy-Nura River, is believed to be a multipurpose edifice, serving both as a mausoleum and a ceremonial site.

This new find is part of ongoing research by the archaeology team from Karaganda University, marking their fourth season at the excavation site. Under the guidance of Dr. Aibar Kassenali of the National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, carbon dating has traced the pyramid's origins to between the 14th and 12th centuries B.C., placing it within the timeline of the Begazy-Dandybai culture. This culture, which prospered from the 13th to 10th centuries B.C. in what is now central Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, is known for its unique burial practices, including kurgans and megalithic mausoleums.

Credit: Dr. Aibar Kassenali

The archaeological team has unearthed a wealth of artifacts within the pyramid's burial chamber, including decorated ceramic vessels, a bronze and gold-ringed arrowhead, and a piece of pottery with markings reminiscent of an early writing system. These findings, along with the discovery of a skull believed to belong to an Andronovo tribe chieftain, reinforce the theory that the pyramid served as a royal burial site.

Dr. Kassenali draws parallels between the Taldi River valley and Egypt's Nile Valley, suggesting that the region was a "valley of kings" for the Andronovo communities, where they entombed their prominent leaders.

Credit: Dr. Aibar Kassenali

The Karajartas pyramid, with its precisely cut stones and considerable size, reflects the advanced artistic sensibilities and spiritual beliefs of the Begazy Dandybai culture, even in the arid steppe environment of the Bronze Age.

Further evidence suggests that the Karajartas mausoleum was more than a final resting place for the deceased. It was a significant cultural and religious hub where sacred ceremonies and rituals were performed. Rock art in the area indicates that the inhabitants had an understanding of solstices and celebrated astronomical events with festivities.

Credit: Dr. Aibar Kassenali

Moreover, the discovery of a proto-city settlement named Kent near the pyramid adds another layer to the historical significance of the region, hinting at a complex and sophisticated society.

The narratives of ancient historians like Ctesias of Cnidus and Diodorus of Sicily, which recount the Scythian-Mede wars and the reign of a queen named Zarina, provide historical context to the significance of triangular tombs in the region.

Credit: Dr. Aibar Kassenali

As excavations continue, the multifaceted purpose of the Karajartas mausoleum and the broader implications for our understanding of ancient central Asian cultures are expected to become clearer, offering a richer narrative of the human past.