Turkish museum takes in 1894 grave of Russian soldier

The grave of a 19th century Russian soldier, Lt. Col. Karl Karlovich, was transferred to a Turkish museum in the northeastern city of Ardahan.

The grave of a 19th century Russian soldier was found in Turkey’s northeastern city of Ardahan, which fell to Russian troops in May 1877, in a coffin decorated with the Russian Orthodox cross and transferred to a local museum.

The grave of a 19th-century Russian soldier of Polish descent has been moved to a museum over a year after it was found in northeastern Turkey, an official said on Thursday.

Efsal Alantar, Ardahan provincial director of culture and tourism, told Anadolu Agency that a team of experts had carried out the transfer process.

In April 2017, a skeleton belonging to 19th century Lt. Col. Karl Karlovich was found by locals doing construction work in Turkey’s northeastern province of Ardahan.

The body, which was in a coffin decorated with the Russian Orthodox cross, was found in the Karagol neighbourhood of Ardahan – which fell to Russian troops in May 1877 – and then taken to the local museum.

Alantar said that moving the grave was the decision of the Kars Regional Council for Conservation of Cultural Heritage.

“The place of the grave – that is, the brick stones that make up the grave – was moved,” he added.

He said the owner of the field where the grave was found can now proceed with his work.

Karlovich died in 1894 due to illness. During the early stages of World War II in 1914, the area reverted back to Turkish rule, which was then known as the Ottoman Empire.

Romeo and Juliet: The Timeless Tale of Love and Tragedy

"Romeo and Juliet," written by William Shakespeare, is one of the most enduring love stories in literature, captivating audiences for over four centuries. It’s a tale of passion, young love, family conflict, and the ultimate tragedy that arises from human flaws. The play, first performed in 1597, reflects themes that transcend time, such as the intensity of youthful love, the destructive nature of feuds, and the heavy cost of miscommunication.

This article delves into the key aspects of "Romeo and Juliet"—its plot, themes, characters, and the timelessness that keeps it relevant even today.

Plot Overview

Set in the city of Verona, Italy, "Romeo and Juliet" opens with a feud between two noble families: the Montagues and the Capulets. This ancient rivalry spills into the streets, resulting in frequent brawls between members of the two houses. Amid this backdrop of tension, the protagonists, Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet, meet and fall deeply in love, despite the enmity that divides their families.

Act I: Love at First Sight

The play begins with a brawl between the servants of the Montagues and the Capulets, underscoring the long-standing feud. Romeo, who is heartbroken over his unrequited love for Rosaline, attends a masquerade ball hosted by the Capulets in hopes of seeing her. At the ball, he sees Juliet, and the two instantly fall in love. The famous balcony scene follows, where they confess their love and vow to marry despite knowing their families’ hatred for one another.

Act II: Secret Marriage

With the help of Friar Laurence, who hopes their union will end the feud, Romeo and Juliet marry in secret. Their love contrasts the hostility between their families, presenting love as a powerful force that can transcend even deep-rooted hatred. However, their joy is short-lived.

Act III: The Turning Point

The play takes a tragic turn when Tybalt, Juliet’s cousin, challenges Romeo to a duel. Romeo, now related to Tybalt through marriage, refuses to fight, but his friend Mercutio steps in. Tybalt kills Mercutio, enraging Romeo, who then kills Tybalt in revenge. Romeo is banished from Verona, creating a deep crisis for the couple. The lovers are separated, and Juliet is devastated by the events that have transpired.

Act IV: The Plan

To avoid being forced into marrying Paris, a suitor chosen by her parents, Juliet seeks Friar Laurence’s help. He devises a plan for Juliet to take a potion that will make her appear dead. Once buried in the Capulet tomb, she will awaken, and Romeo will be there to take her away. However, the plan goes horribly wrong when Romeo, not receiving the message about the plan, believes Juliet has truly died.

Act V: The Tragic Conclusion

Romeo, heartbroken, buys poison and goes to Juliet's tomb. There, he encounters Paris and kills him in a duel. Believing Juliet to be dead, Romeo takes the poison and dies beside her. When Juliet awakens and finds Romeo dead, she stabs herself, joining him in death. The tragedy shocks both families, and in their grief, they agree to end the feud.

Themes

1. The Power of Love
Love in "Romeo and Juliet" is portrayed as a powerful, all-consuming force that transcends societal norms and familial conflict. From the moment they meet, Romeo and Juliet are driven by their passion, willing to defy their families and the world for each other. Their love is so intense that it leads them to make life-and-death decisions, ultimately resulting in their untimely deaths.

2. Fate vs. Free Will
The concept of fate looms large throughout the play. From the beginning, Romeo and Juliet are described as "star-crossed lovers," hinting that their destinies are already written in the stars. Despite their efforts to control their fate through secret marriage and elaborate plans, external forces—miscommunications, timing, and family pressures—conspire against them. The tension between fate and free will raises the question of whether their tragedy was unavoidable.

3. The Destructiveness of Feuds
The Montague-Capulet feud serves as the backdrop to the tragedy, showing how deeply ingrained hatred can destroy lives. The feud causes numerous deaths, not just of Romeo and Juliet, but also of Mercutio, Tybalt, and Paris. Shakespeare highlights how senseless conflicts between groups can result in irreversible harm to individuals, especially the young and innocent.

4. Youth and Impulsiveness
Romeo and Juliet are young, passionate, and impulsive, acting quickly on their emotions. Their decisions to marry, fight, and even die for love are made in haste, reflecting the headstrong nature of youth. Shakespeare contrasts this youthful impulsiveness with the more measured responses of older characters like Friar Laurence and the Nurse, who, despite their guidance, are unable to prevent the tragic outcome.

Character Analysis

Romeo Montague
Romeo is a young man who begins the play melancholic and heartbroken over Rosaline. However, his encounter with Juliet transforms him, showcasing his capacity for deep, passionate love. While he is sensitive and idealistic, his impulsive nature leads to rash decisions, such as killing Tybalt and committing suicide without verifying Juliet's death.

Juliet Capulet
Juliet starts as an obedient and innocent young girl but quickly grows into a determined and courageous individual. Her love for Romeo drives her to defy her family and societal expectations, showing remarkable strength in her decisions. Despite her youth, Juliet emerges as a tragic heroine, facing her fate with dignity and resolve.

Mercutio
Mercutio, Romeo’s close friend, is a witty and free-spirited character, often providing comic relief in the play. His death marks a significant turning point in the story, symbolizing the loss of joy and the beginning of the tragic sequence of events. Mercutio’s cynicism about love contrasts sharply with Romeo’s romantic idealism.

Friar Laurence
Friar Laurence plays a pivotal role as the well-meaning priest who marries Romeo and Juliet and devises the plan to reunite them. His attempts to reconcile the lovers reflect his hope that love can transcend hatred, but his schemes ultimately fail due to miscommunication and fate.

The Timelessness of Romeo and Juliet

One of the reasons "Romeo and Juliet" remains a timeless classic is its universal themes of love, conflict, and tragedy. The play explores the intense emotions of young love, a feeling that transcends time and culture, making it relatable to people of all generations. The feud between the Montagues and Capulets resonates in contemporary contexts, reflecting how societal divisions—whether based on class, race, or politics—can lead to personal tragedies.

Moreover, the play’s exploration of fate and human agency continues to captivate audiences. Are Romeo and Juliet victims of their circumstances, or do their choices lead to their downfall? This question keeps the play relevant as it encourages reflection on the balance between destiny and free will in our own lives.

Conclusion

"Romeo and Juliet" is not just a story of love; it is a rich exploration of human emotion, family conflict, and the devastating consequences of both passion and hatred. Its lasting impact on literature, art, and popular culture speaks to its universal appeal. Shakespeare’s masterful combination of poetic language, dramatic structure, and timeless themes ensures that "Romeo and Juliet" will continue to be read, performed, and cherished for generations to come.

The Mystery of the Shell Grotto: An Enigmatic Underground Marvel

Hidden beneath the streets of Margate, Kent, England, lies one of the world’s most puzzling and awe-inspiring structures — the Shell Grotto, a subterranean cave system adorned with millions of shells arranged in intricate patterns and mosaics. Discovered by sheer accident in 1835, this underground passageway has since become a source of fascination and mystery, captivating the imaginations of archaeologists, historians, and visitors alike. What truly sets this grotto apart from other historical wonders is not just its stunning craftsmanship but the profound mystery surrounding its origin, purpose, and creators.

A Stunning Discovery

The Shell Grotto was discovered by a curious young boy named James Newlove while digging a duck pond with his father. As they dug deeper, they stumbled upon a passageway that led into a cavernous series of tunnels covered from floor to ceiling with millions of shells, arranged in intricate and elaborate designs. This hidden masterpiece, buried beneath layers of earth, had remained untouched and unseen for what many believe could have been centuries.

As word of the discovery spread, scholars, locals, and travelers flocked to see this astonishing underground marvel. Yet, as people began to explore its depths, more questions emerged than answers. Who built it? When was it created? And most intriguingly, why?

A Kaleidoscope of Shells and Symbols

Upon entering the Shell Grotto, visitors are greeted by a mesmerizing array of over 4.6 million shells meticulously arranged to form mosaics that span the walls and ceilings. The craftsmanship is nothing short of extraordinary — every inch of the grotto is covered in shells, including local varieties such as whelk, mussels, cockles, and oysters, all carefully selected and positioned to create symbols, patterns, and figures.

The designs are both captivating and confounding. Some mosaics depict what appear to be stars, suns, flowers, and geometric shapes, while others suggest more cryptic symbols, resembling serpents, birds, and human figures. These intricate designs give the grotto an otherworldly and almost mystical quality. Yet, despite the extensive study of these mosaics, their meanings remain shrouded in mystery. Are they religious symbols, ancient hieroglyphics, or simply the whims of an imaginative artist?

Theories Abound, but Answers Are Elusive

One of the most compelling aspects of the Shell Grotto is the total absence of any historical record about its construction. No one knows who built it, why, or even when it was created. Over the years, various theories have emerged, each offering its own intriguing possibility:

1. Ancient Temple or Shrine
   Some believe the Shell Grotto could be the remnants of an ancient temple or religious shrine, perhaps dating back to the Roman or Phoenician period. The mysterious symbols and patterns could be connected to forgotten rites or ceremonies, with the shells themselves acting as sacred or spiritual symbols. Given Margate’s coastal location, it is plausible that the grotto was once part of a larger complex used by ancient civilizations.

2. Medieval Secret Society Meeting Place
   Another theory posits that the grotto served as a secret meeting place for a hidden society or organization during the medieval era. The covert nature of the grotto’s location, combined with the symbolic motifs, has led some to speculate that it was used by the Knights Templar or another clandestine group for rituals or gatherings. The cave’s secluded design certainly aligns with the need for privacy and secrecy.

3. A Product of Eccentricity or Victorian Art
   Yet another possibility is that the grotto was constructed in the 18th or 19th century by an eccentric individual with a passion for art and design. This theory suggests that the Shell Grotto might be an elaborate art project created purely for aesthetic pleasure, with the intention of mesmerizing and baffling those who encountered it. In this case, the intricate shellwork would serve as a testament to the creativity and craftsmanship of the period rather than as a religious or symbolic structure.

The Enigma Persists

Despite years of research, excavations, and speculation, no definitive answers have emerged about the Shell Grotto's origins or purpose. Carbon dating the shells has proven ineffective due to their exposure to the elements over time, and there are no historical documents or accounts that shed light on its creation. The grotto remains one of England's most enigmatic landmarks — a puzzle that resists being solved.

Even today, scholars, archaeologists, and curious travelers continue to visit the site, drawn by the same sense of wonder and mystery that has surrounded the Shell Grotto since its discovery nearly two centuries ago. Its allure lies not only in its visual beauty but also in its unfathomable history, a story that seems forever beyond reach.

The Experience Today

Visitors to the Shell Grotto can descend into this subterranean world to explore the winding passageways, feeling as though they’ve entered a different time or place. The grotto is lit softly, allowing the full brilliance of the shell mosaics to shine in the dim light. It’s a space that invites contemplation and wonder, and as you walk through, it’s impossible not to feel the weight of the mystery surrounding you.

Though the Shell Grotto is now a protected site and a popular tourist attraction, its secrets remain locked within its walls, much like the shells that line its surfaces. And perhaps, it is this enduring mystery that continues to draw people to Margate — the allure of the unknown, the possibility of uncovering a hidden truth, or simply the joy of marveling at one of history’s most beautiful and unexplained creations.

The Shell Grotto in Margate stands as a testament to human ingenuity, artistry, and the enduring power of mystery. While countless theories have been proposed, none have definitively explained who built it, when it was made, or why it exists. As one of the most intriguing unsolved mysteries in England, the grotto continues to captivate the imagination of those who encounter it. Whether a religious temple, a hidden meeting place, or an eccentric art project, the Shell Grotto remains a place where history and legend intertwine, leaving us to wonder at the hands that created such a remarkable underground marvel.

The Pyramid of Cestius: A Monument of Mystery and Marvel in Ancient Rome

Tucked away in a quieter corner of Rome, just outside the bustling tourist routes, lies a surprising treasure: the Pyramid of Cestius. Its unmistakable silhouette rises unexpectedly amidst the classic ruins and Renaissance architecture that typically dominate the cityscape. How did a structure so distinctly Egyptian end up here, in the heart of the Roman Empire?

Constructed between 18 and 12 BC, the pyramid was commissioned by Gaius Cestius, a Roman magistrate who, like many of his contemporaries, was captivated by the allure of Egypt following its conquest by Rome in 30 BC. The Romans were mesmerized by Egyptian culture, from its gods and monuments to its complex rituals surrounding death and the afterlife. Gaius Cestius, clearly influenced by this fascination, chose a pyramid — a powerful symbol of eternity in Egypt — as his final resting place, ensuring his memory would be preserved for millennia.

Standing 37 meters tall, with a base measuring 29.6 meters per side, the Pyramid of Cestius is more than just a tomb — it’s a statement. The white marble exterior, much of which remains intact, once gleamed in the sun, a striking sight against the Roman skyline. And while its Egyptian form is undeniable, the pyramid itself represents a unique Roman interpretation, built with precision and detail that reflect the architectural brilliance of the time.

But what sets this pyramid apart from other ancient monuments is its remarkable state of preservation. During the 3rd century AD, as the Roman Empire faced increasing threats, Emperor Aurelian ordered the construction of massive walls around the city for protection. In a stroke of practical genius, the pyramid was incorporated into these fortifications, becoming an integral part of Rome's defensive system. This not only protected the structure but ensured its survival through centuries of warfare, weather, and urban development.

Inside the pyramid, the tomb of Gaius Cestius still rests, though little remains of its original decoration. Ancient sources tell us that it once held elaborate frescoes and treasures, though most have been lost to time or looting. However, the simplicity of the structure today adds to its enigmatic appeal, inviting visitors to imagine what it might have looked like at the height of its glory.

The Pyramid of Cestius offers a fascinating glimpse into a time when Rome, at the height of its power, was eager to absorb and blend the cultures it conquered. It’s a symbol of the Empire’s far-reaching influence, and a reminder that even in death, Romans like Cestius sought to align themselves with the grandeur and mystique of ancient Egypt.

Today, the pyramid stands as a testament to the resilience of history, quietly holding its own in a city filled with giants like the Colosseum and the Pantheon. For those who seek to explore beyond Rome’s most famous landmarks, the Pyramid of Cestius is a hidden gem that rewards the curious with a unique story of cultural fusion, architectural mastery, and timeless preservation.

So the next time you're in Rome, take a detour from the well-worn paths and pay a visit to this ancient wonder. It’s not just a pyramid — it’s a portal to a time when the world’s greatest empire looked beyond its borders to craft its legacy.

Wadi Al-Salam Cemetery: The World’s Largest Eternal Resting Place

Wadi Al-Salam Cemetery, located in the holy city of Najaf, Iraq, is not just an ordinary cemetery; it holds the title of the largest cemetery in the world, both in terms of area and the number of burials. "Wadi Al-Salam," which translates to "Valley of Peace," is a sacred site for Shia Muslims and has a unique cultural, spiritual, and historical significance that spans centuries.

A Sacred Ground for Millions

For over 1,400 years, Wadi Al-Salam has been the final resting place for millions of Muslims, particularly Shia Muslims, from across the globe. It covers an astounding area of 1,485.5 hectares (3,677 acres) and is the burial ground for an estimated five million souls. Families from all over the Middle East, especially Iran and Iraq, have buried their loved ones here due to the site's proximity to the holy shrine of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Imam of Shia Islam and a cousin of Prophet Muhammad. Imam Ali's shrine is one of the most revered religious landmarks in the Muslim world, drawing pilgrims and mourners to Najaf year-round.

History and Importance

Wadi Al-Salam is not merely a place of death; it holds profound religious meaning. According to Shia belief, being buried in Wadi Al-Salam can grant the deceased spiritual proximity to Imam Ali, which is considered an honor and a potential source of intercession on the Day of Judgment. The cemetery is mentioned in Islamic literature as a place where souls gather, emphasizing its sacred significance.

Wadi-us-Salaam as seen from above; the graveyard spans 1,500 acres and holds 6 million bodies (Image: Public domain/Sgt. Johnnie French/US Department of Defence)

The cemetery's origins are believed to date back to the 7th century, shortly after the death of Imam Ali. Over time, it has expanded continuously as generations of Muslims choose to be buried there. During Iraq's tumultuous history, particularly during times of conflict, the cemetery has been a solemn witness to the ravages of war. Many martyrs from the Iran-Iraq War, the Gulf War, and more recently, the Iraq War, have found their final resting place in Wadi Al-Salam, giving it a powerful connection to the country’s history of resilience.

A Unique Burial Practice

The cemetery itself is like a city of the dead. Rows upon rows of towering, above-ground crypts and tombstones extend as far as the eye can see. Many graves in Wadi Al-Salam are family plots, with distinct designs that mark a person's wealth, family background, and religious standing. The burial chambers are usually deep, underground caverns where multiple members of a family may rest. Some tombs are simple and unadorned, while others are decorated with elaborate carvings, marble, and inscriptions from the Quran.

Unlike traditional Western cemeteries, where graves are often spaced out, Wadi Al-Salam has an incredibly dense arrangement of tombs, creating a maze-like structure. Its unique appearance has drawn the curiosity of visitors and historians alike, as the tombs seem to rise out of the desert in endless formations.

Life and Death Coexist in Najaf

For the residents of Najaf, life and death are intertwined through their connection to Wadi Al-Salam. The cemetery is deeply embedded in daily life, and many families visit their ancestors' graves regularly. The local economy is even shaped by the cemetery, with jobs such as grave-digging, tombstone carving, and maintenance providing livelihoods for many in the city.

Mourners grieve the death of a 22-year-old volunteer soldier buried in 2014 (Image: GETTY)

Visitors to Najaf often find that their pilgrimage to Imam Ali’s shrine includes a visit to Wadi Al-Salam, where they offer prayers for the deceased and reflect on the transient nature of life. The atmosphere in the cemetery is one of deep reverence, and it is not uncommon to see people performing rituals, reciting verses from the Quran, or simply paying their respects.

Challenges and the Future of Wadi Al-Salam

As Wadi Al-Salam continues to grow in size, there are concerns about the future sustainability of this immense burial ground. Due to its significance, demand for burial plots in the cemetery remains high, and land is becoming increasingly scarce. Efforts have been made to maintain and organize the cemetery to prevent overcrowding and preserve its sanctity.

Moreover, the cemetery has also suffered damage over the years due to conflicts in Iraq. Despite these challenges, Wadi Al-Salam remains a symbol of the enduring faith of Shia Muslims and their commitment to honoring their deceased in a place that holds profound religious and cultural value.

Wadi Al-Salam Cemetery is more than just the world’s largest cemetery; it is a spiritual haven, a historical monument, and a living testament to the deep reverence that Shia Muslims hold for their faith and the afterlife. The vast expanse of graves, some humble and others grand, tells stories of generations who sought peace in death, believing that in this sacred valley, they are closer to eternal peace and divine mercy.

For those who visit, Wadi Al-Salam is not just a place of mourning but a reminder of the enduring connection between the living and the dead—a connection that transcends time, culture, and the mortal world itself.

Eurhinosaurus: The Ancient Marine Predator of the Jurassic Seas

In the vast oceans of the Jurassic period, around 180 million years ago, a remarkable predator dominated the waters—Eurhinosaurus, a sleek marine reptile that perfectly embodied the ancient marine ecosystems. Belonging to the Ichthyosaur family, these magnificent creatures were adapted to life in the water much like today’s dolphins and whales, combining speed, agility, and sharp hunting instincts to thrive in the seas.

Discovery and Classification

The name Eurhinosaurus (meaning "well-nosed lizard") was coined from its unique snout, one of its most distinguishing features. Fossils of this prehistoric marine reptile have primarily been found in Europe, particularly in Germany and France, providing paleontologists with rich insights into its anatomy and lifestyle. Eurhinosaurus lived during the Early Jurassic, making it a contemporary of other large marine reptiles and dinosaurs that roamed the land.

A Unique Hunter

What sets Eurhinosaurus apart from other ichthyosaurs is its elongated upper jaw, which was significantly longer than the lower one, giving it a swordfish-like appearance. This adaptation likely played a crucial role in its hunting technique. It is believed that Eurhinosaurus used its long snout to slash through schools of fish or to stir up prey from the seabed, making it easier to catch fast-moving fish, squid, and other marine animals that populated Jurassic seas.

With its streamlined body, Eurhinosaurus was built for speed. It had a dolphin-like tail and large, paddle-like fins, which allowed it to glide effortlessly through the water. This physical build, combined with its sharp teeth, made it a formidable predator, capable of pursuing and capturing prey with precision.

The Eyes of the Sea

Another notable feature of Eurhinosaurus was its large eyes, which suggest that it had excellent vision, possibly even allowing it to hunt in deeper, darker waters. The large eyes would have helped it detect movement in low-light conditions, giving it an edge over its prey. Much like modern marine predators, it was likely a highly efficient hunter, perfectly adapted to its marine environment.

The World Eurhinosaurus Lived In

Eurhinosaurus thrived in the warm, shallow seas that covered much of Europe during the Jurassic period. These oceans were teeming with life, from fish and squid to other marine reptiles like plesiosaurs and early sharks. Eurhinosaurus had to compete with other marine predators, making speed and agility essential for survival.

Extinction and Legacy

Despite its successful adaptations, Eurhinosaurus, like many marine reptiles, eventually went extinct. While the exact reasons for their extinction remain uncertain, changes in climate, ocean chemistry, and the rise of new predators could have contributed to their decline. However, its well-preserved fossils give us a glimpse into the diverse and dynamic marine ecosystems of the Jurassic period.

Eurhinosaurus stands as a fascinating example of evolutionary specialization, with its swordfish-like snout and dolphin-like body making it a formidable predator in Jurassic seas. The fossils of Eurhinosaurus continue to captivate paleontologists and enthusiasts alike, offering a window into a time when reptiles ruled not only the land but the seas as well. This ancient marine reptile’s story reminds us of the incredible diversity of life that has existed on Earth and how species can evolve in extraordinary ways to dominate their environments.

The Eve of the Battle of Salamis: A Defining Moment in Ancient Greece

Imagine yourself as an Athenian, living in the year 480 BC. The air is thick with tension, uncertainty, and hope. The mighty Persian Empire, led by the formidable King Xerxes, is sweeping through Greece, leaving destruction in its wake. Athens, once a proud and thriving city, now stands vulnerable to the oncoming force. In a moment of historical urgency, the majority of Athenians are forced to make a difficult decision: to evacuate their homes and seek refuge on the nearby island of Salamis.

The Exodus to Salamis

Picture this scene: thousands of Athenians, young and old, leaving the city that had been their home for generations. They carried with them little more than essential belongings, knowing they might never see their beloved city again. The Acropolis, once the heart of Athenian pride and religion, was left behind, with only a small group of defenders staying behind in a last, desperate act of defiance. But even the Acropolis was not spared. The Persians soon overtook it, defeating those who had remained and setting Athens ablaze, leaving nothing but smoldering ruins behind.

The situation seemed bleak, as if the might of the Persian Empire was unstoppable. Yet in this darkest hour, a flicker of hope remained.

The Gathering Storm

While Athens lay in ashes, the Greek forces were regrouping. Under the leadership of Themistocles, the Greeks devised a strategy that would take advantage of their knowledge of the local waters. The Athenian navy, along with their allies, prepared for a decisive confrontation with the Persian fleet. The Persians had the advantage in sheer numbers, but the Greeks had something even more powerful: determination and the will to defend their way of life.

The naval battle would take place in the narrow straits of Salamis, where the vast Persian fleet’s size would work against them. Themistocles sent a message, tricking Xerxes into believing that the Greeks were in disarray, luring the Persian navy into a trap.

The Battle of Salamis: A Clash of Civilizations

The morning of the battle dawned, and the tension was palpable. The Athenian and allied Greek ships, sleek and swift triremes, lay in wait. When the Persian fleet entered the straits, they found themselves cramped and unable to maneuver as they had hoped. What followed was one of the most significant naval battles in history.

The Greek ships surged forward, using their smaller size and familiarity with the waters to outflank and ram the larger, more cumbersome Persian vessels. Despite their vast numbers, the Persians found themselves at a disadvantage. One by one, their ships fell to the cunning and courage of the Greek sailors.

As the battle raged, Xerxes watched from a throne set up on a hill overlooking the straits, expecting to witness a swift Persian victory. Instead, he saw the destruction of his fleet, his hopes of conquering Greece sinking beneath the waves.

A Victory that Shaped the Future

The victory at Salamis was not just a triumph for the Greeks—it was a turning point for Western civilization. Had the Persians won, the history of Europe and the world might have been very different. The Greek city-states were able to rally after this victory, eventually driving the Persians from their lands.

This battle, fought by men who had seen their homes destroyed and their families displaced, determined the fate of ancient Greece. It was a victory born of strategy, unity, and the unwavering belief in the defense of freedom and democracy.

Legacy of Salamis

More than 2,500 years later, the Battle of Salamis remains a symbol of resilience, a testament to the power of determination in the face of overwhelming odds. It reminds us that even in the darkest of times, a few can stand against many and change the course of history.

For the ancient Athenians who had fled to Salamis, this victory was more than just a military win—it was a sign that their way of life, their culture, and their beliefs could endure. As the smoke cleared and the waves carried away the remnants of the Persian fleet, the Athenians could begin to rebuild, knowing that they had played a crucial role in safeguarding the future of Greece.

"Prometheus Unbound": A Masterpiece Returns to Light in Greece

The Museum of Pavlos and Alexandra Kanellopoulos in Greece recently inaugurated the exhibition titled "Prometheus Unbound - A Masterpiece Returns to Light," a significant cultural event that marks the return of an iconic artwork to the public eye after many decades. This exhibition, officially opened by the Greek Minister of Culture, Lina Mendoni, is a testament to both the historical and artistic value of the painting, as well as its journey across borders and eras. It serves as a precursor to the painting’s permanent restoration to its original setting in the collection of the former royal estate of Tatoi.

The Historical Significance of "Prometheus Unbound"

The artwork, created by Danish artist Carl Bloch, was commissioned by King George I of Greece, a monarch of Danish descent who ascended the Greek throne in 1863. The selection of the myth of Prometheus was no coincidence; for the young king, it symbolized aspirations for the comprehensive liberation and rebirth of Greece, a sentiment deeply rooted in the nation's struggle for independence during the Greek Revolution of 1821. The myth of Prometheus, who stole fire from the gods to bestow it upon humanity, resonates as a symbol of freedom and defiance against oppression—a timeless allegory that Bloch masterfully captured.

The painting holds a dual significance, both in Greece and Denmark. After its completion, it was exhibited in Denmark in 1865, a year after Denmark’s defeat in the Second Schleswig War. To the Danish audience, Prometheus represented a symbol of national resistance and hope for liberation, rendering Bloch’s work a piece of dual national importance. Minister Mendoni highlighted this unique cultural convergence, underscoring how the painting's narrative of defiance and resilience reflected the aspirations of two nations during pivotal periods in their histories.

The Artistry of Carl Bloch

At the heart of the exhibition is the mythological scene where Prometheus is freed by Heracles, depicted in a moment of triumph and redemption. Bloch’s portrayal of this powerful scene is characterized by its dramatic intensity and masterful use of light and composition, drawing the viewer into the climactic liberation of the tortured titan. Through Bloch's refined brushwork, the allegory of freedom and defiance against tyranny not only permeates the artwork but also evokes profound emotional resonance.

Bloch’s ability to convey such powerful emotions through his art makes "Prometheus Unbound" one of his most distinguished works. It was this precise blend of artistic mastery and thematic depth that earned the painting a central place in the largest retrospective exhibition ever dedicated to Bloch, held at the National Gallery of Denmark in 2023. During this exhibition, "Prometheus Unbound" was celebrated not only as a quintessential piece of Bloch's oeuvre but also for its deep emotional and historical connections to the Danish people.

Rediscovery and Preservation

The journey of "Prometheus Unbound" is as fascinating as the painting itself. After its initial prominence, the artwork was displayed in the central staircase of the Old Royal Palace in Athens, where it remained for many years. However, as time passed, it gradually vanished from the public domain and was presumed lost for decades. Its rediscovery came during restoration efforts by the Department of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments of the Greek Ministry of Culture at the Tatoi estate. Recognizing its immense cultural value, the painting was declared a monument in 2022.

Following meticulous conservation and restoration work, "Prometheus Unbound" re-emerged and was exhibited in Denmark, bringing the masterpiece back into the spotlight after years of obscurity. The exhibition at the Kanellopoulos Museum represents its first presentation to the Greek public after many decades, introducing a new generation to this cultural treasure.

The Exhibition at the Kanellopoulos Museum

The Museum of Pavlos and Alexandra Kanellopoulos has undertaken this exhibition in collaboration with the Department of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments and the Directorate of Modern Cultural Heritage of the Ministry of Culture. The exhibition, titled "Prometheus Unbound - A Masterpiece Returns to Light," aims to reintroduce the painting to the Greek audience, reviving the historical and artistic connections that have long been obscured.

Minister Mendoni emphasized that this exhibition marks the beginning of the painting's journey to its permanent home. Upon the completion of the restoration works at the Tatoi estate, "Prometheus Unbound" will find its place within the permanent exhibition of the estate's collection, restoring the painting to its rightful historical context.

Exhibition Details

"Prometheus Unbound - A Masterpiece Returns to Light" will be on display at the Kanellopoulos Museum until January 6, 2025. This exhibition is not merely a showcase of an artwork but a celebration of cultural heritage, artistic excellence, and the resilience of history. Through this exhibition, visitors are invited to rediscover the narrative of Prometheus, a tale that has symbolized the enduring spirit of resistance, freedom, and hope across cultures and centuries.

In the light of Carl Bloch's masterpiece, the exhibition rekindles a timeless story, resonating as much with contemporary audiences as it did with those who first beheld it over a century ago. Through the painting’s return to Greece and its eventual permanent installation, "Prometheus Unbound" stands as a testament to the enduring power of art to inspire, connect, and liberate.

Archaeologists Discover Secret Tomb with 12 Skeletons Beneath 'Indiana Jones' Filming Site

Archaeologists have uncovered a hidden tomb containing 12 ancient skeletons at one of the filming locations of the 1989 blockbuster Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.

The extraordinary discovery, made earlier this year beneath Petra’s iconic Treasury building in Jordan, was recently highlighted in the season premiere of the Discovery Channel’s Expedition Unknown. Petra, often called the "lost city," is one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

The Treasury, or Al Khazneh, is a magnificent structure carved from rock over 2,000 years ago by the Nabataean Kingdom. It’s one of Petra’s most famous monuments, drawing countless visitors each year. Yet, despite its fame, the true purpose of the Treasury has remained shrouded in mystery.

In search of answers, a team of American and Jordanian researchers, led by Professor Pearce Paul Creasman from the American Center of Research, embarked on an excavation. Their efforts revealed an ancient tomb hidden beneath the surface, containing not only human remains but also a treasure trove of bronze, iron, and ceramic artifacts.

"We were absolutely stunned by the revelation of this hidden chamber," said adventurer Josh Gates, host of Expedition Unknown.

"Nearly all the tombs at Petra have been found empty, so this could be one of the most significant tombs ever uncovered at the site—a discovery of historic proportions," Gates added.

One skeleton in particular was found clutching a ceramic vessel that closely resembled the legendary Holy Grail from Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. However, upon further inspection, the vessel turned out to be part of a broken jug.

Petra has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985, recognized for the Nabataeans' advanced water management systems, including dams and aqueducts, and their unique architectural style. Gates believes that this tomb discovery could shed light on the daily lives of the early Nabataeans and perhaps even reveal more about the elusive purpose of the Treasury itself.

A skeleton is one of 12 discovered buried beneath the Treasury of Petra.

Discovery’s Expedition Unknown

Facial Reconstruction of an Early Neolithic Farmer from Agiorgitika, Peloponnese: A Glimpse into Ancient Greece

The Early Neolithic period marks a pivotal time in human history, defined by the dawn of agriculture and the establishment of settled communities. One of the most fascinating discoveries from this era is the facial reconstruction of an Early Neolithic farmer from Agiorgitika, a region in the Peloponnese, Greece. This reconstruction, made possible through modern forensic techniques, offers a captivating glimpse into the life and appearance of one of the first farmers who shaped the course of European civilization.

Migration from Anatolia to Greece

Around 7,000 BCE, farmers from Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) began migrating to what is now Greece, bringing with them revolutionary agricultural practices that would spread across Europe. This migration is considered a key moment in human history, as it marked the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to more permanent, agrarian societies. The early farmers introduced domesticated plants and animals, as well as pottery and new forms of architecture, setting the foundation for future European civilizations.

Genetic studies show that these Anatolian settlers carried a unique genetic signature, which they introduced to the local populations as they migrated further into Europe. Their movement into Greece and beyond played a central role in the spread of agriculture, making them the ancestors of many early European farming communities.

A Genetic Legacy Rooted in Southern Europe

As these early Neolithic farmers mixed with the local hunter-gatherers of Greece, they contributed significantly to the genetic makeup of modern Europeans. However, their genetic influence is particularly strong in Southern Europe, including Greece, the Balkans, Italy, and Sardinia. These regions served not only as entry points for early migration but also as cultural hubs where farming communities thrived. The continuity of these populations is reflected in the genetic makeup of present-day Southern Europeans, who retain a greater proportion of Neolithic ancestry compared to their Northern European counterparts.

This genetic legacy is a testament to the enduring presence of Neolithic communities in Southern Europe. While all Europeans share some genetic heritage from these early farmers, Southern Europeans, especially in Greece, carry a deeper connection to these pioneering agriculturalists.

The Agiorgitika Farmer: Bringing the Past to Life

The facial reconstruction of the Early Neolithic farmer from Agiorgitika, conducted by the team at Ancestral Whispers, provides a tangible connection to these ancient people. The reconstruction is based on the farmer’s skeletal remains and uses modern techniques to estimate muscle structure, skin tone, and facial features. The result is a remarkably lifelike representation of an individual who lived over 9,000 years ago.

This reconstructed face serves as a powerful reminder of the people who first brought farming to Europe, changing the course of history. It allows us to connect with our distant ancestors in a deeply personal way, bridging the gap between the distant past and the present.

The Early Neolithic farmers from Anatolia, such as the individual from Agiorgitika, played a critical role in shaping the genetic and cultural landscape of Europe. Their migration to Greece and their successful integration with local populations laid the foundation for agricultural societies that would go on to influence the entire continent. The facial reconstruction of the Agiorgitika farmer not only gives us a face to associate with these early pioneers but also serves as a reminder of the profound legacy they left behind. Through their contributions, they ensured that their genetic and cultural influence would endure, particularly in Southern Europe, where the echoes of the Neolithic age continue to resonate today.

Paraglider Spots Dog at the Summit of the Great Pyramid of Giza in a Viral Video

A paraglider flying over the Great Pyramid of Giza captured an unexpected sight that’s left social media buzzing—an adventurous dog perched at the summit of the 455-foot ancient wonder.

The viral video, recorded by Alex Lang and reshared on Instagram by adventurer Marshall Mosher, has already racked up over 49,000 views. The footage, shot from above, shows the dog casually roaming around the top of the iconic Egyptian pyramid, seemingly unfazed by the dizzying height.

Lang, who was participating in the SkyOne Egypt Gate 6 paramotoring event, had been gliding over the pyramids when he noticed something unusual. "I saw some movement, and when I looked closer, I realized it was a dog, barking and chasing birds from the very top of the pyramid," he said in a statement to Storyful.

The Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and the tallest of Egypt’s 118 pyramids, is a destination that draws millions of tourists annually. It’s unclear how the dog made its way to the top, but viewers across multiple social platforms were captivated by the sight.

Screenshots of the video show the dog wandering across the summit, barking at birds. Social media reactions have ranged from disbelief to humor, with one X user @allthedogspleaz joking, "Sometimes you just gotta climb the highest hill and bark at some birds, man."

On Instagram, user @andreicomedy quipped, "Whoever is peeing higher, owns it," while @akkasharora chimed in with, "His friends will never believe him."

In a follow-up clip shared by Mosher, the dog can be seen safely making its way down the pyramid, tail wagging.

While many wondered how the dog survived at such a height, with one user even questioning whether it had become "magical," the awe of the moment remains. As @bogdan.gajic commented, "He calls the sun god Amon Ra!"

The 25,000-Year-Old "Pyramid" In Indonesia: Is It Really a Human-Made Structure?

A recent study published in Archaeological Prospection has sparked major controversy with its extraordinary claim that a mountain in Indonesia, known as Gunung Padang, is actually the world’s oldest pyramid, dating back 25,000 years. This claim, if true, would not only push back the timeline of human civilization but suggest advanced construction techniques existed long before agriculture.

Gunung Padang, which translates to "Mountain of Enlightenment," was described in the study as not being a natural formation, but rather a deliberately sculpted structure. The research team asserted that this pyramid-like mound was built between 25,000 and 14,000 years ago and that it contains hidden chambers, possibly buried to preserve its true identity.

While the idea is captivating, archaeologists are skeptical. Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence, and so far, experts argue that the evidence presented is far from convincing.

Lutfi Yondri, an archaeologist from Indonesia's BRIN, stated that local communities during the period in question lived in caves and lacked the advanced masonry skills needed to create such a monument. Flint Dibble, an archaeologist from Cardiff University, expressed concerns about the methods used in the study. While carbon dating did reveal that the soil surrounding parts of the mound is about 27,000 years old, Dibble emphasized that old soil alone doesn’t prove human activity. No signs of human presence, like tools, bones, or charcoal, were found—leaving the possibility open that the structure is simply a natural formation.

Another contentious point is the study's claim of discovering a dagger-shaped stone supposedly crafted by humans. Critics argue there is no solid evidence to confirm this stone is man-made. The journal that published the study is now reviewing the paper due to these concerns, although the full nature of the review hasn’t been disclosed.

As Dibble pointed out, natural processes can lead to materials aligning in ways that might appear man-made. For now, without more compelling evidence, it seems likely that Gunung Padang is not the ancient pyramid it's been suggested to be, but rather a natural geological formation.

While the idea of a 25,000-year-old pyramid is fascinating, the evidence remains thin. It will take more concrete findings to reshape our understanding of ancient human history.

Schleicher's Fable: A Reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European Language

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Schleicher's fable serves as an excellent example of the efforts made by linguists to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language. It was created in 1868 by August Schleicher, who was the first to compose a text in PIE to demonstrate what this proto-language might have sounded like. The fable is titled "Avis akvāsas ka" ("The Sheep and the Horses") and has since undergone numerous revisions and adaptations by various linguists as our understanding of PIE has evolved. The different versions of the fable represent not only the various interpretations of the proto-language but also provide an opportunity to trace the evolution of ideas and theories about the character and structure of PIE over the centuries.

The History of Reconstruction

Through his work, Schleicher aimed to depict the Proto-Indo-European language as it was understood in the 19th century. This language no longer exists in any living form, and his work represents an attempt to reconstruct it through comparisons and studies of linguistic data from various Indo-European languages, such as Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and other ancient tongues. His initial attempt was revolutionary for its time, as it laid the foundations for the reconstruction of the proto-language by proposing specific phonological and morphological rules.

The original version of Schleicher's fable tells a brief story where a sheep converses with two horses, discussing the state of human society. The interest in this composition lies not so much in the narrative itself but in the attempt to capture the linguistic form of PIE based on the data available at that time.

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Read also: Wool and the Indo-Anatolian Hypothesis: A Linguistic and Archaeological Approach

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Revisions of the Fable

After Schleicher’s initial publication, several other linguists undertook the task of revising and adapting the fable as our understanding of PIE continued to progress. Some of the most notable revisions include:

1. Hermann Hirt (1939): Hirt published the first significant revision of the fable, adding new phonological and grammatical details that emerged from recent linguistic discoveries. His version presented more complex and precise sounds, reflecting the advancements in understanding the linguistic rules of PIE.

2. Winfred Lehmann and Ladislav Zgusta (1979): The work of Lehmann and Zgusta introduced innovations in morphology and syntax, incorporating more accurate rules concerning word roots and suffixes. Their version contributed to a better understanding of how PIE diversified into various language families.

3. Douglas Q. Adams (1997): Adams' version, published in the "Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture," introduced new theories about phonetic shifts and the evolution of vowels. His work presented a version of PIE more faithful to the complex phonological reality emerging from comparisons with modern Indo-European languages.

4. Frederik Kortlandt (2007): The most recent revision by Kortlandt integrated the latest theories on PIE phonology and grammar, utilizing newer linguistic methods and data. His version marked a significant step forward in understanding the dynamic evolution of PIE, including details on phonetic development and the use of prepositions.

Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Sheep and the Horses

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Avis akvāsas ka.

Avis, jasmin varnā na ā ast, dadarka akvams, tam, vāgham garum vaghantam, tam, bhāram magham, tam, manum āku bharantam. Avis akvabhjams ā vavakat: kard aghnutai mai vidanti manum akvams agantam.

Akvāsas ā vavakant: krudhi avai, kard aghnutai vividvant-svas: manus patis varnām avisāms karnauti svabhjam gharmam vastram avibhjams ka varnā na asti.

Tat kukruvants avis agram ā bhugat.

English translation:

The Sheep and the Horses

A sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.

Hirt (1939)

Owis ek'wōses-kʷe

Owis, jesmin wᵇlənā ne ēst, dedork'e ek'wons, tom, woghom gʷᵇrum weghontm̥, tom, bhorom megam, tom, gh'ьmonm̥ ōk'u bherontm̥. Owis ek'womos ewьwekʷet: k'ērd aghnutai moi widontei gh'ᵇmonm̥ ek’wons ag'ontm̥. Ek'wōses ewᵇwekʷont: kl'udhi, owei!, k'ērd aghnutai widontmos: gh'ᵇmo, potis, wᵇlənām owjôm kʷr̥neuti sebhoi ghʷermom westrom; owimos-kʷe wᵇlənā ne esti. Tod k'ek'ruwos owis ag'rom ebhuget.

Lehmann and Zgusta (1979)

Owis eḱwōskʷe

Gʷərēi owis, kʷesjo wl̥hnā ne ēst, ek̂wōns espek̂et, oinom ghe gʷr̥um woĝhom weĝhontm̥, oinomkʷe meǵam bhorom, oinomkʷe ĝhm̥enm̥ ōk̂u bherontm̥.

Owis nu ek̂wobh(y)os (ek̂womos) ewewkʷet: "k̂ēr aghnutoi moi ek̂wōns aĝontm̥ nerm̥ widn̥tei".

Eḱwōs tu ewewkʷont: "k̂ludhi, owei, k̂ēr ghe aghnutoi n̥smei widn̥tbh(y)os (widn̥tmos): nēr, potis, owiōm r̥ wl̥hnām sebhi gʷhermom westrom kʷrn̥euti. Neǵhi owiōm wl̥hnā esti".

Tod k̂ek̂luwōs owis aĝrom ebhuget.

Danka (1986)

Owis ek'woi kʷe

Owis, jesmin wl̥nā ne ēst, dedork'e ek'wons woghom gʷr̥um weghontn̥s - bhorom meg'əm, monum ōk'u bherontn̥s. Owis ek'wobhos eweukʷet: K'erd aghnutai moi widn̥tei g'hm̥onm̥ ek'wons ag'ontm̥. Ek'woi eweukʷont: K'ludhi, owi, k'erd aghnutai dedr̥k'usbhos: monus potis wl̥nām owiōm temneti: sebhei ghʷermom westrom - owibhos kʷe wl̥nā ne esti. Tod k'ek'luwōs owis ag'rom ebhuget.

Adams (1997)

H₂óu̯is h₁ék̂u̯ōs-kʷe

Gʷr̥hₓḗi h₂óu̯is, kʷési̯o u̯lh₂néh₄ ne (h₁é) est, h₁ék̂u̯ons spék̂et, h₁oinom ghe gʷr̥hₓúm u̯óĝhom u̯éĝhontm̥ h₁oinom-kʷe méĝhₐm bhórom, h₁oinom-kʷe ĝhménm̥ hₓṓk̂u bhérontm̥. h₂óu̯is tu h₁ek̂u̯oibh(i̯)os u̯eukʷét: 'k̂ḗr hₐeghnutór moi h₁ék̂u̯ons hₐéĝontm̥ hₐnérm̥ u̯idn̥téi. h₁ék̂u̯ōs tu u̯eukʷónt: 'k̂ludhí, h₂óu̯ei, k̂ḗr ghe hₐeghnutór n̥sméi u̯idn̥tbh(i̯)ós. hₐnḗr, pótis, h₂éu̯i̯om r̥ u̯l̥h₂néhₐm sebhi kʷr̥néuti nu gʷhérmom u̯éstrom néĝhi h₂éu̯i̯om u̯l̥h₂néhₐ h₁ésti.' Tód k̂ek̂luu̯ṓs h₂óu̯is hₐéĝrom bhugét.

Lühr (2008)

h₂ówis h₁ék’wōskʷe

h₂ówis, (H)jésmin h₂wlh₂néh₂ ne éh₁est, dedork'e (h₁)ék'wons, tóm, wóg'ʰom gʷérh₂um wég'ʰontm, tóm, bʰórom még'oh₂m, tóm, dʰg'ʰémonm h₂oHk'ú bʰérontm. h₂ówis (h₁)ék'wobʰos ewewkʷe(t): k'ḗrd h₂gʰnutoj moj widntéj dʰg'ʰmónm (h₁)ék'wons h₂ég'ontm. (h₁)ék'wōs ewewkʷ: k'ludʰí, h₂ówi! k'ḗrd h₂gʰnutoj widntbʰós: dʰg'ʰémō(n), pótis, h₂wlnéh₂m h₂ówjom kʷnewti sébʰoj gʷʰérmom wéstrom; h₂éwibʰoskʷe h₂wlh₂néh₂ né h₁esti. Tód k'ek'luwṓs h₂ówis h₂ég'rom ebʰuge(t).

Voyles and Barrack (2009)

Owis eḱwōs kʷe

Owis, jāi wl̥nā ne eest, dedorḱe eḱwons, tom woǵʰom gʷr̥um weǵʰontm̥, tom bʰorom meǵm̥, tom ǵʰm̥onm̥ ōku bʰerontm̥. Owis eḱwobʰjos eweket: "Ḱerd angʰetai moi widontei ǵʰm̥onm̥ eḱwons aǵontm̥". Eḱwos wewekur: "Ḱludʰe, owei! Ḱerd angʰetai widontbʰjos: ǵʰm̥on, potis, wl̥nam owijōm kʷr̥neti soi gʷʰermom westrom; owibʰjos kʷe wl̥nā ne esti". Tod ḱeḱlōts owis aǵrom ebʰuget.

Melchert (2009, revised 2014)

H₂ówis (h₁)ék̂wōs-kʷe

h₂áwej h₁josméj h₂wl̥h₁náh₂ né h₁ést, só h₁ék̂woms derk̂t. só gʷr̥hₓúm wóĝhom wéĝhet; só méĝh₂m̥ bhórom; só (dh)gĥémonm̥ h₂ṓk̂u bhéret. h₂ówis h₁ék̂wojbh(j)os wéwk(ʷ)et: (dh)ĝhémonm̥ spék̂joh₂ h₁ék̂woms h₁jós h₂áĝeti, k̂ḗr moj aghnutór. h₁ék̂wōs tu wéwkʷont: k̂ludhí, h₂owei! tód spék̂jomes/n, n̥sméi aghnutór k̂ḗr: (dh)ĝhémō pótis sē h₂áwjōm h₂wl̥h₁nā́h₁ gʷhérmom wéstrom (h₁)wébht, h₂áwibh(j)os tu h₂wl̥h₁náh₂ né h₁ésti. tód k̂ek̂luwṓs h₂ówis h₂aĝróm bhugét.

Kortlandt (2007, revised 2010)

ʕʷeuis ʔiḱ:ueskʷ:e

ʕʷeuis i ʕueli nēʔst ʔeḱ:ums uēit:, t:o kʷ'rʕeum uoḱom uḱent:m, t:o mḱ'eʕm porom, t:o tḱmenm ʔoʔḱ:u prent:m. uēuk:t ʕʷeuis ʔiḱ:uos, ʕetḱo ʔme ḱ:ērt ʕnerm uit'ent:i ʔeḱ:ums ʕḱ'ent:m. ueuk:nt: ʔiḱ:ues, ḱ:luti ʕʷue, ʕetḱo nsme ḱ:ērt: uit'ent:i, ʕnēr p:ot:is ʕʷuiom ʕueli sue kʷermom uesti kʷ:rneut:i, ʕʷuēi kʷ:e ʕueli neʔsti. t:o ḱ:eḱ:luus ʕʷeuis pleʕnom pēuk't.

After the separation of Anatolian and Tocharian:

ʕʷeuis ioi ʕulʔneʕ nēʔs ʔeḱuns ʔe uēi'd, tom 'gʷrʕeum uoǵom ueǵontm, tom m'ǵeʕm borom, tom dǵmenm ʔoʔḱu berontm. ʔe uēuk ʕʷeuis ʔeḱumus, ʕedǵo ʔmoi ḱēr'd ʕnerm ui'denti ʔeḱuns ʕe'ǵontm. ʔe ueukn'd ʔiḱues, ḱludi ʕʷuei, ʕedǵo nsmi ḱēr'd ui'denti, ʕnēr potis ʕʷuiom ʕulʔneʕm subi gʷermom uesti kʷrneuti, ʕʷuimus kʷe ʕulʔneʕ neʔsti. to'd ḱeḱluus ʕʷeuis pleʕnom bēu'g.

Byrd (2013)

H₂óu̯is h₁éḱu̯ōs-kʷe

h₂áu̯ei̯ h₁i̯osméi̯ h₂u̯l̥h₁náh₂ né h₁ést, só h₁éḱu̯oms derḱt. só gʷr̥hₓúm u̯óǵʰom u̯eǵʰed; só méǵh₂m̥ bʰórom; só dʰǵʰémonm̥ h₂ṓḱu bʰered. h₂óu̯is h₁ékʷoi̯bʰi̯os u̯eu̯ked: "dʰǵʰémonm̥ spéḱi̯oh₂ h₁éḱu̯oms-kʷe h₂áǵeti, ḱḗr moi̯ agʰnutor". h₁éḱu̯ōs tu u̯eu̯kond: "ḱludʰí, h₂ou̯ei̯! tód spéḱi̯omes, n̥sméi̯ agʰnutór ḱḗr: dʰǵʰémō, pótis, sē h₂áu̯i̯es h₂u̯l̥h₁náh₂ gʷʰérmom u̯éstrom u̯ept, h₂áu̯ibʰi̯os tu h₂u̯l̥h₁náh₂ né h₁esti". tód ḱeḱluu̯ṓs h₂óu̯is h₂aǵróm bʰuged.

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The Significance of Reconstructions

The reconstructions of PIE through Schleicher's fable should not be regarded as precise renditions of the original language. Instead, they represent an approximation to historical truth, a form of "plausible" approach, as Boeckh points out. Reconstructions are based on hypotheses and conclusions drawn from the study of descendant languages of PIE, and they provide an algebraic depiction of the linguistic system, though not entirely accurate.

As Delbrück notes, the PIE reconstructed through such texts is not a real language that was once spoken but rather a "typical expression" of the evolving views of researchers. The differences among the versions of the fable reflect the evolution of linguistic thought: as methods improve and data increase, the picture we form of PIE becomes clearer and closer to historical reality.

This is the Most Sophisticated Model for Indo-European Language Relationships

Schleicher's fable is a fascinating linguistic exercise that reveals the complexity of reconstructing a lost language. These efforts are undoubtedly theoretical, yet they have the potential to offer a realistic depiction of the proto-language through detailed analysis and comparison. The process of reconstruction is evidence of how science can use past data to construct images of a historical world that no longer exists, and Schleicher's fable is a perfect example of this ongoing effort by linguists.

Schleicher's fable continues to be refined, demonstrating that linguistics is not static but constantly evolving, shaping new approaches to understand the earliest phase of languages spoken by the ancestors of cultures throughout Eurasia.

Archaeologists Unearth Ancient Roman Gladiator Arena in Turkey

A remarkable discovery has emerged from the ancient city of Mastaura in western Turkey: the remains of a nearly 2,000-year-old Roman gladiator arena. This impressive structure, once capable of seating up to 20,000 spectators, was likely the scene of fierce gladiatorial combat and brutal animal fights. Researchers believe that thousands gathered in this arena to cheer, jeer, and place bets on the violent spectacles.

Nestled within the rolling hills of Aydın Province, the arena was largely hidden beneath earth and overgrown vegetation until its discovery in 2020. Although much of the structure remains underground, the visible portions—arches, seating rows, and the gladiators' battleground—still evoke the grandeur of its bloody past.

Lead archaeologist Sedat Akkurnaz and his team from Adnan Menderes University, working alongside provincial director Mehmet Umut Tuncer, describe the find as "magnificent." Despite centuries of neglect, the arena’s underground foundations remain exceptionally well-preserved, with Akkurnaz remarking that they appear "as solid as if they were just built."

Dating back to the 2nd century AD during the Severan dynasty, the arena was part of Mastaura’s flourishing period. With a capacity smaller than Rome's famous Colosseum, this Anatolian arena nonetheless held thousands and boasted a range of facilities, including gladiator preparation rooms and private entertainment areas. Spectators from neighboring cities like Aphrodisias and Ephesus likely flocked to the venue, eager to witness the "bloody shows" that were central to Roman entertainment.

The team is now focused on preserving and studying the structure further, using laser scans and geophysical surveys to map out the entire arena, including its hidden underground sections. With continued efforts, the site will soon offer an even greater glimpse into its history, giving a clearer picture of how Romans in Asia Minor gathered to witness—and revel in—spectacles of death and survival.

A Living Monument: The Resilient Architecture of Istanbul’s Byzantine, Ottoman, and Republican Eras

Istanbul, the city that bridges two continents, is a place where the past and present coexist in striking harmony. This photograph of a remarkable building in Istanbul, on Alaykosku Street in the Cagaloglu district, captures that enduring spirit in a single, extraordinary frame. The structure, which stands as a testament to three different historical periods—the Byzantine Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and modern-day Turkey—demonstrates the city's resilience and cultural layers.

A Tale of Three Eras: Byzantine, Ottoman, and Republican

At first glance, the building's eclectic architectural mix may seem puzzling, but it tells a compelling story of continuity. The bottom section is made of ancient Byzantine columns, likely remnants from an earlier structure. These stone columns, with their robust form and classical arches, echo the grandeur of Constantinople, the city that was once the capital of the Byzantine Empire.

As you move upward, the structure shifts into Ottoman-era stonework. This middle section showcases the Ottoman Empire’s architectural style, characterized by sturdy stone walls. The masonry reflects the craftsmanship and engineering prowess of a time when Istanbul, formerly known as Constantinople, was a vibrant center of commerce and culture under Ottoman rule.

Crowning the building are the top floors, constructed during Turkey's Republican era. These are more utilitarian, representing the practical architectural trends of the early 20th century. While the aesthetics may seem relatively modest compared to the ornate Byzantine and Ottoman sections, the upper floors symbolize the city's modern history, transitioning from an imperial past to a bustling, modern metropolis.

A Building Standing the Test of Time

Despite the visible wear and tear, the building remains firmly rooted in place, defying the ravages of time. Nature has begun to reclaim parts of the structure, with creeping vines and patches of greenery growing between the stone walls. Yet, its foundation—a fusion of three distinct architectural eras—holds strong. This resilience mirrors Istanbul itself, a city that has survived countless invasions, earthquakes, and political upheavals, yet continues to thrive.

The Symbolism of Layers

This building represents more than just the architectural evolution of a city. Each layer stands for a different chapter in Istanbul’s rich history, encapsulating the city’s journey from the ancient Roman and Byzantine periods, through the Islamic Ottoman Empire, to the secular Turkish Republic. It’s a visual metaphor for how Istanbul has absorbed and preserved its diverse cultural influences over the centuries.

Conclusion: A Microcosm of Istanbul’s History

In many ways, this structure is a microcosm of Istanbul itself—layered, complex, and enduring. Each stone, each floor, tells a story of a different era, yet together they form a cohesive whole that is still standing, just as Istanbul continues to stand as one of the world's most historically rich and culturally diverse cities.

The building may seem weathered and timeworn, but like the city it inhabits, it is very much alive, a living monument to a civilization that bridges the ancient and the modern world.

The Oldest Man-Made Arch in History: A Journey Through Time in Tel Dan

Nestled in Upper Galilee, northern Israel, lies Tel el Qadi, also known as Tel Dan, an ancient city that holds one of the most incredible historical treasures: the oldest known man-made arch in history. This ancient biblical city and archaeological site has attracted researchers and historians from around the world, revealing layers of history dating back thousands of years.

A Neolithic Beginning

The history of Tel Dan reaches back to the Neolithic era, around 9000 BC. During this time, early humans established settlements in the region, laying the foundations of what would become a hub of civilization in the millennia to come. These early inhabitants, though primitive by modern standards, were pioneers in agriculture and settlement-building.

The Rise of a Canaanite Stronghold

Fast forward to the Bronze Age, Tel Dan transformed into a significant Canaanite city, surrounded by formidable walls and impressive city gates. It was during this period that the city reached its height of architectural innovation and cultural significance. Among the most important discoveries from this era is the remarkable mudbrick city gate, an entrance that once welcomed travelers and traders into the bustling metropolis.

The excavation of this site revealed the remnants of stairs leading up to the gate, which itself was an engineering marvel. Constructed from sun-baked mud bricks, this gate featured three arches — a groundbreaking achievement in construction. Arches, as we now know, would go on to become a cornerstone of architectural design throughout the ages. However, the arch at Tel Dan stands out for its significance: it is one of the earliest complete arches ever discovered, marking a pivotal moment in human architectural evolution.

The Oldest Standing Arch

What truly sets this site apart is the arch-shaped lintel, a defining feature of the gate. Unlike other ancient structures that have crumbled over time, this archway has remained remarkably intact. It is the earliest known intact archway ever found, offering us a rare glimpse into early human ingenuity. Its preservation allows us to appreciate the sophisticated techniques employed by the ancient Canaanites, who used simple materials like mud bricks baked in the sun to craft enduring monuments.

This discovery reshapes our understanding of early engineering. While modern arches are made of stone or concrete, this humble, sun-baked brick arch marks the dawn of a new era in architecture — one that would lead to the grand arches of Rome and the iconic structures that define cities today.

A Living Connection to the Past

Visiting Tel Dan today is like stepping back in time. The site's preservation offers a tangible connection to the people who once inhabited this ancient city. Standing before the gate, it’s impossible not to be awed by the ingenuity and determination of early builders who, with limited tools and resources, managed to construct a lasting legacy.

This ancient city, with its walls, gates, and arches, provides not just an archaeological wonder but a testament to the enduring spirit of humanity — a drive to innovate, create, and leave behind a mark for future generations.

As we continue to excavate and study Tel Dan, each discovery reveals new layers of history and deepens our understanding of early civilizations. And perhaps most remarkably, this ancient arch reminds us that, even in the distant past, humans were capable of extraordinary feats of engineering that continue to inspire us today.

2,400-Year-Old Theater Discovered in Alexandria Troas

In an exciting archaeological endeavor, Turkish archaeologists are on the verge of uncovering a spectacular 2,400-year-old theater in the ancient Greek city of Alexandria Troas, near the modern-day city of Çanakkale, Turkey. This historic site, which has long captivated historians and scholars, is now revealing one of its hidden treasures: a grand theater capable of seating 12,000 spectators.

Excavations began in July 2024, spearheaded by Professor Erhan Öztepe from Ankara University. This discovery represents a significant breakthrough in our understanding of ancient Greek culture in the region and the role that theaters played as central hubs for civic life.

A Masterpiece of Ancient Architecture

Perched on a hillside in the tradition of classical Greek theaters, the Alexandria Troas theater would have provided stunning views not only of the stage but also of the surrounding landscapes. Its design mirrors the layout seen in other ancient Greek theaters, where nature and performance were intertwined to create a harmonious viewing experience.

Turkish archaeologists are about to uncover a 2,400-year-old, 12,000-seat theater at Alexandria Troas, an ancient Greek city near Canakkale, Turkey. Excavations began in July 2024, led by Professor Erhan Oztepe of Ankara University. Built into a hillside following Greek traditions, the theater likely underwent Roman-era modifications, especially under Emperor Hadrian. The site offers insight into the region's rich theatrical history and is part of a broader project to explore ancient cultural spaces, including an Odeon used for performances. Further excavations are expected to reveal more of the theater.

The theater’s strategic placement and engineering marvels were not just a reflection of the artistic devotion of the Greeks but also of the deep civic pride held by the people of Alexandria Troas. The structure underwent several modifications during the Roman era, with one of the most notable periods of renovation taking place under the rule of Emperor Hadrian. The Roman influence, especially during the 2nd century AD, saw the introduction of architectural enhancements that may have included the use of more permanent materials, alterations to the seating arrangement, and the expansion of the stage area.

Shedding Light on Theatrical Heritage

The discovery is part of a broader project aimed at exploring the cultural spaces of Alexandria Troas. Alongside the theater, an Odeon—a smaller venue used for musical performances and poetry readings—has already been partially excavated. These structures reflect the rich history of theater in the region, highlighting its importance as a center for drama, music, and public discourse.

For centuries, the ancient theater of Alexandria Troas would have hosted countless performances—ranging from Greek tragedies and comedies to later Roman spectacles. Such theaters were not merely entertainment venues but integral parts of the city’s social fabric, where citizens would gather to witness plays, hear political debates, and experience cultural events.

Future Excavations and Insights

While a portion of the theater has already been unearthed, further excavations are expected to reveal more details about its architecture, stage design, and audience seating. Archaeologists are hopeful that inscriptions, artifacts, and additional architectural elements will provide deeper insights into the daily life and cultural practices of ancient Alexandria Troas.

As the excavation progresses, there is growing excitement within the archaeological community, not only for the discoveries themselves but also for the opportunity to better understand the cross-cultural influences between the Greeks and Romans in this vibrant port city. Alexandria Troas, situated at a crucial crossroads between East and West, offers a unique window into the complex interactions between these two ancient civilizations.

A Journey into the Past

The uncovering of the 2,400-year-old theater is a remarkable step in reconnecting with the past, giving us a glimpse into the world of ancient performance arts and public life. As Turkish archaeologists, led by Professor Erhan Öztepe, continue their careful exploration of the site, it’s clear that Alexandria Troas is a historical gem that will enrich our understanding of antiquity for generations to come.

Stay tuned for more exciting developments as this ancient theater reveals its long-buried secrets and continues to shape our knowledge of theatrical history and ancient civilization.

Mycenaean Amber: A Symbol of Sun, Status, and Cross-Cultural Connections in the Bronze Age

Amber, the fossilized tree resin renowned for its golden hues and timeless beauty, was much more than a decorative element for the Mycenaeans, one of the earliest advanced civilizations in Greece. New research spearheaded by Professor Janusz Czebreszuk, Director of the Polish Archaeological Institute in Athens, sheds light on the cultural and symbolic importance of amber for this Bronze Age society. According to this study, amber not only represented the sun but was also a marker of social status, denoting the elite class within Mycenaean culture, which thrived between 1750 and 1050 BCE.

The Mycenaean Civilization: A Hub of Power and Prestige

The Mycenaeans are celebrated as the first advanced civilization on the Greek mainland, known for their impressive palaces, intricate urban planning, and sophisticated art. Their society was also marked by the use of a unique script, known as Linear B, which provides valuable insights into their economic and social structures. While the grandeur of their architecture and the complexity of their trade networks have long been recognized, recent findings reveal that the Mycenaeans had a special appreciation for amber, primarily among the upper echelons of society. Adornments crafted from this resin, such as necklaces and pectorals, have been discovered in numerous gravesites, particularly those belonging to the elites, underscoring amber’s role as a symbol of prestige.

Amber: The Sunstone of the North

Research into these amber artifacts has traced their origins back to the Baltic region, specifically around the Bay of Gdańsk—a historical center for amber trade. This suggests that the Mycenaeans were part of a vast and intricate trade network that connected them with distant parts of Europe. According to Professor Czebreszuk, the Mycenaeans likely brought amber with them as they migrated from northern areas such as Macedonia or Epirus. This implies not just a movement of people but also a transfer of cultural beliefs and religious practices associated with amber.

In Central Europe, where amber was abundant, Neolithic artifacts often depicted disc-shaped designs with radiating patterns, symbolizing the sun. Amber, with its warm, glowing appearance, was thought to embody the sun's power, a belief that was carried into the Mediterranean by the Mycenaeans. "Amber arrived in Hellas with the religious meanings it held in the north," Czebreszuk remarked, highlighting the continuity of sun symbolism across regions.

Mythological and Symbolic Significance

The symbolic value of amber in Mycenaean culture was further enhanced by its mythological associations. In Greek mythology, amber is linked to the tale of Phaethon, the son of Helios, the sun god. According to legend, Phaethon attempted to drive his father’s sun chariot but lost control, leading to his tragic death. His grieving sisters, the Heliades, wept endlessly, and their tears transformed into amber. This mythological connection with the sun reinforced the belief that amber was a physical embodiment of sunlight, making it a prized possession for the Mycenaean elite.

Professor Czebreszuk notes that possessing amber was akin to holding a fragment of the sun, a powerful symbol of divine favor and authority. "Whoever had amber, whoever had an amber necklace, in a sense possessed a piece of the Sun. Those who had it, and these were the elites, used amber to legitimize their claims to a superior position in society," he explained. Through this association, Mycenaean leaders could assert their social status and power, using amber as a means to reinforce their authority and divine connection.

Small amber blocks. Credit: Olga Kovalski

Amber and the Trade Networks of Bronze Age Europe

The distribution of amber in Mycenaean gravesites reflects the extensive trade networks that existed during the Bronze Age. Amber was not a local product in Greece but was transported over long distances, passing through numerous hands before reaching the Mycenaean elites. The Bay of Gdańsk, situated along the Baltic coast, was a major hub for the amber trade, and this region's connections extended as far as the British Isles to the west and the steppes of Ukraine to the east. These trade routes facilitated not only the exchange of goods but also the movement of ideas, technologies, and even people.

Genetic studies suggest that interregional marriages often cemented these trading relationships, creating alliances between distant elite groups. Amber, thus, was more than just a luxury item; it was a token of these alliances, circulating among the elite as part of a broader exchange system that linked distant communities. Professor Czebreszuk emphasized the significance of these networks: "Amber had a wide distribution, and ancient deposits were primarily known in areas around the Baltic and North Sea." This wide distribution underscores the complex trade routes and social connections that defined the Bronze Age world.

Insights from Modern Research

The establishment of the Polish Archaeological Institute in Athens in 2019 has enabled Polish researchers to conduct in-depth studies of ancient artifacts like amber. Through these efforts, scholars aim to uncover the production techniques, trade dynamics, and cultural exchanges that defined the Bronze Age. By examining different varieties of fossil resin, such as succinite, researchers can determine not only the origins of the amber pieces but also gain insights into the workshops and craftspeople who produced them. This, in turn, sheds light on the broader economic and social systems that facilitated the movement of amber across Europe.

As Professor Czebreszuk explains, "We can determine where the find originated, where the workshop was, and what knowledge the producer had." This research is crucial for understanding the Mycenaean elites who wore these amber adornments, as well as the networks that connected them to other powerful groups across the continent. The study of amber, therefore, opens a window into the complex world of Bronze Age trade, revealing a web of connections that spanned vast distances and brought together diverse cultures.

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Read also: The Origins of Mycenaean Gold: Thrace, Egypt, or Beyond?

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The view of Mycenaean migration from the north, as proposed by Professor Czebreszuk, while intriguing, contrasts with the findings of contemporary genetic research and prevailing archaeological theories. Recent genetic studies indicate a consistent genetic continuity among Aegean populations from the Early Bronze Age through the Classical Period, suggesting that the Mycenaeans developed locally without the need for mass migratory movements. Additionally, archaeological research emphasizes the cultural evolution of Mycenaean societies through the integration and exchange of goods, technologies, and ideas with other regions of the Mediterranean and Europe, rather than through population shifts. Archaeological evidence points to extensive trade networks connecting the Aegean with Northern Europe, the Eastern Mediterranean, and the Black Sea, demonstrating that amber, metals, and other materials circulated via trade rather than migration. The migration theory, popular during the previous century, is now considered outdated, as data supports local cultural development with an openness to external influences, reinforcing the image of the Mycenaeans as a dynamic and cosmopolitan civilization that cultivated connections with the wider world without the need for relocations.

ConclusionAmber was not merely a decorative accessory for the Mycenaeans; it was a symbol of power, divine favor, and social status. Its warm, sun-like appearance, coupled with its mythological associations, made it a coveted material among the Mycenaean elite. The discovery of Baltic amber in Mycenaean gravesites points to an extensive trade network that linked distant regions of Europe, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices. Through ongoing research, archaeologists continue to uncover the stories behind these ancient connections, revealing the depth and complexity of the Mycenaean world and its interactions with the broader Bronze Age Europe.

Age of Empires Ventures into Ancient Greece! Chronicles: Battle for Greece Revealed

The beloved strategy game, Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition, is set to take players back in time to Ancient Greece! The development team at World’s Edge, part of Xbox Game Studios, has officially announced Chronicles: Battle for Greece, an exciting new expansion for the historical strategy title.

This highly anticipated DLC will immerse players in some of the most significant events from Ancient Greek history, including the Ionian Revolt, the Greco-Persian Wars, and the Peloponnesian War. The expansion promises an epic campaign featuring 21 battle scenarios, where players can relive these iconic moments. Chronicles: Battle for Greece introduces three new civilizations: the Athenians, the Spartans, and the Achaemenid Persians. Players will also encounter famous historical figures such as Artemisia, Themistocles, and Brasidas, all brought to life with authentic voice acting and beautifully animated cutscenes that resemble artwork from painted Greek vases.

The expansion builds on the classic Age of Empires II gameplay while offering a revamped visual experience. A total of 55 land units and 19 naval units have been updated, alongside 85 new buildings to represent the three new civilizations. Additionally, a new naval battle system has been introduced, adding strategic depth to the game by allowing players to engage in intense naval warfare.

Pre-orders for Chronicles: Battle for Greece are already available with a 15% discount on Steam. The expansion is set to release on November 14, 2024, with Advanced Access starting on November 4, 2024.

This expansion is shaping up to be a must-have for fans of both history and real-time strategy games, offering a fresh perspective on one of the most celebrated periods of ancient warfare. Whether you're leading the disciplined Spartans or the cunning Athenians, Chronicles: Battle for Greece promises to deliver a thrilling and historically rich experience.

Philosophy and Healing: Ancient Wisdom for Modern Mental Health

We live in an age where everyone's obsessed with self-care — green juices of celery, scented candles, meditation apps, Sadhu boards, and much more — and yet, peace is difficult for us. Perhaps the reason is much deeper than we thought and lies in the essence of our existence. In this article, we are not going to reinvent the wheel because it has already been done for us: we will turn to the legends of the world of philosophy to find out what their advice can be applied in our present.

Buddhism: You Make Your Reality

"Buddha" is translated from Sanskrit as "one who has awakened" in the sense of "awakened to reality." This is what happened to the Buddha himself, who suggested that maybe the problem wasn't the world but how we perceived it. One of the Buddhist truths is that the cause of suffering lies in attachment to someone or something. "You create your own problems," Buddha almost said, leaving us 2,500 years ago with this hard truth.

However, in order to come to this truth, many need help from a psychic advisor, psychologist, or life itself. We cling to our beliefs, expectations, and aspirations. When things don't work out the way we want them to, we lose it. Sometimes it seems that the more we are in love with a person, the more strength we have to destroy everything: with jealousy, worries and simply the inability to believe that the person really wants to be there for us.

The healing magic here comes from learning to let go of attachment. It does not mean that you should not fall in love or be passionate about your favorite things. Think of it more in a "be present" sort of way. Buddhism encourages us to concentrate on the now rather than obsessing over what is supposed to or could happen. The only place we can find peace is in the here and now. Not in the future, which is essentially a blank canvas, or the past, which is full of regrets and embarrassing moments sometimes. It should be now.

Philosophy of Aristotle: You Are Who You Are

If one of the psychics online was asked who Aristotle could be according to the horoscope, most would answer that he was Libra, a sign that always seeks harmony. This is what Aristotle was also doing: building his wisdom around balance and harmony.

According to Aristotle, happiness is more about what you do than what you own. He believed in living according to your principles and values. If you are feeling a little lost, Aristotle would advise you to determine whether you are living a life that is honest to who you are inside. 

Chasing the picture that your parents, colleagues, or even yourself have drawn for you, trying to please someone, is difficult to call a fulfilling life. Strike a balance. Remember that anything in excess is bad for your mental health, whether it's work, drinking, or researching your symptoms at three in the morning. Aristotle would be the first to advise you to put down your phone and take a walk—not because it's a revolutionary idea, but because sometimes we need to refocus on the little things to find out who we are.

Stoicism: You Can't And Shouldn't Control It

If you feel that your whole life is a race for something that you still don't have, maybe the advice of Stoicism will help you. The main one is to stop comparing your life with the life of your friends or your peers from movies and Instagram feeds. The only person you should compare yourself to is yesterday's self. This truth goes hand in hand with another statement of Stoicism: stop worrying about things you cannot change. 

Marcus Aurelius, who was a Roman emperor and a philosopher of Stoicism, had a lot of problems to deal with. Take at least the plague from which he died: there is no doubt that in his time, there were plenty of reasons to worry. However, somehow he managed. He realized that the only thing he could actually control was his own reaction to it all. Stoicism, in its simplest form, is the original "it is what it is."

Try to notice what really worries you during the day. Is it the weather? The economy? A poor Wi-Fi connection? The person who broke your heart but still texts you at 2 a.m.? Sometimes, you just need to let it go. Only your response is within your power. Instead of attempting to stop the crisis, your strength is in how you handle it. Visit a psychic website to gain insights on how best to handle these stresses, using your inner strength.

Conclusion

If, after reading this article, you stop seeing philosophy as a set of quotes to flash at a party, good for you. Although times have changed, some problems have remained the same, as have the ways to solve them. The wisdom of the philosophers reminds us not to chase after what is impossible to catch up with and to stop controlling what does not need our control.

It's time to enjoy the small things in life and, above all, not to take things too seriously. After all, life is just one big philosophical experiment, and you are free to make mistakes.