The Oldest Known Human Fossil that Blends Homo Sapiens and Neanderthal Species in Both Body and Brain

A recent study published in Journal of Anthropologie (July 2025) has dramatically reshaped our understanding of the encounters between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals. The research focuses on the skull of a five-year-old child, known as Skhul I, discovered almost a century ago in the Skhul Cave at Mount Carmel, Israel. Using modern CT imaging, scientists now argue that this fragment represents the earliest known human fossil that so strongly combines features of both species—externally resembling Homo sapiens, yet internally carrying unmistakable Neanderthal traits.

This revelation not only shifts the timeline of interbreeding between our species and Neanderthals but also forces us to reconsider the evolutionary story itself. It shows that our lineage has always been hybrid at its core, shaped by encounters, exchanges, and blending rather than by a neat succession of “pure” populations.

The Discovery of Skhul I: An Old Fossil Revisited

The remains of Skhul I were first unearthed nearly 90 years ago during excavations led by British archaeologists Dorothy Garrod and Theodore McCown. At the time, the child’s skeleton was classified as early Homo sapiens due to its rounded skull vault and other “modern” features. However, paleoanthropologists always noted a curious mix: some elements seemed less typical, hinting at Neanderthal affinities.

For decades, the specimen was treated as a borderline case—perhaps transitional, perhaps simply variation within early Homo sapiens. What it lacked was the precision of modern imaging technology. With the application of high-resolution CT scans, researchers were able to analyze the internal structures of the skull and jaw with unprecedented clarity. And what they found was nothing short of groundbreaking: beneath a Homo sapiens-like exterior lay a framework strikingly similar to that of Neanderthals.

The skull of Skhul I child showing cranial curvature typical of Homo sapiens. Credit: Tel Aviv University

A Hybrid Signature in Flesh and Bone

The new study highlights several features that point to this hybrid identity.

• Cranial Vault: The rounded, globular shape is consistent with Homo sapiens, reflecting a brain form we associate with our species.

• Vascular Impressions: The pattern of blood vessel channels inside the skull shows Neanderthal-like organization, revealing a deeper kinship with that lineage.

• Mandible and Ear Structure: The lower jaw and the internal ear morphology strongly echo Neanderthal anatomy, diverging from the more gracile Homo sapiens form.

Taken together, these findings suggest Skhul I was not simply an early Homo sapiens child but the product of a much earlier intermingling between populations—long before the commonly accepted timeline.

Shattering the Chronology: Interbreeding Twice as Old as We Thought

Until recently, the dominant genetic narrative placed interbreeding between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals between 60,000 and 40,000 years ago, during the great migrations out of Africa. Ancient DNA studies showed that non-African humans carry about 2–4% Neanderthal DNA, a legacy of those encounters.

Skhul I, however, is dated to roughly 140,000 years ago. This pushes back the evidence of mixing by nearly 80,000 years. In other words, the first genetic exchanges between sapiens and Neanderthals occurred not in Europe or Central Asia during the last Ice Age, but much earlier, likely in the Levant—one of the most important crossroads of human evolution.

This child is thus the earliest tangible witness to a story of contact, union, and shared life between two species.

Body and Brain: A Mosaic of Evolution

Credit: Tel Aviv University

The most fascinating aspect of Skhul I is not just that it mixes traits but that it does so in both body and brain. Hybridization here is not superficial. It extends to the very architecture of the cranium—the space that houses cognition, perception, and social behavior.

This mosaic anatomy suggests that human evolution was never a simple sequence of one species replacing another. Instead, it was messy and interactive. Populations met, exchanged genes, shared ideas and technologies, and sometimes raised children who embodied both lineages. Skhul I represents one such child—living proof that identity in prehistory was blurred, fluid, and relational.

Cultural and Social Implications

The existence of Skhul I raises important questions about the nature of Neanderthal-sapiens interaction. Were these isolated encounters, or was there sustained coexistence? Archaeological evidence from the Mount Carmel region shows overlapping tool traditions and burial practices. This suggests that the two populations may have shared not only territory but aspects of culture.

If Homo sapiens and Neanderthals were raising children together 140,000 years ago, we must imagine families that combined traditions, perhaps languages, and worldviews. Such unions could have been rare and exceptional, or they could have been part of a long history of social entanglement. Either way, Skhul I is a window into the first “mixed” households of humanity.

Rethinking the Human Story

For decades, evolutionary narratives were dominated by a model of replacement: modern humans emerged in Africa and eventually outcompeted or exterminated Neanderthals. While genetic evidence has already softened this story by showing interbreeding, the discovery of Skhul I makes it impossible to ignore how deep and ancient this blending truly was.

The implication is that humanity is not a “pure” lineage at all but a palimpsest of interactions. We are hybrids by origin, carrying echoes of more than one hominin species in our DNA, bodies, and perhaps even in aspects of cognition and behavior.

This is not a weakness but a strength. Diversity and mixture gave us resilience, adaptability, and creativity. The blurred boundaries between sapiens and Neanderthals may have enriched both species, even if one lineage eventually disappeared.

Why This Child Matters Today

Skhul I is not merely an archaeological curiosity; it is a symbol. It reminds us that our history is a story of meeting, blending, and co-creation. At a time when human societies often obsess over purity, origins, and boundaries, this fossil offers a very different lesson: the human condition is hybrid. We are who we are because of encounters that crossed lines, defied categories, and forged unexpected kinships.

The child at Mount Carmel was buried with care, suggesting that even in deep prehistory, people understood the value of life, no matter how unusual its origins. That act of burial links us directly to them, across 140,000 years, in a chain of memory and belonging.

Conclusion: A Mirror of Our Shared Nature

The oldest known human fragment that combines both species so intensely in body and brain is more than a scientific discovery—it is a mirror. It reflects the truth that identity has always been complex, layered, and shared.

Skhul I challenges us to imagine prehistory not as a battlefield of species but as a landscape of encounters, families, and exchanges. It shows that evolution’s greatest tool was not isolation but connection. And in that light, our deepest legacy is not competition, but the capacity to meet the other and become something new together.

The child of Skhul, resting for 140,000 years in the earth of Mount Carmel, is now speaking again. What it tells us is simple but profound: humanity has always been a conversation, not a monologue.

Archaeologists Discover One of the World’s Oldest Streets in Neolithic Anatolia, Nearly 10,000 Years Old

Almost 10,000 years ago—long before the emergence of cities—people in central Anatolia were already experimenting with new ways of shaping their living environment. Recent excavations at Canhasan 3 Höyük in Turkey’s Karaman province have brought to light one of the world’s earliest known streets, dating back around 9,750 years, predating the more famous settlement of Çatalhöyük by roughly seven and a half centuries.

A Planned Passageway in the Neolithic World

Archaeologists uncovered a deliberately designed corridor between houses—an astonishing find that stands among the earliest examples of a “street” in human history. This discovery disrupts the long-standing perception of Neolithic life as clusters of tightly packed, roof-accessed dwellings with little space between them, a pattern epitomized by Çatalhöyük. Instead, Canhasan 3 reveals a community that consciously left open areas between structures, reflecting an early attempt at spatial planning, shared pathways, and communal organization.

Excavations and Findings

The work is conducted under the “Heritage for the Future Project” of Turkey’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism, led by Assoc. Prof. Adnan Baysal of Ankara University. His team discovered a clear passage separating two dwellings—an intentional layout rarely encountered in Neolithic Anatolia.

At Canhasan 3 Mound in Karaman, archaeologists uncovered one of the earliest known streets of the Neolithic Age, dating back 750 years before the 9,000-year-old Çatalhöyük. Credit: DHA

“This is a remarkable surprise,” Baysal explained. “Unlike Çatalhöyük’s compact house blocks, Canhasan 3 demonstrates a very different vision of architecture. These spaces may have served as passageways, livestock corridors, or perhaps the earliest form of a street. Whatever their exact function, the very existence of such gaps is extraordinary for this period.”

The researchers also observed variations in hearth placement compared to Çatalhöyük, suggesting diverse cultural practices among the Neolithic communities of Central Anatolia.

A Settlement That Endured for Millennia

Canhasan is not a single mound but a complex of three (Canhasan 1, 2, and 3), documenting continuous human occupation from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic through the Bronze and Iron Ages. For thousands of years, this fertile area supported communities that witnessed the advent of agriculture, animal domestication, and permanent architecture.

Baysal attributes the site’s longevity to its abundant water sources and rich environment. Excavations have revealed bones of aurochs, fish, and waterfowl, indicating a wetland landscape with plentiful resources. Ongoing analysis of plant remains is expected to shed further light on early farming practices.

Why This Discovery Matters

The identification of a street-like feature at Canhasan 3 pushes the history of urban-style planning much further back than previously thought. Streets are often seen as markers of social complexity and collective organization, and finding such an element nearly 10,000 years ago radically changes our understanding of early communities.

Moreover, the contrast with Çatalhöyük emphasizes that Neolithic societies in Anatolia were far from uniform. Different groups pursued distinct solutions to issues of mobility, safety, and social interaction.

Canhasan’s Wider Importance

Though long overshadowed by Çatalhöyük, Canhasan 3 is emerging as a crucial site for reconstructing the diversity of early settlement models. Archaeologists point to its significance in several areas:

• Evidence of early spatial planning and proto-street formation

• Continuity of settlement over millennia

• Abundant environmental and ecological data

• A cultural bridge between the Pre-Pottery and Pottery Neolithic

For these reasons, Canhasan 3 holds value not only for Turkish archaeology but also for global research on human social development.

Looking Ahead

Excavations continue with the aim of learning more about the daily lives of Canhasan’s inhabitants. Researchers hope to understand whether these early streets served purely functional purposes or whether they carried symbolic or communal meaning.

As Baysal notes: “By carefully studying the architecture, artifacts, and ecological remains, we can reconstruct how people lived, farmed, and interacted with their environment. Canhasan 3 shows us a unique Neolithic society—different from Çatalhöyük but equally vital for understanding our shared human past.”

With its deep historical layers and groundbreaking discoveries, Canhasan 3 is gaining recognition as a landmark of Anatolia—one of the places where the earliest experiments in community planning, agriculture, and settlement design took root nearly 10 millennia ago.

Restoring the Glory of Amphipolis: The Kasta Tomb's Transformation into a Visitor-Focused Museum

Amphipolis, in Central Macedonia, Greece, holds one of the most breathtaking archaeological sites of the Hellenistic world—the Kasta Tomb (Τύμβος Καστά). Dating to the late 4th century BCE, this grand tumulus is the largest of its kind in Greece and eclipses even the famed burial mound of Philip II in Vergina.

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Watch this spectacular panoramic video from the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis, Greece

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Uncovered progressively—first in the 1960s and more dramatically from 2012 onward—the mound surrounds a sophisticated tomb complex with three vaulted chambers, ornate mosaics (notably depicting the abduction of Persephone), sphinx statues, caryatids, and a marble perimeter wall nearly 158 m in diameter. Human remains—including those of a woman, two men, an infant, and fragments of another—have fueled scholarly debate, with some proposing the tomb belongs to Hephaestion, a close companion of Alexander the Great.

The New Museum Vision & Infrastructure Enhancements

In August 2025, the Greek Ministry of Culture announced an ambitious plan to transform the site into a world-class archaeological destination. The core of this plan is the creation of a partially underground (under‑scooped) exhibition and visitor center near the Kasta Tomb, purposefully designed to blend into the natural environment with minimal visual intrusion.

Key features of the project include:

• Visitor Infrastructure: The development encompasses entrance zones, parking, restroom facilities, shelter, walkways, and strategically placed viewing platforms to guide the flow of visitors in small groups—important given the tomb’s confined interior space.

• Exhibition Complex: Spanning approximately 694 m², the semi‑subterranean building will house two exhibition halls and an open-air gallery:

  1. Hall 1: Traditional displays of key artifacts (e.g., the sphinx head, wings, funerary door, friezes), presented with universally accessible interpretive labels.

  2. Hall 2: Immersive digital applications offering virtual interaction with the tomb and its archaeological context.

  3. Open‑air colonnade: Offers panoramic views of the tomb and its preserved marble perimeter, allowing visitors to appreciate the monument holistically.

• Landscape Integration & Sustainability: The building’s architecture follows bioclimatic principles and a low environmental footprint—employing planted roofs, earth‑covered surfaces, and energy‑efficient systems.

• Enhanced Visitor Experience: The aim is to offer a seamless, educational experience that interweaves natural beauty, historical depth, and modern storytelling techniques while ensuring full accessibility for people with disabilities.

• Financials & Timeline: The project is backed by a budget exceeding €10 million, funded via the Regional Operational Programme of Central Macedonia (ESPA 2021–2027) and national cultural budgets. The goal is to complete construction and open the site to the public by 2027.

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Bridging History and the Modern Visitor

This thoughtful redevelopment honors the archaeological significance of Amphipolis—not only as the resting place of potentially prominent Hellenistic figures but also as a strategic city that connected fertile Macedonian lands with the southern Greek states, and later, East with West—praised by ancient historians Herodotus and Thucydides.

Visitors can soon explore the tomb and its surroundings within a curated narrative journey—from lush terraces and digital storytelling to constantly shifting perspectives of a marvellous monument. This initiative promises to set a new benchmark for archaeological tourism by intertwining accessibility, interpretation, and preservation.

Opinion and Outlook

This is an inspiring project—one that boldly foregrounds accessibility, visitor welfare, and sensory immersion, without compromising on the integrity and dignity of the site. The minimal, earth-embedded architecture respects the landscape, while the phased introduction of digital technologies invites global audiences to grasp the tomb’s layers of meaning. By 2027, Amphipolis will not only reclaim its archaeological prominence but also serve as a modern template in musealization and heritage management.

Unearthing Aristotle’s Classroom: The Royal Gymnasium of Ancient Mieza

In the fertile plains of Imathia in northern Greece, archaeology continues to uncover remarkable traces of one of antiquity’s most influential educational centers—the royal gymnasium of Ancient Mieza. It was here, more than 2,300 years ago, that the philosopher Aristotle instructed the young Alexander—later to become Alexander the Great—and a circle of Macedonian nobles whose names would resonate across the Hellenistic world.

Recent excavations have shed new light on the scale, architecture, and cultural role of this monumental complex. Even more moving are the latest finds: four simple styluses, used by Aristotle’s pupils to write down their exercises. These small artifacts bring us face-to-face with the daily intellectual labor that shaped the men who would transform the ancient world.

The Royal Vision of Philip II

The gymnasium of Mieza was not a casual schoolhouse but a grand royal project. Constructed in the mid-4th century BC, its creation is attributed to King Philip II of Macedon (359–336 BC), father of Alexander. Philip, renowned both as a warrior and statesman, understood that military power needed to be matched with intellectual and civic training.

This was no ordinary educational institution. Its mission was nothing less than to prepare the next generation of Macedonian leaders for “war and peace,” as ancient sources imply. Here, under the guidance of Aristotle, the crown prince and his companions—Hephaestion, Seleucus, Ptolemy, and other future generals and kings—were molded intellectually and morally. The very men who later spearheaded the conquest of Asia and laid the foundations of the Hellenistic world once walked its courtyards.

A Monumental Architectural Complex

Excavations directed by Dr. Angeliki Kottaridi, Honorary Ephor of Antiquities, have confirmed that the entire gymnasium was conceived as a unified plan in the mid-4th century BC. The site is vast, covering approximately 14 acres, and demonstrates the grandeur of Macedonian royal architecture.

The natural limestone bedrock was carved away to create three massive, perfectly leveled terraces that cascade from the southwest to the north and east. This careful planning created distinct functional zones:

• The southwestern complex, located on the higher ground.

• The palaestra, or wrestling ground, to the north.

• The xystos, a covered Doric colonnade nearly 200 meters long, used for running and physical training, extending along the eastern terrace.

Such monumental design hints not only at the importance of physical education but also at the symbolic hierarchy of functions within the gymnasium.

Fragments of white stucco of exceptional quality still cling to walls and column capitals, comparable to those found in the royal tombs and palace at Aigai (Vergina). These connections underline a shared aesthetic of “classical Macedonian architecture” while also emphasizing functional adaptations specific to a gymnasium.

Another striking feature is the extensive use of well-cut poros stone blocks. In some sections, particularly between the palaestra and the southwestern complex, stone walls survive up to two meters high, testifying to the monumentality of the construction.

Daily Life in the Gymnasium

Life in the gymnasium combined intellectual, physical, and social training. Young men—primarily the sons of the Macedonian elite—were expected to hone their bodies and minds alike. Physical exercise was accompanied by ritual practices, such as the oiling of the body before contests. Excavators have recovered fragments of Panathenaic amphorae, which once contained the prized olive oil of Athens. This detail suggests that Macedonian aristocrats preferred the finest oil from sacred Athenian groves, underscoring both their wealth and their connection to the broader Greek world.

At the same time, Aristotle’s students engaged in exercises of the mind. Lessons in philosophy, rhetoric, natural science, and politics were delivered against the backdrop of these colonnades. The four newly discovered styluses—slender writing tools once pressed against wax tablets—speak silently of this intellectual life. In their simplicity lies profound symbolism: they are the very instruments by which ideas were first shaped, ideas that would later ripple across continents.

The Discovery of the Styluses

The recovery of the four styluses marks one of the most intimate archaeological finds associated with Aristotle’s school. Unlike monumental walls or colonnades, these objects are personal, portable, and humble. Yet their significance is immense. They transform our perception of the gymnasium from an abstract site of instruction into a living classroom where young men bent over tablets, recording arguments and lessons, guided by one of the greatest minds of antiquity.

Dr. Kottaridi has emphasized the poignancy of these finds. While architecture and sculpture tell us about power and wealth, such tools of learning connect us directly to the human scale of education. They are the tangible traces of Aristotle’s pedagogy and Alexander’s preparation for destiny.

Continuity of Research and Preservation

The recent discoveries form part of a broader program of excavation, conservation, and presentation, carried out under a Programmatic Agreement signed in August 2024 by Greece’s Minister of Culture, Lina Mendoni, and the Mayor of Naoussa, Nikos Koutsoyiannis. The project involves not only excavation but also cleaning, documentation, conservation, and the correlation of new finds with those unearthed in earlier decades.

The theater of Mieza, source: Athens - Macedonian news agency

Preliminary architectural studies are underway to design protective measures and to restore parts of the monumental complex, especially the western section of the xystos. The long-term vision is to make the site accessible and comprehensible to visitors, restoring its rightful place in the story of Macedonian and Hellenistic civilization.

A School That Changed the World

The significance of Mieza’s gymnasium extends far beyond archaeology. This was the training ground of history-makers. Within its walls, Aristotle introduced Alexander to philosophy, ethics, natural science, and political theory. These teachings shaped Alexander’s vision of kingship and empire, blending Macedonian pragmatism with Athenian-Attic intellectual tradition.

From these classrooms emerged not only a conqueror but also a cadre of generals and administrators—Seleucus, Ptolemy, Cassander, and others—who would carry Hellenic culture across Asia and Egypt. The Hellenistic world, with its fusion of Greek and Eastern traditions, can be traced back to the intellectual crucible of Mieza.

Looking Ahead

The rediscovery of Aristotle’s teaching ground invites both scholarly and public reflection. For historians and archaeologists, it offers fresh evidence for understanding Macedonian architecture, royal ideology, and ancient education. For a wider audience, it offers something even more powerful: a tangible connection to one of history’s greatest encounters between teacher and student.

The four styluses, unearthed after centuries in the soil of Imathia, remind us that even the grandest historical transformations begin with the simplest of tools—a pen, a word, a lesson. In this sense, the excavation of the royal gymnasium of Mieza does more than reveal stones and artifacts. It revives the memory of a place where ideas were born, where a young prince dreamed of empire, and where the foundations of a new world were laid.

After 2,000 Years… Resurfacing: Rare Statues from the Sunken Ptolemaic City in Abu Qir Bay

In the calm waters of Abu Qir Bay, near Alexandria, a lost piece of history has resurfaced: just days ago, cranes lifted from the seabed rare statues and artifacts that testify to the existence of a once-thriving city, submerged for nearly 2,000 years.

The underwater excavation – the first of its kind in Egypt in 25 years – brought to light extraordinary finds: a quartz sphinx bearing the cartouche of Pharaoh Ramses II, a colossal granite figure from the late Ptolemaic period, and a white marble bust of a Roman nobleman.

Archaeologists also uncovered a wide range of structures: temples, houses, workshops, cisterns carved into the rock for fishing or water storage, and even a commercial harbor about 410 feet (125 meters) long. Among the discoveries were the remains of a merchant ship, stone anchors, and the remnants of an ancient crane.

According to Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, the site is believed to be part of the ancient province of Canopus, a flourishing city during the Ptolemaic dynasty and the Roman Empire.

Minister Sherif Fathy emphasized that only carefully selected artifacts were retrieved – under strict preservation standards – while many others will remain on the seabed as part of Egypt’s “underwater heritage.”

Dr. Mohamed Ismail Khaled, Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, described the site as a “living testimony” to Egypt’s long and layered history.

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The significance of this discovery extends beyond archaeology. It highlights Egypt’s relationship with its maritime heritage while also drawing attention to modern threats: today, Alexandria is sinking by an estimated 0.1 inches (3 millimeters) per year due to climate change. UN projections suggest that by 2050, nearly a third of the city could be submerged or uninhabitable.

The recovery of these ancient treasures is not only a scientific triumph but also an invitation for reflection – a journey back into the past and a warning for the future. Plans are already underway for a major exhibition dedicated to “the mystery of the sunken city,” which will be hosted at the National Museum of Alexandria.

Photos: Associated Press, REUTERS / Amr Abdallah Dalsh

Denmark to remove Copenhagen’s “pornographic and very primitive” mermaid statue

A public dispute has broken out in Denmark over a large mermaid statue set to be removed after critics labelled it “ugly,” “pornographic,” and an unrealistic male fantasy of the female body.

The 4x6 metre granite work, known as Den Store Havfrue (“the Big Mermaid”), currently stands at Dragør Fort, part of Copenhagen’s historic sea defences. According to reports, the Danish Agency for Palaces and Culture has decided it does not suit the 1910 landmark’s cultural heritage, prompting its removal.

Art critic Mathias Kryger, writing in Politiken, called the sculpture “ugly and pornographic.” Sorine Gotfredsen, a priest and journalist for Berlingske, argued that a statue representing a man’s idealised female form undermines women’s ability to feel comfortable with their own bodies. She welcomed the backlash, saying it was healthy to reject what she described as vulgar and oversexualised depictions of the female form in public spaces.

The sculptor, Peter Bech, rejects these criticisms, insisting the mermaid’s proportions simply match the work’s overall scale. Some commentators suggest the controversy reflects wider societal discomfort with women’s bodies, rather than an inherent problem with the statue. Berlingske debate editor Aminata Corr Thrane likened the focus on the mermaid’s chest to body shaming, questioning why public depictions of bare breasts must conform to certain “approved” shapes and sizes.

Corr Thrane noted that, compared to the world-famous Little Mermaid statue, Bech’s creation is actually “less naked” but has larger breasts, which she suspects is the real source of contention. She suggested the two statues might symbolise opposing cultural ideals about womanhood—and the tension over defining what is “right” or “wrong” in female representation.

The Big Mermaid was first installed in 2006 near the Little Mermaid on Langelinie Pier but was moved in 2018 after being dismissed by locals as “fake” and “vulgar.” It later found a home at Dragør Fort until the agency requested its removal in March. Dragør municipality has also turned down Bech’s offer to donate the work, saying it takes up too much space.

Bech says the statue was created as a response to tourist complaints that the Little Mermaid was too small. He claims many Dragør residents admire his sculpture and hopes to keep it in the town. The Danish Agency for Palaces and Culture has not commented on the dispute.

Aeneas and the Future of Epigraphy: Google DeepMind’s AI Model Reshaping Historical Interpretation

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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In a significant leap forward for the digital humanities, Google DeepMind has unveiled Aeneas, a state-of-the-art AI model trained to analyze, restore, contextualize, and connect thousands of ancient Latin inscriptions. Named after the mythic Trojan hero whose journey laid the legendary foundations of Rome, Aeneas marks a new era in the relationship between artificial intelligence and historical research.

A New Approach to Inscriptions

Where previous models like Pythia or Ithaca focused primarily on reconstructing damaged texts, Aeneas introduces a more holistic method. It operates not merely as a restorer but as a contextual interpreter, capable of suggesting parallels, estimating chronology and geography, and identifying recurring patterns across large corpora of epigraphic material.

Trained on a dataset of over 174,000 Latin inscriptions, the model can interpret fragmentary evidence, propose plausible restorations of missing sections, and return semantically similar texts—even when they don’t share explicit vocabulary. This opens new pathways for understanding inscriptions not as isolated finds, but as part of a broader intertextual and historical landscape.

Multimodal Capabilities and Performance

One of Aeneas’ most innovative features is its multimodal architecture. Unlike traditional language models, it can analyze not only textual transcriptions but also images of the inscribed stones themselves. By incorporating visual cues—such as layout, material, and carving style—it achieves high levels of accuracy in dating and regional attribution.

• Dating precision: The model can estimate the age of inscriptions within a ±13-year margin, significantly outperforming experts who average ±31 years.

• Geographic attribution: It accurately identifies the province of origin for an inscription from among 62 Roman provinces, achieving 72% accuracy using both text and imagery.

• Restoration performance: Aeneas demonstrates 73% top-20 accuracy in reconstructing arbitrary-length missing segments—a notable feat in handling fragmentary Latin.

Connecting the Past: The Parallels Function

Perhaps the most transformative function is Aeneas’ ability to suggest relevant parallels. When given a fragmentary or complete inscription, it returns a ranked list of other inscriptions that share structural, thematic, or formulaic features. This capability mimics the interpretive process of expert epigraphers, who draw on years of exposure to formulae, provincial customs, and linguistic patterns to contextualize individual finds.

In practical testing, 23 professional historians collaborated with DeepMind to assess the model’s interpretive suggestions. The use of AI-assisted parallels led to a 44% increase in confidence during scholarly evaluations and was rated helpful in over 90% of cases.

Implications for Scholarship and Methodology

The emergence of Aeneas challenges longstanding boundaries between machine processing and historical interpretation. Rather than supplanting expertise, the model functions as an augmented cognitive tool, offering accelerated comparisons and inferential suggestions that would take weeks or months by conventional means.

Its capacity to identify connections across inscriptions—spanning diverse regions, time periods, and formats—enables new kinds of historiographical synthesis. For example:

• A fragment from Germania might now be interpreted alongside an administrative edict from Syria based on shared formulae, shedding light on the bureaucratic commonalities of imperial peripheries.

• Dating uncertainties can be narrowed more confidently when contextual parallels and visual style align across the database.

Yet, this power invites caution. The interpretive authority must remain with the scholar, who understands local idiosyncrasies, epigraphic conventions, and historical nuance. AI models offer suggestions, not conclusions—and their results must always be triangulated with material context and expert critique.

Open Access and Future Horizons

DeepMind has made Aeneas accessible via the interactive website predictingthepast.com, with datasets and code openly available. This democratizes access to high-level computational tools, allowing scholars, students, and heritage institutions to integrate AI into both research and teaching environments.

While Aeneas currently focuses on Latin, its architecture lays the groundwork for expansion into other ancient languages—especially Greek, where vast corpora of inscriptions await similar treatment. Extensions to Coptic, Demotic, Aramaic, or even cuneiform would further amplify its significance across Mediterranean and Near Eastern studies.

Aeneas does not merely automate a scholarly task; it reshapes how that task is conceived. It offers a glimpse into a future where humanistic inquiry and machine learning collaborate to illuminate the fragmentary, scattered traces of antiquity with greater coherence and contextual richness than ever before.

It is not a substitute for epigraphy—it is its ally, a digital companion in the ever-evolving pursuit of understanding the written past.

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Acknowledgements

The research was co-led by Yannis Assael and Thea Sommerschield

Contributors include: Alison Cooley, Brendan Shillingford, John Pavlopoulos, Priyanka Suresh, Bailey Herms, Jonathan Prag, Alex Mullen and Shakir Mohamed. The Aeneas web interface was developed by Justin Grayston, Benjamin Maynard, and Nicholas Dietrich, and is powered by Google Cloud.

The syllabus was developed by Robbe Wulgaert, Sint-Lievenscollege, Ghent, Belgium.

Scientists found evidence for the existence of Moses - Is The Exodus confirmed?

Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions and the Name of Moses: A Reexamination of New Archaeological Claims

Recent claims concerning a set of ancient inscriptions discovered in Egypt's Sinai Peninsula have drawn significant attention in the fields of epigraphy, archaeology, and biblical studies. These inscriptions, carved in the Proto-Sinaitic script and dating to the Middle Kingdom period of ancient Egypt (circa 1800 BCE), have been interpreted by independent epigrapher Michael S. Bar-Ron as potentially containing the earliest known reference to the biblical figure of Moses.

The inscriptions in question were found at the Serabit el-Khadim turquoise mines, a remote and historically significant mining complex in the southern Sinai. The site was active during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III and served as both a mining operation and a religious center dedicated to the Egyptian goddess Hathor. Numerous Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions have been documented at the site since the early 20th century, when Flinders Petrie and his team first excavated the area. These inscriptions, created by Semitic-speaking laborers, are widely considered among the earliest examples of alphabetic writing, representing a transitional stage between Egyptian hieroglyphics and later Semitic alphabets.

The ancient inscription that, according to Bar-Ron, reads, “This is from Moses.” (© 2025 Image Courtesy of Michael S. Bar-Ron All Rights Reserved, © 2025 Graphic Element by Patterns of Evidence Foundation)

Bar-Ron has focused on two inscriptions, cataloged as Sinai 357 and Sinai 361, which he interprets as containing the sequences "ZT MŚ" ("This is from MŚ") and "NʾUM MŚ" ("A saying of MŚ"). He argues that the combination "MŚ" could correspond to an early alphabetic rendering of the name Moses, making this a potentially groundbreaking epigraphic discovery. These inscriptions, according to Bar-Ron, function as signatures or authorial statements, which would imply a level of scribal literacy and self-representation among the Semitic workers who created them.

Additional elements found in other inscriptions at the site include references to the Semitic deity El, possible depictions of dissent or departure, and even imagery that has been associated with the "golden calf" episode from the Exodus narrative. These have been interpreted by Bar-Ron as indications of theological and ideological conflict between monotheistic Yahwistic groups and polytheistic cults devoted to deities such as Hathor or Ba‘alat.

Proto-Sinaitic Inscription, Sinai 349, with letters spelling, ‘Ba’alat,‘ the Semitic version of the Egyptian cow goddess, Hathor, highlighted. (© 2025 Image Courtesy of Michael S. Bar-Ron All Rights Reserved, © 2025 Graphic Element by Patterns of Evidence Foundation)

Support for Bar-Ron's hypothesis has come from some within the academic and biblical archaeology communities. His advisor, Dr. Pieter van der Veen, has publicly affirmed the plausibility of the interpretation. Various popular outlets and religious media have amplified the findings, suggesting that they may constitute early physical evidence confirming key figures and themes from biblical tradition.

However, the claims remain highly controversial and have not yet undergone formal peer review. Several scholars in the fields of Egyptology and Semitic epigraphy have expressed skepticism. Critics have noted that Proto-Sinaitic script remains only partially deciphered, and that assigning precise linguistic values to these inscriptions is fraught with uncertainty. The script’s characters are often ambiguous and open to multiple interpretations, particularly when found in isolated or eroded contexts.

Moreover, the use of the sequence "MŚ" as a reference to Moses is far from certain. While "Mose" or "Moshe" is a well-known Hebrew name, it is not unique in the ancient Near East, and similar consonantal structures appear in other names and words. The presence of such a sequence alone does not necessarily confirm a reference to the biblical figure, nor does it establish a historical connection to the Exodus tradition.

Bar-Ron’s scan of a Serabit el-Khadim inscription, with notes identifying pieces of this ancient writing. (© 2025 Image Courtesy of Michael S. Bar-Ron All Rights Reserved, © 2025 Graphic Element by Patterns of Evidence Foundation)

Scholars have also raised concerns regarding methodological rigor. Without broader archaeological context—such as stratified material layers, associated artifacts, or corroborative texts—the interpretation of brief and fragmentary inscriptions is speculative. The possibility remains that the glyphs reflect common graffiti, religious expressions, or names of ordinary laborers rather than statements by or about a singular historical figure.

In addition, the proposed connections between the inscriptions and the Exodus narrative are considered circumstantial. The absence of explicit references to Israel, the plagues, the crossing of the Red Sea, or Mount Sinai itself limits the extent to which the inscriptions can be seen as confirming biblical accounts. While some themes may overlap, they do not provide conclusive narrative parallels.

Despite these criticisms, the inscriptions are undeniably significant for the study of early alphabetic writing and the cultural exchanges that occurred in Egyptian-controlled regions of the Sinai during the Bronze Age. The Proto-Sinaitic script, generally believed to be the ancestor of Phoenician and ultimately all modern alphabetic scripts, demonstrates how Semitic-speaking laborers adapted Egyptian symbols to express their own language. This process marks a turning point in the history of writing, and the Serabit el-Khadim corpus remains central to understanding this development.

A scan of Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions, perhaps worshiping the Israelite deity El, that were found at Serabit el-Khadim, along with the possible signature of Moses. (© 2025 Image Courtesy of Michael S. Bar-Ron All Rights Reserved, © 2025 Graphic Element by Patterns of Evidence Foundation)

If further research, including high-resolution imaging, 3D scanning, and comparative epigraphic analysis, supports any of the proposed interpretations, it may encourage a reevaluation of the historical plausibility of some biblical narratives. Until then, the hypothesis that these inscriptions contain the name or signature of Moses remains a subject of debate.

Ongoing discussions are expected within academic circles, and further publications are anticipated. The case exemplifies the complexities of interpreting early inscriptions and the need for careful, multi-disciplinary scrutiny when drawing conclusions that intersect with deeply rooted historical and religious traditions.

In conclusion, while the findings at Serabit el-Khadim are certainly intriguing, they remain inconclusive. The identification of Moses in Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions is a hypothesis that must be tested against established epigraphic methods and broader archaeological evidence. As with many discoveries in ancient history, the balance between possibility and proof continues to shape the discourse.

Naxos, Greece: Outrage Over Disrespectful Behavior by Visitors at Island’s Archaeological Site

Naxos: Outrage Over Disrespectful Behavior by Visitors at Island’s Archaeological Site

Images showing disrespectful behavior by tourists at the archaeological site of the Delian Apollo sanctuary (Portara) on Naxos have sparked widespread anger and frustration, not only among locals but also more broadly online. Among the images circulating are one of a shirtless young man lifting an ancient stone with both hands, and another of a family having a picnic with skewers and soft drinks among the ruins.

The Portara, the iconic marble gateway that greets visitors arriving by boat at the northern edge of Naxos harbor, is the most recognizable landmark of the island. It is part of the Delian Apollo sanctuary, an unorganized archaeological site that remains open and free to the public—meaning it has no entrance fee, but also no permanent security. As such, its protection relies solely on the awareness and respect of visitors, something that, unfortunately, cannot be taken for granted, as recent events have shown.

The Mayor of Naxos, said the Greek Ministry of Culture was immediately informed of the incidents. Since yesterday, a guard has been assigned to supervise the site, though it is still unclear whether this will be a permanent measure.

“What the municipality and the island’s residents want—and we’ve submitted this formally to the Ministry of Culture—is the on-site restoration and development of this archaeological area. We’re asking for proper conservation and an organized management system with a ticketing process and permanent security. This would not only ensure the site's protection but also generate revenue to be reinvested in cultural heritage,” the mayor said. He also praised the valuable work being done on Naxos by the head of the Cyclades Antiquities Ephorate, Dimitris Athanasoulis.

It should be noted, however, that the Naxos municipality recently clashed with the Ministry of Culture over plans to relocate major antiquities—specifically, the Kouros statues of Flerio—to the new Archaeological Museum currently under construction in the town of Chora. During a recent municipal council meeting, in which Mr. Athanasoulis presented studies highlighting the need to move the statues for their protection, both the mayor and residents voiced strong opposition. They even threatened legal action to prevent such a move.

“We are indeed against relocating antiquities from their original settings,” Mayor Lianos confirmed to protothema.gr, adding that the municipality is urging the Ministry of Culture “to reconsider and re-prioritize some of its current plans.”

Lemnos, Greece: Restoration of the Archaeological Site of Poliochni, “The Oldest City in Europe,” Completed

By Babis Kokosis, ertnews.gr

Two days ago, the restored archaeological site of Poliochni, located on the eastern coast of Lemnos, was officially inaugurated in the presence of Minister of Culture Lina Mendoni, local authorities, and a large crowd. Poliochni, often described as “the oldest city in Europe,” is considered one of the most important prehistoric settlements of the Aegean, offering unique evidence of early urban and social organization dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE.

In her address, the Minister of Culture emphasized:
“Poliochni is a unique example of historical continuity and the exceptional cultural richness of the Aegean. It is not merely an important archaeological site; it is tangible proof of early social and urban organization, commercial extroversion—particularly due to metallurgy—and human creativity, dating from the 3rd millennium BCE.
Lemnos, a place deeply connected to mythology, was the home of the god Hephaestus, the divine smith, and his sons, the Cabeiri. It is here that the paths of Hypsipyle and Jason cross, in one of the most emblematic narratives of ancient Greek mythology—elements that reinforce Lemnos' timeless identity and make it a reference point in Aegean civilization.
The archaeological sites of Poliochni on Lemnos, Thermi on Lesbos, Emporio on Chios, and Palamari on Skyros form a unique cultural route that highlights and documents the richness of the 3rd and 2nd prehistoric millennia in the Aegean.

One of the most important prehistoric settlements of the Aegean

The restoration of the archaeological site of Poliochni was completed with a total budget of approximately €5,000,000, funded by the North Aegean Regional Operational Programme (NSRF 2014–2020) and the Recovery and Resilience Facility managed by the Ministry of Culture.
Every cultural project we implement—whether related to archaeological sites or museums—is not merely an act of conservation and promotion of our cultural heritage but a dynamic investment in the future of our land. Cultural heritage is a lever for development. It strengthens the local economy, creates opportunities, inspires the younger generation, and unites societies through memory and knowledge. That is our goal: to preserve and highlight the history of Lemnos and turn it into a source of sustainable development and creativity.”

One of the Most Important Prehistoric Settlements of the Aegean

The restoration project of the archaeological site included extensive interventions across all sectors of the settlement: the central, southern, and western areas. Specifically, 22 building blocks were preserved and restored over a total area of 12 acres. The southern enclosure wall was cleaned and reinforced, and an open-air event space was created.

Accessibility to the site was improved, and new public infrastructure was established. Special emphasis was placed on the educational aspect of the project, with the implementation of programs for people with disabilities and the enrichment of site content through interactive applications and digital games.
Lina Mendoni warmly thanked the North Aegean Region for its substantial and consistent cooperation, as well as the Ephorate of Antiquities of Lesbos for its dedication, methodical approach, and effectiveness in all projects carried out on the islands under its jurisdiction.

The Parliament of Poliochni

History of the Settlement

Poliochni was uncovered in 1930 during excavations by the Italian Archaeological School at Athens, led by its then-director, Alessandro Della Seta. Alongside Troy, located across the Aegean on the coast of Asia Minor, Poliochni is one of the most well-known acropoleis of the 3rd millennium BCE in the entire northern Aegean.

The settlement was enclosed by walls, which were imposing primarily on the western side, where the proximity of a river necessitated stronger protection of the foundations against erosion. At least in its early phase, the settlement appears not to have required military defense. It was home to a peaceful population of about one thousand people, who spent their days farming and herding, returning each evening to the settlement—a practice still common among local farmers today.
This regular communal rhythm likely gave rise to some form of rudimentary social organization.

The Bouleuterion of Poliochni

The construction of wells with stone linings reaching depths of over 9 meters, the maintenance of walls, roads, and rainwater collection systems, as well as the public squares where residents gathered during festivals or leisure time, were all undertakings that required coordination, prioritization, and mutual agreement.

Thanks to its metalworking industry and strategic location at the gateway of the Hellespont straits, Poliochni emerged as a major hub in the broader northern Aegean region during the 3rd millennium BCE. It became the earliest known urban center and the first commercial port in Europe.

The findings from Poliochni support the view that a distinct prehistoric civilization developed in the islands of the northeastern Aegean, autonomous from the better-known Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean cultures of the same era.

Elite Viking Family Tombs Discovered in Denmark Hint at Ties to King Harald Bluetooth

A remarkable archaeological find near Aarhus, Denmark, has brought to light approximately 30 Viking-era graves that may belong to a powerful aristocratic family, potentially connected to the court of King Harald Bluetooth—the 10th-century monarch who unified Denmark and Norway.

Found at a construction site in Lisbjerg, just north of modern Aarhus, the cemetery dates to the late 900s. Excavations by Moesgaard Museum experts revealed a lavish assortment of burial gifts—including coins, ceramic vessels, glass beads, and other luxury items—signaling that those interred were of elevated social status and engaged in far-reaching trade networks.

Signs of High Rank and Royal Affiliation

Archaeologist Liv Stidsing Reher‑Langberg described the assemblage as “quite special,” noting the variety in grave opulence. The disparities suggest a nuanced social structure—perhaps the remains of a ruling household, including both family and enslaved individuals.
Crucially, a fortified noble farm discovered nearby in the 1980s likely belonged to an aristocrat—possibly an earl or steward serving under King Harald Bluetooth.

The Rare and Splendid Casket

🔍 Significance & Outlook

• Power and Politics: The tombs reflect a structured, hierarchical community, likely ruled by a local chieftain operating just below royal authority.

• Women’s Roles: The ornate female burial suggests noblewomen held both material wealth and cultural significance.

• Connectivity: Exotic goods in the graves reinforce the idea of the Viking world as a dynamic nexus of trade and exchange.

• Historical Impact: These findings deepen our understanding of King Harald Bluetooth’s reign and the socio-political entanglements between his court and regional elites.

This discovery at Lisbjerg enriches the narrative of Viking society—infusing it with evidence of regional elites who were deeply connected to royal dynasties, spiritual traditions, and expansive trade networks.

Egypt’s Move to Take Over Historic Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai Alarms Christian Communities Worldwide

The recent developments concerning Saint Catherine's Monastery in Sinai have sparked significant concern and controversy. A court ruling in Egypt has led to the nationalization of the monastery's property, with reports indicating plans to convert the historic site into a museum and evict the residing monks. This decision has been met with strong opposition from the Greek Orthodox Church and the Greek government, who view it as a violation of religious freedoms and a threat to a vital spiritual and cultural landmark.

Archbishop Ieronymos of Athens and All Greece has condemned the move, expressing deep sorrow and calling for immediate action to protect the monastery. He emphasized the monastery's significance as a beacon of Orthodoxy and Hellenism, now facing an existential threat.

In response to the backlash, Egyptian authorities have denied the reports of closure and eviction. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs clarified that the court ruling does not infringe upon the monastery's spiritual value or its affiliated archaeological sites. They affirmed that the monastery's legal status is preserved, and the monks retain the right to benefit from the religious and archaeological sites within the region.

The situation remains complex, with ongoing diplomatic discussions between Greece and Egypt. The Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs is seeking further clarification, emphasizing the importance of adhering to previous agreements that safeguard the monastery's sacred status.

Saint Catherine's Monastery, founded in the 6th century by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, is recognized as the world's oldest continuously operating Christian monastery. It holds immense religious, historical, and cultural significance, not only for the Orthodox Christian community but also for the broader international community.

As the situation unfolds, the global community watches closely, hopeful for a resolution that honors the monastery's profound legacy and ensures its preservation for future generations.

Reevaluating Israelite Origins: New Genetic and Cultural Evidence Suggests Steppe Ancestry

A recent interdisciplinary study by Johan Oosthuizen, titled “The Aryan Hypothesis: Identifying the Israelites”, challenges the prevailing view that the ancient Israelites were indigenous to Canaan. Integrating archaeogenetics, historical linguistics, scriptural analysis, and material culture, the research proposes that the Israelites were a genetically and phenotypically distinct population closely related to Middle to Late Bronze Age (MLBA) steppe cultures of Northern and Western Europe.

Methodology and Genetic Findings

Utilizing qpAdm admixture modeling, linkage disequilibrium analysis, and Y-DNA haplogroup tracking, the study identifies a significant influx of Steppe_MLBA-like ancestry into the Lebanese genome beginning around 1750 BCE, peaking around 960 BCE, and gradually increasing thereafter. This genetic input, particularly evident in Y-DNA haplogroups R1b and R1a, aligns temporally with the expansion of the Israelites and other Abrahamic groups into the Levant. The study argues that this influx cannot be attributed to known regional conquests by Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, or Sea Peoples, suggesting instead a direct migration of an unadmixed population bearing a composite Steppe, Western Hunter-Gatherer (WHG), and Anatolian Neolithic Farmer (ANF) profile.

Phenotypic and Cultural Corroboration

Ancient depictions and genetic reconstructions indicate that the Israelites exhibited features consistent with Steppe_MLBA populations, including fair pigmentation, blue or green eyes, and intermediate to light hair color. Additionally, the presence of lactase persistence among the Israelites supports this connection, as such traits are prevalent in Steppe-descended populations. Culturally, Israelite practices such as patriarchy, pastoralism, metalworking, and chariot use mirror those of Steppe traditions. Linguistically, Hebrew shares Indo-European etymological patterns, including motifs rare in Afro-Asiatic languages, further supporting the hypothesis of a Steppe origin.

Conclusion

This study presents a compelling case for reevaluating the origins of the ancient Israelites, suggesting that they were not indigenous to Canaan but rather descended from Northern European populations associated with Steppe_MLBA cultures. The integration of genetic, phenotypic, linguistic, and cultural evidence provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex ancestry of the Israelites and their impact on the genetic landscape of the Levant.

For a detailed exploration of the study, you can access the full article here: The Aryan Hypothesis: Identifying the Israelites.

Tracing Cranial Evolution in Prehistoric Europe: Insights from the Upper Paleolithic to Bronze Age Migrations

A new study conducted by Pavel Grasgruber “The evolution of European cranial morphology: From the Upper Paleolithic to the Late Eneolithic steppe invasions” represents one of the most expansive craniometric analyses of European prehistoric populations to date, aiming to track morphological changes in cranial structure from the Upper Paleolithic through the Late Eneolithic, with a specific focus on the transitional phases marked by Neolithic farming dispersals and the later steppe migrations. By evaluating nearly four thousand male crania from 103 archaeologically dated European samples, this research provides key insights into the biological transformations that accompanied large-scale cultural shifts over a span of more than 20,000 years.

The methodological core of the study lies in the systematic application of traditional anthropometric techniques, measuring 22 cranial variables—11 raw cranial dimensions and 11 derived indices. The crania are grouped into six chronological phases spanning from ~25,000 BCE to ~2000 BCE. Advanced statistical procedures, such as principal component analysis (PCA), were employed to identify significant patterns in cranial morphology across time and geographic space.

The findings of the study reveal distinct shifts in cranial form that correlate closely with major cultural transitions. During the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, cranial morphology across Europe was typified by robust forms: large crania with broad faces and strong muscle attachments. These populations exhibit a high degree of morphological homogeneity over time, suggesting strong biological continuity despite environmental challenges and presumed population mobility.

Comparison of male skulls of Jamnaja-derived populations from the period 3000–2000 cal. BC. Source: Schwabedissen (1973); Schwabedissen (1978)

A marked transformation, however, occurs with the onset of the Neolithic period (~6000 BCE), initiated by the migration of Anatolian farmers into Europe. These groups introduced a more gracile cranial phenotype, characterized by narrower faces and more delicate cranial features. Notably, this shift does not suggest immediate or total population replacement; rather, Neolithic Europe becomes a mosaic of morphologically distinct populations, where early farmers coexisted and interbred with indigenous Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. This is particularly evident in areas such as the Mediterranean, Central Europe, and the Balkans.

The most significant cranial diversification emerges during the Late Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age (ca. 3000–2000 BCE), corresponding to the migration of steppe pastoralist groups, such as those associated with the Yamnaya culture. These migrations introduced new cranial morphotypes into Europe, diverging sharply from both Neolithic and earlier Upper Paleolithic populations. Two major morphological trajectories are observed: (1) the ultradolichocephalic type, typified by long-headed crania linked to the Corded Ware culture; and (2) the brachycephalic type, identified with the Bell Beaker culture and characterized by broader, shorter crania. These developments indicate complex admixture events and regionally differentiated outcomes of steppe-related demographic input.

Grasgruber’s synthesis suggests that European cranial morphology did not evolve along a linear or homogeneous path. Rather, it was repeatedly reshaped by demographic pulses of migration and cultural expansion, each leaving distinct biological signatures. While Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic continuity formed the baseline of European biological identity, this was successively modified first by Neolithic agricultural dispersals and later by Bronze Age steppe incursions.

Importantly, the study contributes to ongoing debates concerning the biological impact of prehistoric migrations, particularly in light of recent genetic studies that have corroborated massive gene flow from Anatolia and the Pontic-Caspian steppes. Grasgruber’s craniometric findings offer morphological validation of these genetic patterns, reinforcing the view that Europe's prehistoric demographic history was shaped by recurring waves of migration and integration, rather than isolation or single-event replacements.

This work further emphasizes the need for integrative frameworks that synthesize osteological, genetic, and archaeological data to reconstruct the biological history of European populations. By charting long-term morphological evolution, it underscores how deeply embedded human biology is in cultural and ecological contexts—making cranial form a valuable proxy for tracking population histories across deep time.

Conclusion

Grasgruber’s study stands as a landmark in bioarchaeological research, illustrating how cranial morphology can function as a powerful tool for tracing prehistoric human movement, interaction, and transformation. The correlation between cranial change and archaeological transitions from the Upper Paleolithic to the Bronze Age reveals the extent to which Europe's population history is marked by complexity, heterogeneity, and repeated episodes of demographic restructuring.

Rethinking Indo-European Origins in Scandinavia: New Archaeological Study Challenges the Single Wave Steppe Migration Hypothesis

Recent discourse on the Indo-Europeanization of Europe has been dominated by the steppe hypothesis, which posits a large-scale migration of Indo-European-speaking populations from the Pontic-Caspian steppes around 3000 BCE, associated with the Yamnaya culture and subsequently the Corded Ware complex. This model has gained traction largely due to advances in archaeogenetics, offering compelling evidence of population replacement and mobility. However, Rune Iversen's archaeological analysis titled “Issues with the Steppe Hypothesis: An Archaeological Perspective—Iconography, Mythology, and Language in Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Southern Scandinavia” introduces a critical perspective on this narrative by examining the southern Scandinavian region through the lens of iconography, mythological structures, and material culture transitions.

Iversen begins by observing that Neolithic iconography in southern Scandinavia, prior to the 2nd millennium BCE, was largely aniconic, favoring abstract, geometric forms akin to those found in the megalithic art traditions of western Europe. This visual language contrasts starkly with the anthropomorphic imagery—notably the statue menhirs—that emerged in other parts of Europe from the late 4th to early 3rd millennium BCE. These standing stones, featuring stylized human forms and sometimes weaponry or costume details, are thought to convey emerging social hierarchies, elite identities, and potentially religious or mythological content.

What is striking is the absence of such iconography in contemporaneous southern Scandinavian contexts, despite the region's increasing contact with steppe-derived cultural elements such as Corded Ware pottery, burial traditions, and domestic technologies. This absence suggests that early steppe-related influences did not immediately introduce Indo-European cosmological structures or human representations into Scandinavian symbolic systems.

Iversen's core argument revolves around the timing and nature of cultural transformations. He identifies the Early Nordic Bronze Age (beginning ca. 2000 BCE) as a decisive phase in which southern Scandinavia begins to exhibit both anthropomorphic imagery and motifs that may align with Indo-European mythological themes. This shift is particularly evident in rock carvings, metalwork, and burial practices that imply personification of deities, narratives of divine twins, solar symbolism, and warrior ideologies—hallmarks of reconstructed Indo-European belief systems.

This temporal disconnect—between the arrival of steppe-related material culture (~2800 BCE) and the emergence of Indo-European mythological expression (~2000 BCE)—forms the crux of Iversen’s critique of the single-wave model of Indo-Europeanization. He contends that a more nuanced, multi-phase process must be acknowledged. Rather than a singular migratory event initiating a full suite of cultural, linguistic, and religious transformations, Iversen posits at least two significant waves of steppe innovation affecting southern Scandinavia. The first wave brought material and technological shifts without substantive changes in symbolic and cosmological systems. Only in the second phase, during the Early Bronze Age, do we see the full integration of Indo-European ideologies into the local cultural matrix.

Furthermore, Iversen's work suggests that iconographic and ideological changes are essential to understanding cultural transformation—particularly the spread of Indo-European languages and religious systems. The archaeological record, when read in conjunction with linguistic and genetic evidence, offers a more intricate narrative of how Indo-European culture expanded: not as a uniform diffusion, but as a complex process of adoption, adaptation, and resistance.

In summary, this research provides a critical archaeological counterpoint to prevailing genetic interpretations of the steppe hypothesis. By demonstrating the diachronic disparity between early steppe cultural influences and later Indo-European ideological expressions in southern Scandinavia, Iversen underscores the need for interdisciplinary approaches that account for both biological and symbolic dimensions of human migration and cultural change.

Tracing the First Americans: New DNA Study Reveals Epic Migration from Siberia to South America

A recent study titled "From North Asia to South America: Tracing the longest human dispersal," published in Science, offers a comprehensive genetic investigation into one of the most remarkable migrations in human prehistory—the peopling of America. This research sheds new light on how early humans traveled from northeastern Asia, particularly Siberia, all the way to the southernmost parts of the American continent. The study's primary focus was to reconstruct the routes, timing, and genetic background of the populations that undertook this epic journey.

The research team used ancient DNA extracted from over 100 individuals whose remains span a vast timeline and geography—from Siberia and Beringia to various parts of the Americas. These individuals lived at different moments over the past 25,000 years, some dating back more than 10,000 years. Through high-resolution genetic sequencing and comparative analysis, the scientists were able to identify genetic lineages and trace their dispersal through time and space. They integrated this genetic data with radiocarbon dating, archaeological findings, and computational modeling to build a robust framework for understanding how these early populations migrated and interacted.

The study concluded that human migration into the Americas occurred in multiple waves, not as a single, straightforward event. The earliest wave originated from northern Asia, crossing through the Beringian land bridge during the Last Glacial Maximum. Once these populations entered the American continent, they moved southward with surprising speed, likely utilizing both coastal and inland routes. South America, despite its distance from the Bering Strait, was settled relatively quickly—within just a few thousand years after the initial entry into North America.

Importantly, the researchers found clear evidence of population structure and genetic diversity, suggesting that these migrants did not move in isolation. There were complex interactions among different groups, including admixture events and regional adaptations. The study also shows that remnants of these ancient lineages are still present in today’s Indigenous populations, especially in South America, preserving the genetic legacy of these early settlers.

This groundbreaking research demonstrates the power of ancient DNA in illuminating the hidden chapters of human history. It reframes the story of the Americas not as one of simple colonization, but as a dynamic and multifaceted process of human movement, adaptation, and survival across some of the most challenging terrains on Earth. By mapping the genetic echoes of these long journeys, the study contributes significantly to our understanding of how the Americas came to be populated and how early humans spread across the globe.

Greeks to Produce Film on the Battle of Marathon Entirely in Ancient Greek

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Information by George Syros

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In a groundbreaking cinematic endeavor, Greek director Yiannis Stravolaimos is set to bring the historic Battle of Marathon to life in a film titled Nenikikamen ("We Have Won"), distinguished by its exclusive use of Ancient Greek and Old Persian languages. This ambitious project aims to authentically recreate the linguistic and cultural atmosphere of 490 BCE, offering audiences a unique immersion into classical antiquity.

A Cinematic First in Ancient Languages

Nenikikamen stands out as the first feature film to be performed entirely in the classical dialects of Ancient Greek and Old Persian. The script, meticulously translated into these ancient tongues, seeks to provide an unparalleled historical authenticity. This linguistic choice not only honors the original context of the events depicted but also serves as a bold artistic statement in contemporary cinema.

Historical Fidelity and Mythological Elements

Drawing from primary sources such as Herodotus, Plutarch, and Pausanias, the film delves deep into the events surrounding the Battle of Marathon. It portrays key historical figures, including Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, and Pheidippides, as well as Persian leaders Darius, Artaphernes, and Datis. In addition to the historical narrative, Nenikikamen incorporates mythological aspects, depicting the involvement of deities like Athena and Pan and legendary heroes such as Echetlus, reflecting the ancient Greeks' belief in divine influence over human affairs.

International Cast and Production

The film boasts a diverse cast of Greek and international actors. To ensure accurate pronunciation and delivery of the ancient languages, foreign actors will be dubbed by trained linguists specialising in Ancient Greek and Old Persian. Notable Greek actors involved in the project include Kostis Savvidakis, Konstantinos Konstantopoulos, Anthimos Ananiadis, and Teo Theodoridis.

Cultural Diplomacy Through Cinema

Director Yiannis Stravolaimos envisions Nenikikamen as more than a historical epic; he sees it as a form of cultural diplomacy. By showcasing Greece's rich heritage and linguistic history, the film aims to foster a deeper appreciation for ancient civilisations and their enduring impact on the modern world. Stravolaimos believes that cinema, as a powerful medium, can bridge cultural gaps and bring historical narratives to a global audience in an engaging and educational manner.

Nenikikamen is currently in production, with further details on its release anticipated in the coming months. The film promises to be a significant contribution to both historical cinema and the preservation of ancient languages.

The Cry of Victory: The Story Behind Nenikikamen

The film’s title, Nenikikamen, is drawn from one of the most iconic moments in ancient Greek history—a cry of triumph that has echoed through the centuries. According to ancient sources, after the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE, a messenger (often identified as Pheidippides) was dispatched to run the roughly 42 kilometres (26 miles) from the battlefield to Athens to announce the outcome. Upon arriving in the city, exhausted and near death, he is said to have uttered a single word: “Nenikikamen!”—“We have won!”—before collapsing and dying.

This moment has since become emblematic of sacrifice, endurance, and patriotic devotion. Whether the tale of Pheidippides is fully historical or partially mythologised, it captured the imagination of later generations, eventually inspiring the modern marathon race introduced during the first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896.

In the film, this dramatic episode serves as a climactic and emotional turning point. Director Yiannis Stravolaimos uses the phrase not only to mark the Athenian victory over the Persian invaders but also as a universal symbol of human determination and the struggle for freedom. The utterance of Nenikikamen in the original Attic dialect is carefully reconstructed to deliver both historical gravitas and cinematic intensity.

Through this single word, the film connects ancient heroism with contemporary values, reminding viewers that history is not merely a collection of events but a source of enduring inspiration.

Ritual Closure of Monuments and Symbolic Respect for Space: The Cases of Lerna and Sissi

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Deconstructing Theories of External Imposition

The recent study of the cemetery at Sissi in Crete reveals a unique ritual practice of the Minoans, interpreted as the symbolic "death" or closure of their tombs. Instead of gradually abandoning the communal graves, the inhabitants of Sissi, around 1700 BCE, undertook a deliberate and ritualized process marking the end of an era.

Specifically, the last dead were buried in small pits or ceramic vessels. Afterwards, they carefully dismantled the tomb walls, crushed some bones to blend with the soil, and celebrated with a large communal feast. The findings include thousands of pottery fragments, remains of cups, and kitchenware, all dated to the same period. These elements suggest a collective ceremony that signaled the final use of the burial grounds.

Figure 3. The archaeological site of Sissi, seen from the north. The white dotted line indicates the limits of the cemetery (Zones 1 & 9) (© Belgian School at Athens, N. Kress).

Finally, participants covered everything with a layer of soil and stones, sealing the site forever. Remarkably, centuries later, when burials resumed in the area, this specific location remained untouched, indicating a lasting respect for this ritual closure. This practice reflects a profound cultural transition and a conscious effort by the Minoans to close a chapter of their history with reverence and ritual significance. The discovery offers valuable insights into the social and religious perceptions of the time and enriches our understanding of Minoan civilization.

The practice of ritually "closing" significant spaces through careful burial and continued respect for tomb or building grounds is also observed in the prehistoric Aegean world. The case of the House of the Tiles at Lerna and the recent discoveries at Sissi in Crete demonstrate the same symbolic logic: the need for a conscious transition and an honorable disengagement from a past charged with social and sacred meaning.

Figure 1. Distribution of Prepalatial and Protopalatial tombs, with the location of the main cemeteries mentioned in the text (S. Déderix).

At Lerna, after the destruction of the House of the Tiles around the end of Early Helladic II (ca. 2400–2200 BCE), the inhabitants carefully emptied the building, set it on fire, and then erected a mound (tumulus) of 19 meters in diameter over its remains. This tumulus was demarcated with a stone ring, and for a significant period during the Early Helladic III phase, no new structures were built atop it—testifying to a profound respect for the space and the historical memory it embodied. A similar ritual strategy, with many parallels, is evident at Sissi.

This analogy suggests that both in mainland Greece and Minoan Crete, the societies of the Late Early Bronze Age did not experience change through violent external impositions but through internal processes of renewal, deeply rooted in a ritual understanding of time, memory, and space. This organized and respectful treatment of earlier monumental architecture stands in contrast to the traditional image of violent invasions or external elite dominance, once assumed by older theories regarding the arrival of the "Proto-Greeks" (in the case of mainland Greece).

Instead, it indicates that the local communities themselves chose to manage the end of an earlier social and political phase through conscious, ritualized closure. Building and maintaining the tumulus can be seen as a way for the community to remember their past and show their pride, without any signs of new power being forced upon them from outside.

Caskey, J.L., Blackburn, E.T., Lerna in the Argolid. A Short Guide, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Athens, 1977. © American School of Classical Studies at Athens

Furthermore, the collapse of the "Corridor House" system was not immediately followed by the rise of new, stronger elite centers, but rather by a phase of social simplification and fragmentation, as indicated by the emergence of apsidal buildings and changes in burial practices. This gradual and endogenous transformation better aligns with scenarios of internal social evolution rather than models of abrupt external domination.

Thus, the cultural changes observed at the end of the third millennium BCE appear to be more closely tied to transformations in local economic, social, and ritual practices rather than to the arrival of foreign populations or imposed systems. The Early Helladic III culture, although distinct from its predecessor, nonetheless shows strong elements of continuity, reshaping and integrating the past through internal processes.

The situations in Lerna and Sissi help break down ideas about quick takeovers or outside influences and improve our understanding of prehistoric communities as active participants in deliberate local cultural changes, where managing space and memory was very important.

New genetic data reveal a strong Greek genetic footprint in Carthage

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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How and when did the first populations move into North Africa? What is the significance of the detected "Aegean/Greek DNA"? How did the Carthaginians maintain their cultural dominance? (9-minute read)

Carthage was founded in the late 9th century BCE (traditionally 814 BCE) as a colony of Tyre, at a time when Tyre was a thriving commercial center. Therefore, the first inhabitants were Phoenician settlers — Semitic populations from the Levantine coasts, descendants of the ancient Canaanites. However, from the very foundation of the city, it is likely that local Berber (Libyan) populations of North Africa coexisted in the area, with whom the Phoenician settlers interacted and possibly intermarried. The very name of the city (Qart-Ḥadašt, meaning "New City") denotes a new settlement in foreign territory, but its development was closely tied to the local environment. Archaeological and historical evidence suggests that Carthage quickly evolved from a small trading post into a prosperous city-state with its own "Carthaginian" civilization. This civilization was clearly Phoenician (Semitic language, religion, customs), but the ancestry of the city's population was not purely Phoenician.

A recent paleogenetic study shed the first light on the biological composition of the early Carthaginians. The so-called "Young Man of Byrsa"—a man from the late 6th century BCE discovered in a burial chamber at Byrsa Hill in Carthage—revealed through ancient DNA analysis a maternal lineage (mitochondrial haplogroup U5b2c1) that is rare and European, originating from prehistoric populations in the northern Mediterranean. Specifically, this mtDNA links the individual's ancestry to regions such as the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, or the northern Mediterranean coasts. The discovery constitutes the first direct evidence suggesting that even the early inhabitants of Carthage could have mixed ancestry, including European elements. In other words, the presence of such an ancient European genetic marker (U5b2c1) in North Africa indicates that Phoenician settlers had incorporated individuals from earlier Mediterranean populations (e.g., from Sicily, Sardinia, or Iberia) into their communities. This initial genetic diversity aligns with the historical image of a port city open to various ethnic groups. Although Carthage may have been founded by a few dozen or hundreds of Phoenician settlers, within a few generations its population expanded through admixture with local and other northern Mediterranean peoples. Truthfully, we have long understood that the Phoenicians' cultural dominance in Carthage did not imply absolute demographic dominance. Many ancient Greek colonies also observed the same phenomenon.

This reality became even clearer in a recent large-scale study of 103 ancient genomes from Carthage itself and other Phoenician/Carthaginian sites. Researchers identified a recognizable "Carthaginian" genetic profile, but it bore minimal relation to the populations of ancient Phoenicia. Instead, it was primarily composed of European (Greek/Aegean and Sicilian) and North African genotypes.

The First Neolithic Expansions—Prehistoric Population Flows into North Africa

To understand how European genetic elements appeared in North Africa long before Carthage's founding, we must examine population movements during the Neolithic period. The transition from hunter-gatherer economies to farming and animal husbandry occurred in North Africa approximately 7,500 years ago. Two main theories exist: either that local Mesolithic populations gradually adopted Neolithic innovations or that incoming farmers migrated into the area, bringing their way of life. Ancient DNA now clarifies this process. Furthermore, recent genome studies of prehistoric skeletons in the Maghreb revealed clear ancestry shifts during the Neolithic transition: the earliest Neolithic burials in Northwest Africa primarily show European Neolithic ancestry. The evidence implies that the initial farmers who emerged in Morocco and Algeria were predominantly descended from Neolithic populations from southern Europe. Researchers conclude that migrant European farmers introduced agriculture to Northwest Africa, which then rapidly disseminated among local groups.

This pattern fits into the broader wave of Neolithic farmer expansions from the Near East into Greece and Europe. It is well known that early farmers began in Anatolia and the Levant, spreading gradually westward via coastal Mediterranean routes to the Balkans, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia, and Iberia. Archaeologically, the spread of Impressa/Cardial pottery along coastal zones reflects the so-called "Mediterranean route" of Neolithic expansion. Notably, the appearance of agriculture in northeast Africa (e.g., the eastern Rif in Morocco) is nearly synchronous with its emergence in southern Spain, around 5500 BCE, suggesting maritime transfer of people and ideas. Thus, the wider agricultural dissemination led to a significant expansion of Neolithic populations from Europe into North Africa.

Note that a single migratory stream did not limit the genetic history of North Africa during the Neolithic. In addition to the European Neolithic influx, later contributions from the Near East are detectable. During the Middle Neolithic period, around 5000 BCE, the Maghreb genetic profile shows the introduction of a Levantine element, coinciding with the arrival of pastoralism (cattle, sheep, goats) in the region. This finding suggests that groups of herders possibly migrated westward from the eastern Mediterranean or the Nile Valley, bringing new genetic influences. Ultimately, by the end of the Neolithic, populations of the Maghreb exhibited a mixed genetic profile, combining local Paleolithic/Mesolithic heritage, European Neolithic farmer ancestry, and Near Eastern admixture. This prolonged prehistoric admixture explains why certain ancient European haplogroups (such as U5) or "Sardinian-type" genetic elements later appear among North African populations.

Regarding specifically Mycenaean, Sicilian, or Sardinian populations and their connection to North Africa, the data are fragmentary but indicative. There is no documented direct mass migration of Mycenaeans into North Africa during the Bronze Age. However, the presence of Mycenaean artifacts in Egypt and possible contacts with Libya suggest some level of interaction. After the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization (~1200 BCE), groups from the Aegean participated in the so-called "Sea Peoples," who reached as far as Egypt. Among them were the Sherden (possibly from Sardinia) and the Shekelesh (perhaps from Sicily). Although these groups clashed with Egypt, some may have settled in Libya or Canaan. These late-Chalcolithic or early Iron Age movements may have had a limited impact on western North Africa, though a minor genetic contribution from Aegean/European Bronze Age populations cannot be ruled out.

Moreover, the genetic landscape of the Carthaginians later exhibits strong affinities with ancient Greek populations, possibly linked to these early European movements or to Greek colonies established in Africa.

As for Sicily and Sardinia, these two major Mediterranean islands acted as bridges for population movements. Especially Sicily, due to its proximity to the Tunisian coast, served as a natural channel: early Neolithic settlers could have crossed in either direction between Tunisia and Sicily. During the 3rd millennium BCE (the Bronze Age), Sicily received influences from the Aegean world (e.g., Mycenaean finds) and later from Phoenician and Greek settlers. Sardinia, on the other hand, remained relatively genetically isolated for millennia (modern Sardinians preserve a high proportion of ancient Neolithic ancestry). Nonetheless, the Sherden people's history suggests some early contact with the eastern Mediterranean. In historic times, Carthaginian expansion led to the establishment of Phoenician colonies in Sardinia (e.g., Tharros), prompting some local population movements. Overall, we can say that the genetic impact of Sicilian and Sardinian populations on North Africa is detectable indirectly: either through early Neolithic dissemination (European farmers reaching the Maghreb) or through later historical interactions (e.g., integration of Sicilians into the Carthaginian network).

Phoenician Expansion and Genetic Interactions in the Western Mediterranean

During the Iron Age (1st millennium BCE), the Phoenicians expanded their maritime trading network, establishing numerous outposts and colonies throughout the western Mediterranean. By the 11th–10th century BCE, Phoenician settlements appeared in Spain (e.g., Cádiz), the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, Sardinia, and beyond. The genetic contribution of these Semitic settlers to local populations had long been an open question. Traditionally, it was believed that the "Punic" populations (i.e., the western Phoenician colonies such as Carthage) would exhibit a strong Phoenician (Levantine) genetic signature. However, large-scale ancient DNA analyses have overturned this assumption. Researchers discovered that populations in the western Mediterranean received limited direct genetic input from Phoenician mother cities (Tyre, Sidon, etc.).

Despite their intense cultural, economic, and linguistic influence, the original Phoenician cities contributed minimal direct DNA to the Punic populations of the central and western Mediterranean. The spread of Phoenician culture thus occurred not through mass migration but primarily through the diffusion of cultural models and the integration of local communities.

Specifically, every Phoenician-Carthaginian site studied shows remarkable heterogeneity regarding its inhabitants' origins. Researchers detected an "extremely heterogeneous" genetic profile in ancient skeletons from these sites. In almost all Punic communities — from Carthage itself to colonies in Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa — the majority of individuals exhibited ancestries similar to those of ancient Sicilian and Aegean populations (southern Europe), while a significant portion had North African ancestry. In contrast, direct Near Eastern/Semitic genetic input was minimal. This practically means that in Phoenician colonies, people of diverse backgrounds lived together: individuals of local North African descent alongside others of predominantly European (Sicilian/Greek) origin. The different Punic communities were connected via maritime "kinship networks." For instance, a pair of distant relatives (approximately second cousins) were found: one buried in a Phoenician city in North Africa, the other in a Phoenician settlement in Sicily. Such findings illustrate the cosmopolitan character of the Carthaginian network, where movement and intermarriage across different regions were common.

This theory also explains how Phoenician settlers, initially a demographic minority, eventually genetically assimilated local populations rather than replacing them. As geneticist Pierre Zalloua aptly put it, "The Phoenicians were a civilization of integration and assimilation — they settled wherever they traveled." Despite their broad and diverse biological ancestry, these mixed populations transmitted their cultural identity (language, religion, and technical knowledge).

The case of Carthage shows that a group can be very influential in trade and culture even if they are not the largest population, similar to some theories about how Indo-European languages spread, but the history, society, and population of northern Africa at that time were quite different.

In summary, the Carthaginian rulers spoke the Phoenician language and worshipped Phoenician gods, but their subjects and allies came from various Mediterranean nations. In the end, the genetic background of the Carthaginians in the western Mediterranean is spread out and varied, showing a blend of European and African genes with some small Semitic influences, instead of a clear "Phoenician" genetic identity. This conclusion aligns perfectly with historical accounts of the multiethnic societies of the western Mediterranean and highlights how population movements are inextricably linked to cultural interactions.

New Hittite Tablet Shows Striking Correspondences with the Narrative of Homer's Iliad

A Trojan Echo in Clay: Hittite Tablet Discovery Reinforces Homeric Traditions

A remarkable new discovery has emerged from the archives of Hittite texts, shaking the very foundations of how we perceive the Trojan War and its historicity. Unearthed and recently published under the auspices of Oxford’s Michele Bianconi, this newly deciphered tablet—Keilfischurkunden aus Boghazköi 24.1—offers what could be one of the most tantalizing written connections between Bronze Age Anatolia and the epic tradition that culminated in Homer’s Iliad.

While previous Hittite records have referenced familiar names—Wiluša for Ilion/Troy, Ahhiyawa for the Achaeans, and figures such as Alaksandu and Attaršiya (possibly Atreus or an early Achaean leader)—this tablet goes further. It not only reinforces the geopolitical dynamics of the Late Bronze Age but also provides an unprecedented literary fragment that suggests a native Luwian poetic tradition dealing with the fall of Troy existed centuries before Homer.

Summary of the Text and Context

The tablet recounts a royal correspondence between a Hittite monarch and an individual named Pariyamuwa, who is likely a regional king or vassal, possibly of Taruiša (Troy). Early lines reference a known figure from Hittite records—Attaršiya of Ahhiyawa—and his sons attacking Taruiša. This narrative is consistent with the CTH 147 ("The Indictment of Madduwatta"), where Attaršiya was already depicted as a formidable Achaean figure operating aggressively in western Anatolia.

What is striking here is not merely the continuity of these geopolitical motifs but the inclusion of a Luwian poetic fragment towards the end of the tablet, apparently describing the fall of Wiluša (Troy). This rhythmical line—“they sing in Luwian (of) the destruction of steep (?) Wiluša: ‘The wrath, o god(dess), si[ng…’”—bears a chilling resemblance to the famous opening of Homer’s Iliad: “Sing, goddess, the wrath of Achilles…”

Analysis: Bridging Hittite History and Homeric Epic

Until now, scholars of Aegean prehistory and oral tradition were left largely to conjecture when linking the Hittite archives with Homer’s poetry. We had political evidence for the existence of a city named Wiluša (Troy), and we understood that Ahhiyawa represented a western power with a Greek-speaking elite. What remained elusive was a literary—or at least semi-literary—bridge.

This tablet offers, for the first time, a suggestion of a poetic corpus in the Luwian language, apparently chronicling the fall of Troy. While fragmentary, the passage demonstrates a rhythm likely intended for oral performance. The dactylic or spondaic structure—coincidentally echoing Homer’s hexameter—could hint at a broader epic tradition within Anatolian courts, possibly older than the 8th-century BCE composition of the Iliad.

The Luwian poetic line referencing divine wrath and destruction further suggests thematic and formal parallels with Greek epic tradition. Given that Troy was an Anatolian city and that the region hosted a bilingual (or even multilingual) population—including Hittites, Luwians, and other Indo-European groups—the existence of a local narrative tradition about Troy's fall is both plausible and now tentatively evidenced.

The Question of Prehistoric Texts and the Trojan War

This discovery reignites a central scholarly debate: Did Bronze Age Anatolia possess its own narrative tradition about Troy's fall, separate from or ancestral to Homeric poetry?

So far, no long-form poetic texts concerning the Trojan War have been found from the Late Bronze Age. While the Mycenaeans left Linear B tablets, these were purely administrative and offered no mythological content. The Hittites, on the other hand, maintained an archive of myths, treaties, and diplomatic correspondence, yet—until now—no definitive poetic narrative about Wiluša's destruction had been identified.

This new tablet changes the game. If this Luwian line is truly part of a broader epic or lament, it suggests that the oral tradition of Troy’s fall was already present in second-millennium Anatolia, possibly passed down among court singers, bards, or scribes long before the Homeric bards of Ionia ever took up the lyre.

Such a tradition could have traveled westward or been inherited by Greek-speaking populations of the coast, eventually morphing into the Iliad. Alternatively, the Iliad may be a Greek reworking of a shared Indo-European mythic repertoire, adapted to the political realities and cultural memories of Iron Age Greece.

Conclusion: Clay Voices and Echoes of Ilion

This Hittite tablet, in its modest clay form, may represent one of the most important finds in the quest for the historical and literary origins of the Trojan War narrative. While the evidence is fragmentary and requires cautious interpretation, it provides an unparalleled glimpse into how the Anatolians themselves—particularly the Luwians—remembered or imagined the fall of Troy.

Was Homer merely echoing songs sung in Wiluša, in a language now mostly forgotten? Were the first bards of Troy Luwian-speaking poets whose verses have only now begun to resurface?

Only time—and more tablets—will tell. But for now, this small fragment from Boğazköy reverberates with a long-lost voice, reminding us that history and myth were always entangled, and that in the clay of forgotten archives, epic still sleeps.