Ancient Pergamon Excavation Unveils "Mosaic House"

Excavations in the historic city of Pergamon have led to the discovery of an impressive Roman-era residential complex, now referred to as the "Mosaic House." This significant find is part of Turkey’s "Heritage for the Future" project, shedding new light on the architectural grandeur of the ancient city.

Pergamon: A Legacy of Greek and Roman Influence

Pergamon, an ancient Greek city located near modern-day Bergama, Turkey, once stood as a major cultural and political center. During the Hellenistic period, it served as the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon, a successor state following the dissolution of the Lysimachian Empire. By 188 BC, Pergamon had reached its peak, covering approximately 220 acres.

Inspired by Athens, the city’s planners sought to create a "second Athens," complete with a magnificent acropolis, the famed Library of Pergamon—once considered the second greatest library after Alexandria’s—and an array of temples and public buildings. Among its many architectural achievements was a grand theatre capable of accommodating up to 10,000 spectators.

Discovery of the Mosaic House

Under the direction of Prof. Dr. Yusuf Sezgin, head of the Archaeology Department at Manisa Celal Bayar University, the excavation team uncovered a large residential complex distinguished by a peristyle courtyard and a central pool. This opulent dwelling, dating back to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, is believed to have been abandoned after a devastating fire, likely caused by Arab raids in the 7th century.

One of the most striking features of the Mosaic House is its intricate mosaic flooring, which suggests that it belonged to a prominent and wealthy resident. The mosaics, dating from the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, showcase detailed geometric and floral designs, further emphasizing the artistic and cultural richness of the era.

Hellenistic Period Artefacts and Royal Connections

In addition to the mosaics, archaeologists also unearthed a sealed roof tile from the Hellenistic period. According to Prof. Dr. Sezgin, the tile bears the inscription "Basilique," signifying a connection to royal ownership. While similar artefacts have been found in previous excavations, this is the first instance of a fully intact sealed tile being discovered in Pergamon, adding a valuable piece to the city’s historical puzzle.

The ongoing excavations continue to provide remarkable insights into Pergamon’s past, reinforcing its significance as a key center of ancient civilization and architectural achievement.

22,000-Year-Old Drag Marks May Be the Oldest Evidence of Handcart Use

A Glimpse Into Early Human Transportation

Researchers have uncovered fossilized drag marks in White Sands, New Mexico, that may provide the earliest evidence of a handcart-like transportation method—dating back an astonishing 22,000 years. This discovery suggests that long before the invention of wheeled vehicles, early humans developed innovative ways to move goods and resources.

Discovering Ancient Drag Marks

Drag-marks at White Sands National Park (New Mexico). A. Drag-marks preserved in dolomite on a tracked horizon. B. Two drag-marks forming an x-shape. C. Drag-mark consisting of two parallel ridges. (Author provided)

The drag marks were found alongside some of the oldest known human footprints in the Americas. These footprints, dating back around 23,000 years, have already challenged previous timelines of human migration into the region. Though some scholars debate the dating methods, these footprints offer a vivid glimpse into life at the end of the last Ice Age.

Among the fossilized footprints, researchers observed long, parallel grooves in the sediment, suggesting that people dragged objects along the ground. These findings align with the concept of a travois—a simple frame made of wooden poles used to transport loads by dragging them across the terrain.

Experimental Testing Confirms Theory

Modern analogue experiments with travois in Poole Harbour (UK) and on a beach in Maine (US). Zoe Reynolds-Bennett and Isobelle Urban are thanked for their assistance. The top panel shows three types of travois, In the middle example placing a pad beneath the contact point reduced friction. The bottom panel shows our field experiments. (Author provided)

To validate their hypothesis, researchers conducted experiments in the UK and the US, using various configurations of wooden poles on mudflats. The resulting drag marks closely resembled those found at White Sands, reinforcing the idea that early humans likely used a similar technique.

Additionally, the tracks indicate that multiple individuals, including children, traveled alongside the drag marks. This suggests a communal effort, possibly moving essential supplies or hunted game from one location to another.

Insights From Indigenous Knowledge

Images of travois. A. Historic photograph of Blackfeet man and woman wearing striped trade blankets with a horse and travois. Danita Delimont/Alamy Stock Photo. B. Using a travois to haul boating gear to the Chetco River in Oregon's Siskiyou Mountains. (Leon Werdinger/Alamy Stock Photo/Author provided)

Collaborating with Indigenous groups in the region provided further support for the interpretation of these marks. Indigenous traditions have long described the use of travois structures, which were historically pulled by dogs or horses. However, these new findings suggest that early humans were using this method long before domesticated animals assisted in transport.

A Precursor to the Wheel?

The earliest known wheeled vehicles appeared around 5,000 years ago in Mesopotamia. The White Sands discovery suggests that humans had already developed efficient transport systems thousands of years earlier. Given that wooden tools and structures typically decay over time, evidence of ancient transport methods is rare, making these drag marks a particularly significant find.

Conclusion

The White Sands discovery sheds new light on early human ingenuity, highlighting how our ancestors adapted to their environment with practical solutions for moving resources. Whether used for relocating camps or hauling meat from a successful hunt, these travois-like structures represent an early form of transportation that predates the wheel by millennia. This finding not only deepens our understanding of prehistoric human life but also underscores the continuity of innovation throughout human history.

Could the Oldest Depiction of a Kiss Be 50,000 Years Old?

A remarkable discovery in Brazil’s Serra da Capivara National Park may have unveiled the earliest artistic depiction of a kiss. Researchers from the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio) believe a rock painting found in the park, portraying two figures touching heads, could represent one of the first recorded kisses in human history.

A Prehistoric Love Story?

The dating of this artwork is subject to debate. Some sources suggest it is around 50,000 years old, while others estimate it to be closer to 12,000 years. The controversy stems from ongoing discussions in the archaeological community about human presence in the Americas during that period. Findings at Pedra Furada, Piauí, indicate early human activity 50,000 years ago, but this theory is not widely accepted among American archaeologists.

Rock Art Depicting Social and Affectionate Interactions

According to an Instagram post by ICMBio, the painting is part of a broader collection of prehistoric rock art discovered within the park. These artworks depict various aspects of early human life, including hunting, rituals, and intimate social interactions such as hugs, kisses, and sexual activity.

Serra da Capivara National Park boasts the largest known collection of rock paintings in the Americas. Researchers suggest ancient humans used natural pigments like iron oxides and charcoal to create these durable images, which have been remarkably preserved due to the region’s dry climate and sandstone formations.

A Treasure Trove of Prehistoric Art

The park, located in Brazil’s Piauí state, is home to approximately 35,000 rock drawings and over 1,300 archaeological sites. Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991, Serra da Capivara provides invaluable insights into early human life in South America.

The Evolution of the Kiss in Art

If confirmed to be 50,000 years old, this rock painting could be the earliest depiction of a kiss ever found. However, the oldest confirmed artistic representation of a kiss dates back to ancient Greece. Greek pottery from the 7th century BCE features some of the earliest known depictions of romantic gestures.

A well-known example is the Attic Red-Figure Kylix, a drinking cup from 480 BCE illustrating a couple embracing affectionately. Another is the Attic Red-Figure Lekythos, a vessel used for storing oil, which also portrays an intimate moment between two figures. While scholars continue to debate the exact nature of these poses, these artworks remain some of the earliest recognized representations of kissing in history.

A Window into Human Connection

Whether the Brazilian rock painting truly represents the first artistic depiction of a kiss or not, it offers an intriguing glimpse into the emotional and social lives of prehistoric humans. As researchers continue to explore Serra da Capivara’s ancient artworks, more discoveries may reshape our understanding of early human interactions and expressions of affection.

Ancient Reliquary Confirms Connection to Orkney’s Saint Magnus

Discovery of a Historic Relic

A remarkable wooden reliquary box, discovered in 1919 during renovations at St Magnus Cathedral, has been confirmed to date back to the same period as the revered Orkney saint, St Magnus. This significant finding, examined by researchers at the UHI Archaeology Institute, provides compelling evidence linking the box and its contents to the 12th-century earl.

Carbon Dating Confirms Authenticity

The reliquary, crafted from Scots pine, was radiocarbon dated to between 1034 and 1168 AD, aligning closely with the period of St Magnus’ death. Inside the box, human remains were found, including a skull bearing clear signs of trauma—leading historians to believe they may belong to the saint, who was murdered at Easter in either 1116, 1117, or 1118.

While there had been speculation that the relics might have been introduced later for medieval pilgrim trade purposes, the recent analysis suggests otherwise. The dating results indicate the box likely played a crucial role in safeguarding the relics from the time they were moved into the cathedral around 1150 AD, where they remained hidden until their rediscovery in the early 20th century.

The Role of the Reliquary in St Magnus’ Legacy

The research was led by Jenny Murray, a curator at Shetland Museum and Archives, as part of her PhD examining the legacy of Magnus Erlendsson. Expanding on the work of Dr. Sarah Jane Gibbon, Murray has been documenting sites and artifacts connected to St Magnus' veneration. She was particularly drawn to the reliquary, which is believed to have housed the saint’s relics when they were transferred to St Magnus Cathedral.

According to the Orkneyinga Saga, Magnus’ remains were exhumed approximately two decades after his death, cleansed, and placed in a reliquary above the altar in Christchurch, Birsay. However, the saga recounts that Magnus appeared in a dream, expressing his wish to be reinterred in Kirkwall. Consequently, Bishop William led a grand procession eastward, moving the relics first to the small church of St Olaf, before they were later transferred to the newly built cathedral in Magnus' honor around 1150.

A Rare and Important Artifact

Measuring 74.5 cm in length, 25.7 cm in width, and 17.6 cm in height, the reliquary is one of Scotland’s oldest surviving wooden artifacts. Initially identified as Scots pine in 1926, this was confirmed by Associate Professor Scott Timpany of the UHI Archaeology Institute, who also prepared the wood sample for carbon dating. The analysis provides a crucial link between the relics and their historical origins.

Although the human remains were reinterred within a pillar of the cathedral, the reliquary box is now displayed at Orkney Museum in Kirkwall, allowing visitors to glimpse a tangible connection to the region’s rich medieval history.

This discovery not only deepens our understanding of St Magnus’ enduring legacy but also underscores the role of material culture in preserving historical narratives.

Anatolia’s Hidden Craft: The Discovery of a Rare Neolithic Obsidian Mirror Workshop

Unveiling an Ancient Obsidian Crafting Hub

Recent research has shed new light on the production and use of obsidian mirrors at Tepecik Çiftlik, a significant Neolithic site in Anatolia. Obsidian, a volcanic glass prized for its sharpness and reflective properties, has been utilized in the region since the 8th millennium BCE for both practical tools and symbolic objects, such as mirrors and ornaments.

These mirrors, distinguished by their smooth circular shape and captivating reflective surfaces, are exceedingly rare. Only 56 known specimens have been discovered across six sites in Central Anatolia and one in the Levant. Unlike tools designed for daily use, these mirrors carried deeper cultural and symbolic significance.

More Than a Reflection: The Cultural Role of Obsidian Mirrors

Archaeological evidence suggests that obsidian mirrors were not merely used for personal reflection but played essential roles in ritual and ceremonial contexts. Many have been found in funerary settings, hinting at their connection to status, spiritual beliefs, or ceremonial functions.

Tepecik Çiftlik stands out as a pivotal site for understanding the manufacturing process of these mirrors. Located in the Melendiz Plain of Cappadocia, the settlement was occupied from around 7000 to 6000 BCE and was strategically positioned near natural obsidian sources such as Nenezidağ and Göllüdağ. These resources enabled the development of a specialized industry focused on shaping and polishing obsidian into highly refined mirrors.

Tracing the Manufacturing Process

Excavations at Tepecik Çiftlik have revealed not only finished mirrors but also preforms at different stages of production, making it the only known site where local manufacturing has been definitively documented. Other sites have primarily yielded completed mirrors, suggesting they were imported rather than produced locally.

Researchers reconstructed the mirror-making process using a combination of technological and use-wear analysis. The production involved at least eight distinct steps:

1. Selecting a relatively flat, subcircular piece of obsidian.

2. Removing sharp edges and refining the contours.

3. Smoothing the surface with coarse-grained stones.

4. Using finer abrasives like sand or ash mixed with water, fat, and leather to polish the mirror.

5. Further refining the surface with fat and soft fabrics to achieve a high-gloss finish.

This meticulous process resulted in a portable object with a strikingly reflective surface. However, the exact purpose of these mirrors remains enigmatic, as they do not show clear signs of daily use.

Rituals, Status, and Trade: The Function of Obsidian Mirrors

The distribution and context of obsidian mirror discoveries suggest that they were highly valued items, possibly reserved for elite individuals or ritual specialists. At Çatalhöyük, a key Neolithic site, mirrors were found in tombs alongside pigments, hinting at their use in funerary rites, possibly for preparing or adorning the deceased.

Some scholars theorize that these mirrors might have been used as signaling devices or tools for redirecting light, but the prevailing belief is that they were status symbols. The intricate craftsmanship and rarity of these objects indicate they were likely reserved for special occasions and powerful individuals.

The Movement of Obsidian Mirrors Across Regions

The distribution of these mirrors across different sites raises questions about how they were transported and traded. Evidence suggests that Tepecik Çiftlik was the primary production center, with mirrors being transported to other settlements such as Çatalhöyük and Akarçay Tepe. The lack of unfinished mirror preforms at these sites further supports the idea that they received completed products rather than producing them locally.

The presence of obsidian mirrors at Domuztepe and Tel Kabri, both far from natural obsidian sources, suggests they were high-value trade items. At Domuztepe, other obsidian artifacts indicate access to exotic materials and advanced craftsmanship, though the exact origin of the mirrors remains uncertain. The single mirror discovered at Tel Kabri in the Levant, located far from any known obsidian sources, was likely an imported luxury object, further highlighting early long-distance trade networks.

Scientific Methods Reveal Ancient Techniques

To better understand how these mirrors were produced and used, researchers employed microscopic analysis at magnifications ranging from 10x to 500x. By comparing wear patterns with experimental artifacts from the Laboratory of Technological and Functional Analyses of Prehistoric Artefacts in Rome, archaeologists identified traces of both manufacturing techniques and post-depositional modifications.

At Tepecik Çiftlik, nearly 70% of the tools from the Early Chalcolithic period exhibited surface damage caused by environmental factors and improper storage. The most common forms of wear included bright spots, intersecting striations, and micro pitting, but these were distinguishable from intentional use-wear patterns left by polishing and handling.

A Window into Neolithic Craftsmanship and Society

This research has successfully documented every stage of obsidian mirror production at Tepecik Çiftlik, providing invaluable insights into ancient Anatolian craftsmanship. The findings highlight the sophistication of Neolithic artisans and offer a glimpse into the social and economic significance of these rare artifacts.

By uncovering the production methods, trade networks, and cultural roles of obsidian mirrors, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of early Anatolian societies. These discoveries pave the way for future research into how material culture shaped identity, status, and connectivity in the ancient world.

Reference: Vinet, A. (2025). "Neolithic Obsidian Mirrors from Southwest Asia: A Reflection on Their Diffusion and Manufacture." Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, Volume 62, 105047. DOI: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105047.

The Myth of Pandora’s Box

The Greek myth of Pandora’s Box is one of the most enduring tales in mythology, exploring themes of curiosity, consequences, and the complexities of human nature. Originating from Hesiod’s works, this story provides a moral lesson on the dangers of unchecked curiosity and the duality of hope and suffering.

The Story of Pandora’s Box

According to Greek mythology, Pandora was the first woman, created by the gods as a punishment to humanity after Prometheus stole fire from Olympus. Zeus, seeking to exact retribution, commanded Hephaestus to fashion Pandora from clay, while the other gods gifted her with beauty, intelligence, and charm. However, she was also given one significant trait—an insatiable curiosity.

Pandora was presented with a jar (later mistranslated as a “box”) and was instructed never to open it. Unable to resist her curiosity, she lifted the lid, releasing a cascade of evils—disease, pain, toil, and sorrow—into the world. Overcome with regret, she hurried to close the jar, trapping only one thing inside: hope.

Themes of Curiosity and Consequences

The myth of Pandora’s Box serves as a cautionary tale about the unintended consequences of curiosity. It mirrors the human tendency to seek knowledge, even at great risk. In many ways, it reflects broader philosophical and literary themes, such as the pursuit of forbidden knowledge seen in myths like Adam and Eve’s fall in the Garden of Eden.

Additionally, the presence of hope at the bottom of the jar offers a nuanced perspective on suffering. While hardships are an inevitable part of life, hope remains as a source of resilience and perseverance, suggesting that even in the darkest times, there is a reason to keep going.

Cultural Impact

The myth of Pandora’s Box has permeated literature, philosophy, and psychology. It serves as a metaphor for unforeseen consequences and the balance between curiosity and caution. The expression “opening Pandora’s Box” has become a common phrase, signifying an action that may lead to unintended and uncontrollable consequences.

Through its enduring legacy, the myth continues to spark discussions about human nature, free will, and the complexity of choices, reinforcing its place as a timeless cautionary tale.

The Worship of the Sun in Ancient Cultures

Throughout history, the sun has played a central role in the religious and spiritual beliefs of many ancient civilizations. As a vital source of life, warmth, and growth, the sun was often revered as a powerful deity, symbolizing strength, renewal, and divinity. Different cultures developed unique traditions and rituals to honor the sun, reflecting their dependence on its presence for survival.

Egyptian Sun Worship: Ra, the Sun God

In ancient Egypt, the sun was personified as Ra, the supreme deity and ruler of the gods. Ra was believed to travel across the sky during the day and journey through the underworld at night, ensuring the cycle of life and rebirth. Pharaohs were often considered the earthly embodiments of Ra, reinforcing their divine authority. Temples, such as the Karnak complex, were built to honor him, and elaborate rituals, including daily offerings, were performed to maintain cosmic order.

Mesopotamian Sun Deities: Shamash

The Mesopotamians worshipped Shamash, the sun god associated with justice, truth, and law. Depicted with rays extending from his shoulders, Shamash was believed to illuminate the world, revealing hidden truths and guiding human affairs. He played a crucial role in legal matters, with laws and decisions being attributed to his divine wisdom. Temples dedicated to Shamash were built in cities like Sippar and Larsa.

Incan Sun Worship: Inti, the Supreme Deity

For the Inca civilization, the sun god Inti was the most important deity, believed to be the divine ancestor of the Incan emperors. The Festival of Inti Raymi, celebrated during the winter solstice, was a grand religious event involving sacrifices, feasts, and dances to honor the sun and ensure agricultural prosperity. The Temple of the Sun, or Coricancha, in Cusco was the most sacred site dedicated to Inti, adorned with gold to reflect the sun's brilliance.

Aztec Sun Worship: Huitzilopochtli and Tonatiuh

The Aztecs placed immense significance on sun worship, with Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun, playing a central role in their mythology. Another sun deity, Tonatiuh, was believed to require human sacrifices to sustain his journey across the sky. The Aztecs constructed massive temples, such as the Templo Mayor, and practiced ritual sacrifices to ensure the continued movement of the sun.

Norse and Hindu Sun Worship

In Norse mythology, the sun was personified as Sól, a goddess who rode across the sky in a chariot, pursued by a wolf that would one day devour her. Meanwhile, in Hindu tradition, the sun god Surya was revered as a bringer of health and prosperity. Devotees performed Surya Namaskar (sun salutations) as a spiritual practice to express gratitude and seek blessings.

Conclusion

The worship of the sun across various ancient cultures highlights its universal significance as a source of life and divinity. Whether through grand temples, ritual sacrifices, or daily prayers, these civilizations acknowledged the sun’s power and influence in shaping their worldviews. Even today, remnants of sun worship persist in cultural and religious traditions, reflecting humanity’s enduring reverence for this celestial force.

The Myth of Icarus and Daedalus

The Greek myth of Icarus and Daedalus is one of the most well-known stories from ancient mythology, exploring themes of ambition, hubris, and the consequences of disobedience. The tale originates from classical Greek literature and has been retold and interpreted in various ways throughout history.

The Story of Icarus and Daedalus

Daedalus, a master craftsman and inventor, was commissioned by King Minos of Crete to construct the elaborate Labyrinth to imprison the Minotaur. However, after aiding Theseus in escaping the Labyrinth, Daedalus and his son, Icarus, were imprisoned on the island of Crete as punishment.

Determined to escape, Daedalus devised a plan to fashion wings made of feathers and wax. Before their flight, he warned Icarus not to fly too close to the sun, as the heat would melt the wax, nor too close to the sea, as the moisture would weigh down the feathers. However, overwhelmed by the exhilaration of flight, Icarus ignored his father’s warnings and soared too high. The sun’s heat melted the wax, causing Icarus to plummet into the sea, where he drowned. This tragic event left Daedalus grief-stricken as he continued his journey alone.

Themes of Ambition and Hubris

The myth of Icarus and Daedalus serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of excessive ambition and the importance of heeding wisdom. Icarus’ disregard for his father’s advice exemplifies hubris—excessive pride or overconfidence—which often leads to downfall in Greek mythology. His fate highlights the delicate balance between ambition and restraint.

Additionally, the story underscores the human desire for freedom and the limitations imposed by nature. Icarus’ flight symbolizes mankind’s aspiration to transcend boundaries, while his fall serves as a reminder of the consequences of defying natural limits.

Cultural Impact

The myth of Icarus has been widely referenced in literature, art, and philosophy. It has inspired countless interpretations, from Renaissance paintings to modern poetry, often serving as a metaphor for reckless ambition and the dangers of overreaching.

Ultimately, the myth of Icarus and Daedalus remains a timeless tale, warning of the fine line between aspiration and folly, and reminding us of the importance of wisdom and humility.

The Invention of Soap in Ancient Babylon

Soap, an essential component of hygiene and cleanliness, has a long history that traces back to ancient civilizations. One of the earliest known records of soap-making dates to ancient Babylon around 2800 BCE. The Babylonians were among the first to develop a rudimentary form of soap, laying the foundation for modern sanitation practices.

The Development of Soap in Babylon

Archaeological evidence suggests that the Babylonians created soap by mixing water, wood ash, and animal fats. This mixture produced a basic form of soap that was likely used for cleaning textiles rather than personal hygiene. A cuneiform tablet from around 2200 BCE provides the earliest written recipe for soap, detailing the process of combining fats with alkali substances.

The Importance of Soap in Daily Life

While early soap was primarily used for washing fabrics, it eventually gained significance in personal cleanliness and medicinal applications. The Babylonians recognized the cleansing properties of soap and used it in bathing rituals, which were integral to their culture. Additionally, soap played a role in early medical treatments, as it was believed to help with skin ailments and wound care.

Legacy of Babylonian Soap-Making

The knowledge of soap-making spread from Babylon to other ancient civilizations, including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Over time, different cultures refined the process, incorporating new ingredients and methods. The Babylonian invention of soap laid the groundwork for the development of more advanced hygiene practices, ultimately contributing to public health advancements throughout history.

Today, soap remains a fundamental part of daily life, highlighting the ingenuity of the ancient Babylonians and their lasting impact on civilization.

The Role of the Underworld in Mythology

The underworld is a recurring concept in numerous ancient mythologies, serving as a realm for the dead, a place of judgment, and sometimes a domain of deities. Though its portrayal varies across different cultures, the underworld often reflects beliefs about the afterlife, morality, and the human condition.

The Underworld in Various Mythologies

Greek Mythology: Hades

In Greek mythology, the underworld is ruled by Hades, the god of the dead. It is a vast, subterranean domain divided into various regions, including the Elysian Fields for the virtuous, the Asphodel Meadows for ordinary souls, and Tartarus, a deep abyss of torment for the wicked. The River Styx, which souls must cross with the help of the ferryman Charon, is a defining feature of the Greek underworld.

Egyptian Mythology: Duat

The ancient Egyptians believed in Duat, a complex and perilous underworld where souls underwent judgment by Osiris. The deceased had to navigate through various challenges and face the weighing of the heart ceremony, where Anubis and Ma'at determined their fate. A pure heart led to the blissful Field of Reeds, while the wicked faced destruction by the monstrous Ammit.

Norse Mythology: Helheim

In Norse mythology, Helheim is the realm of the dead who did not die in battle. Ruled by the goddess Hel, it is depicted as a cold, misty land far from the realm of the living. Unlike Valhalla, where honored warriors reside, Helheim is a place of gloom and rest for those who died of sickness or old age.

Mesopotamian Mythology: Kur

The Sumerians and Babylonians envisioned the underworld as Kur or Irkalla, a dark and desolate place where the dead exist as shades. Ruled by the goddess Ereshkigal, it was considered an inescapable realm with strict rules. Unlike other mythologies, Mesopotamian views on the afterlife were more pessimistic, with little hope for reward after death.

Cultural Significance of the Underworld

The concept of the underworld serves multiple cultural functions. It often embodies moral and ethical teachings, illustrating consequences for one's actions in life. Many myths featuring journeys to the underworld, such as Orpheus and Eurydice or the Descent of Inanna, reflect themes of love, loss, and transformation. Additionally, the underworld plays a role in rituals and religious practices, influencing burial customs and beliefs about the soul’s journey after death.

From the Greek Hades to the Egyptian Duat and the Norse Helheim, the underworld remains a powerful symbol of mortality, judgment, and the afterlife in human culture. Its enduring presence in mythology highlights its significance in shaping spiritual beliefs and understanding of existence beyond death.

The Legend of the Golden Fleece

The Greek myth of Jason and the Argonauts is one of the most celebrated adventure tales of ancient mythology. Centered around Jason’s quest to retrieve the Golden Fleece, this epic story embodies themes of heroism, divine intervention, and the pursuit of legitimacy.

The Myth of Jason and the Argonauts

Jason, the rightful heir to the throne of Iolcus, was tasked with retrieving the Golden Fleece to reclaim his kingdom from the usurper, Pelias. To accomplish this, he assembled a crew of legendary heroes known as the Argonauts, including Hercules, Orpheus, and Atalanta. They set sail aboard the Argo, encountering numerous challenges, such as the Harpies, the Clashing Rocks, and the sorceress Circe.

Upon reaching Colchis, Jason sought the favor of King Aeëtes, who imposed impossible tasks to claim the Fleece. With the help of the sorceress Medea, who had fallen in love with him, Jason completed the tasks, retrieved the Fleece, and fled Colchis. Their journey back was fraught with peril, but ultimately, Jason returned to Iolcus victorious—though his later years were marked by tragedy.

Cultural Symbolism of the Golden Fleece

The Golden Fleece represents power, kingship, and divine favor. In ancient times, fleece was associated with wealth and authority, and in some interpretations, it symbolizes the search for wisdom and enlightenment. The myth also reflects the Greek belief in fate and the intervention of the gods, as Jason’s success hinged on both divine assistance and human ingenuity.

Moreover, the legend has been linked to historical practices such as gold panning in the rivers of Colchis, where sheepskins were used to collect gold dust. This connection suggests that the myth may have roots in real-world traditions, blending history with legend.

Legacy of the Myth

The tale of Jason and the Argonauts has inspired countless literary and artistic works, from classical plays to modern films. Its themes of adventure, loyalty, and betrayal continue to resonate, making it one of the most enduring stories of Greek mythology. The legend’s influence can be seen in modern narratives of quests and heroism, reinforcing its place in the cultural heritage of storytelling.

In conclusion, the myth of the Golden Fleece is more than a tale of adventure; it is a reflection of ancient Greek values and beliefs. Through Jason’s journey, the story explores the trials of heroism, the power of divine will, and the enduring human desire for glory and legitimacy.

The Mysteries of the Temple of Artemis

The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, renowned for its grandeur and historical significance. This magnificent structure was dedicated to Artemis, the Greek goddess of the hunt, wilderness, and fertility. Located in the ancient city of Ephesus (modern-day Turkey), the temple stood as a testament to religious devotion, architectural brilliance, and cultural exchange.

Historical Background

The Temple of Artemis was originally constructed in the 6th century BCE under the patronage of the Lydian king Croesus. Designed by the Greek architect Chersiphron and his son Metagenes, the temple was an extraordinary achievement, blending Greek and Near Eastern architectural influences. The massive structure measured approximately 137 meters in length and 69 meters in width, supported by over 100 Ionic columns, each standing around 18 meters tall.

Throughout its history, the temple underwent multiple reconstructions due to natural disasters and human actions. It was famously destroyed by arson in 356 BCE, the same night Alexander the Great was born. The temple was later rebuilt but eventually fell into ruin following the rise of Christianity in the region.

Religious and Cultural Significance

As a major center of worship, the Temple of Artemis attracted pilgrims and travelers from across the Mediterranean. It was not only a religious sanctuary but also a hub of commerce, learning, and artistic expression. The temple housed a massive cult statue of Artemis, adorned with intricate carvings symbolizing fertility and protection.

The sanctuary also played a role in regional politics and economy. It provided asylum to those seeking refuge and was a significant economic institution, with offerings from devotees contributing to the wealth of Ephesus.

Legacy and Modern Influence

Although little remains of the temple today, its legacy endures through historical texts and archaeological findings. The site of Ephesus remains a key destination for historians and tourists alike, offering glimpses into the grandeur of the ancient world. The influence of the Temple of Artemis can be seen in later religious architecture and artistic depictions of divine sanctuaries.

In conclusion, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was more than just a magnificent structure; it was a beacon of religious devotion, cultural interchange, and architectural achievement. Its mysteries continue to captivate scholars and history enthusiasts, preserving its place as one of antiquity’s greatest wonders.

The Ancient Art of Pottery Making

Pottery has been an essential craft throughout human history, serving both practical and artistic purposes. Ancient civilizations around the world developed distinct techniques and styles, reflecting their cultural identities and technological advancements.

Techniques of Pottery Making

Ancient potters employed various methods to create their wares, including hand-building, coiling, and wheel-throwing. Early pottery was often shaped by hand or coiled, a technique in which clay was rolled into long ropes and layered to form vessels. With the advent of the potter's wheel around 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia, production became more efficient and allowed for more symmetrical and intricate designs. Kiln firing techniques also advanced, enabling potters to produce more durable ceramics with varied finishes and glazes.

Styles and Regional Variations

Different civilizations developed unique pottery styles, often influenced by their environment, trade, and artistic traditions.

• Ancient Greece: Greek pottery featured black-figure and red-figure techniques, depicting mythological and everyday scenes with detailed imagery.

• China: The Chinese mastered porcelain production, crafting delicate and highly valued ceramics such as celadon and blue-and-white ware.

• Mesoamerica: Cultures like the Maya and Aztecs created polychrome pottery with intricate designs and glyphs reflecting their religious beliefs.

• Egypt: Egyptian pottery included functional wares as well as elaborately decorated pieces used in burial rites.

Cultural Significance

Pottery was more than just a functional craft; it held deep cultural and ritualistic importance. Many civilizations used ceramics in religious ceremonies, burial practices, and trade. The artistic motifs and inscriptions on pottery provide valuable insights into the beliefs, social structures, and daily lives of ancient peoples. Additionally, pottery was often a marker of technological and artistic achievement, with innovations in glazing, shaping, and firing techniques spreading through trade and cultural exchanges.

Legacy of Ancient Pottery

The influence of ancient pottery persists today, with traditional techniques still practiced in various cultures. Archaeologists rely on pottery fragments to date sites and understand past societies, underscoring its enduring significance. The art of pottery continues to inspire modern artists and craftsmen, bridging the past with the present through the timeless tradition of ceramics.

In conclusion, pottery played a crucial role in ancient civilizations, encompassing technical innovation, artistic expression, and cultural identity. Its legacy endures, offering a window into humanity's creative and practical ingenuity throughout history.

The Worship of Anubis in Ancient Egypt

Anubis, the jackal-headed deity, played a central role in ancient Egyptian religious beliefs, particularly in matters concerning death and the afterlife. As the god of mummification and guardian of the dead, Anubis was revered for his role in ensuring safe passage to the underworld and overseeing burial rites.

Anubis and Mummification

One of Anubis’s most crucial responsibilities was presiding over the embalming process. Priests conducting mummification rituals often wore masks depicting Anubis, invoking his protection and guidance. The process of mummification was essential in preserving the body for the afterlife, reflecting the Egyptians’ belief in immortality.

The Weighing of the Heart Ceremony

Anubis was also a key figure in the "Weighing of the Heart" ceremony, as depicted in the Book of the Dead. He guided the deceased to the Hall of Ma’at, where their heart was weighed against the feather of truth. If the heart was lighter than the feather, the soul was deemed worthy of entering the afterlife. If not, it was devoured by Ammit, a fearsome creature.

Anubis’s Role in Burial Rites

Egyptians believed that Anubis protected tombs and cemeteries from desecration. Amulets bearing his likeness were commonly placed in tombs to invoke his protection. His association with cemeteries likely originated from the presence of wild jackals near burial sites, reinforcing his role as a guardian of the dead.

Enduring Legacy

Despite the eventual rise of Osiris as the primary god of the afterlife, Anubis remained a vital figure in Egyptian mythology and religious practices. His imagery and symbolism have persisted through history, influencing modern depictions of the afterlife and the role of guardianship over the dead.

In conclusion, Anubis was a crucial deity in ancient Egyptian religious traditions, overseeing mummification, guiding souls to the afterlife, and protecting the deceased. His enduring legacy continues to capture the imagination of historians and enthusiasts of Egyptian mythology alike.

The Role of Fire Rituals in Ancient Cultures

Fire has long held a sacred and transformative role in human civilization, with ancient cultures around the world incorporating fire rituals into their religious and societal practices. These rituals often symbolized purification, communication with deities, and the cycle of life and death, underscoring fire's deep spiritual and practical significance.

Fire in Religious Practices

Many ancient religions regarded fire as a divine element. In Zoroastrianism, fire was a central symbol of purity and truth, with fire temples serving as places of worship. Similarly, in Vedic traditions of India, fire (Agni) was a crucial aspect of rituals, where offerings were made to gods through sacrificial fires. In ancient Greece, the Olympic flame was kindled to honor the gods, linking fire to both spiritual reverence and communal identity.

Fire in Societal Functions

Beyond religious ceremonies, fire rituals also played a role in social cohesion and governance. In ancient Rome, the Vestal Virgins maintained the sacred fire of Vesta, which was believed to ensure the security of the city. In Celtic cultures, the festival of Beltane involved the lighting of bonfires to mark seasonal transitions and protect against malevolent spirits. Fire was also used in funerary rites, such as cremation in Hinduism and Viking ship burials, signifying passage into the afterlife.

Legacy and Influence

The significance of fire rituals has endured through time, influencing modern religious practices and cultural traditions. From Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights, to the eternal flames commemorating historical figures, fire continues to symbolize purification, remembrance, and divine presence. These ancient customs illustrate the universal reverence for fire and its role in shaping human belief systems and societal structures.

In conclusion, fire rituals were a cornerstone of ancient civilizations, serving both religious and societal purposes. Their continued presence in contemporary traditions highlights fire's enduring power as a symbol of transformation, connection, and protection.

The Influence of Ancient Phoenician Trade

The Phoenicians, an ancient seafaring civilization based in the eastern Mediterranean, played a crucial role in shaping trade and cultural exchange across the region. Their maritime expertise, extensive trade networks, and strategic colonization efforts significantly impacted the economies and societies of the ancient world.

Masters of the Sea: Phoenician Seafaring

The Phoenicians were among the most skilled sailors of the ancient world, developing advanced shipbuilding techniques that allowed them to navigate vast distances. Their ships, including the renowned biremes and cargo vessels, enabled them to establish trade routes that connected the eastern Mediterranean with North Africa, Europe, and even the Atlantic coast. The development of these routes facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices among diverse civilizations.

Trade Networks and Economic Impact

The Phoenicians were known for trading a variety of valuable commodities, including textiles dyed with the rare Tyrian purple, cedar wood from Lebanon, glassware, and intricately crafted metalwork. They acted as intermediaries, transporting goods between Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and other Mediterranean cultures. This extensive trade network helped stimulate economic growth and technological advancements in the regions they interacted with.

Colonization and Cultural Exchange

In addition to their trade activities, the Phoenicians established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, with Carthage being the most famous. These colonies served as crucial trading hubs, further expanding their influence. Through colonization, they introduced elements of their language, art, and religious practices to other cultures while also adopting and integrating aspects of foreign traditions into their own society. The spread of the Phoenician alphabet, which later influenced Greek and Latin scripts, is one of their most lasting contributions to global civilization.

Legacy of Phoenician Influence

The Phoenicians left an enduring mark on Mediterranean history through their innovations in trade, navigation, and communication. Their ability to connect distant civilizations laid the foundation for future economic and cultural interactions. By pioneering maritime commerce and establishing far-reaching trade networks, they shaped the development of the ancient world and contributed significantly to the progress of Western civilization.

Conclusion

Ancient Phoenician trade was more than an economic endeavor; it was a driving force for cultural exchange and technological advancement. Their seafaring skills, extensive trade routes, and strategic colonies made them a dominant force in the Mediterranean, influencing societies for centuries. The legacy of the Phoenicians continues to be evident in modern trade practices, language development, and the enduring impact of their navigational expertise.

The Discovery of King Tutankhamun’s Tomb

The discovery of King Tutankhamun's tomb in 1922 remains one of the most significant archaeological findings in history. Unearthed by British archaeologist Howard Carter and his team in the Valley of the Kings, the tomb was remarkable for its nearly intact condition, providing an unprecedented glimpse into the life, death, and burial customs of ancient Egypt.

The Momentous Discovery

On November 4, 1922, after years of searching, Carter's team uncovered the entrance to a previously unknown tomb. Funded by Lord Carnarvon, an English aristocrat and passionate antiquities collector, the excavation led to an astonishing find. Upon entering the tomb on November 26, Carter described seeing "wonderful things"—a trove of treasures that had remained undisturbed for over 3,000 years.

Significance of the Tomb

Unlike many other royal tombs, which had been looted over the centuries, Tutankhamun's tomb was discovered largely intact. It contained over 5,000 artifacts, including gold-covered chariots, elaborate jewelry, weapons, statues, and ritual objects. The highlight of the discovery was the pharaoh's sarcophagus, which housed three nested coffins, the innermost made of solid gold and containing the mummified remains of Tutankhamun.

Insights into Ancient Egypt

The artifacts found in the tomb provided valuable insights into the opulence of the 18th Dynasty and the burial practices of the New Kingdom period. The presence of everyday objects, including clothing, food, and board games, suggested that Egyptians believed in a well-equipped afterlife. The discovery also shed light on the artistic and technological advancements of the era, as seen in the intricate craftsmanship of the burial mask and other relics.

The Mystery of Tutankhamun

King Tutankhamun, who ruled Egypt from approximately 1332 to 1323 BCE, was a relatively minor pharaoh who ascended to the throne as a child. His sudden death at around 19 years old has fueled numerous theories, ranging from genetic disorders and infections to possible murder. Studies of his mummy have revealed signs of malaria, a fractured leg, and congenital defects, likely due to inbreeding among royal families.

Impact on Egyptology and Popular Culture

The discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb reignited global fascination with ancient Egypt. It led to advances in archaeological techniques, emphasizing meticulous documentation and preservation. Additionally, the so-called "Curse of the Pharaohs," a myth that emerged following the deaths of some individuals involved in the excavation, captivated public imagination and contributed to the enduring legend of King Tut.

Conclusion

The discovery of King Tutankhamun’s tomb was a groundbreaking moment in the field of archaeology. It provided an unparalleled look at the splendor of ancient Egyptian civilization and deepened our understanding of their religious beliefs, burial customs, and daily life. A century later, the treasures from the tomb continue to awe scholars and enthusiasts alike, ensuring King Tut’s legacy endures through history.

The Legacy of the Spartan Warrior Culture

The ancient city-state of Sparta is synonymous with military excellence, discipline, and an unwavering commitment to martial prowess. The Spartan warrior culture was a defining feature of Greek history, shaping the political, social, and military landscape of the ancient world. From the rigorous training of its citizens to its unparalleled battlefield tactics, Sparta’s legacy continues to captivate historians and enthusiasts alike.

Origins and Societal Structure

Sparta, located in the Peloponnesian Peninsula, rose to prominence during the early first millennium BCE. Unlike other Greek city-states, which embraced democracy or trade-based economies, Sparta developed an oligarchic and militaristic society. The city was governed by a dual monarchy, supported by a council of elders (Gerousia) and an assembly (Apella), ensuring a balance between aristocratic and communal decision-making.

Spartan society was divided into three main classes:

• Spartiates (Full Citizens): The ruling warrior elite, trained from birth to serve as soldiers.

• Perioeci (Free Non-Citizens): Skilled laborers and traders who provided economic support but had no political power.

• Helots (State-Owned Serfs): A subjugated population responsible for agriculture and manual labor, ensuring that Spartans could focus solely on warfare.

The Agoge: Training the Perfect Warrior

A defining feature of Spartan society was the Agoge, a state-run education and training system designed to produce elite warriors. Beginning at the age of seven, Spartan boys were removed from their families and placed under strict discipline, undergoing intense physical training, survival exercises, and combat drills. The Agoge emphasized endurance, resourcefulness, and unwavering loyalty to the state. By the age of 20, these young men became full-time soldiers and were expected to serve until the age of 60.

Women in Sparta also played a crucial role in maintaining the warrior ethos. Unlike their counterparts in other Greek city-states, Spartan women received physical training to ensure they could bear strong children and manage households in the absence of their husbands. They were also granted more freedoms, including property rights and a say in societal matters.

Military Achievements and Tactics

Sparta’s military dominance was built upon its formidable hoplite warriors, who fought in the phalanx formation—a tightly-packed unit of heavily armed soldiers wielding spears and shields. This tactic provided superior defensive capabilities and was key to Spartan victories in numerous battles.

Notable military achievements include:

• The Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE): King Leonidas and his legendary 300 warriors, along with allied Greek forces, held off the massive Persian army of Xerxes I for days, epitomizing Spartan bravery and sacrifice.

• The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE): Sparta, leading the Peloponnesian League, waged a prolonged conflict against Athens and emerged victorious, solidifying its dominance in Greece.

• The Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE): Despite their martial prowess, Sparta suffered a devastating defeat against Thebes, marking the decline of its military supremacy.

Decline and Enduring Influence

Sparta’s rigid military-focused society eventually led to its downfall. A dwindling citizen population, economic struggles, and shifting power dynamics in Greece weakened its once-unshakable foundation. By the time of Alexander the Great’s conquests, Sparta had become a shadow of its former self, and later, under Roman rule, it lost its autonomy altogether.

Despite its decline, the legacy of Spartan warrior culture endures. Its emphasis on discipline, loyalty, and sacrifice continues to be a source of inspiration in modern military training, literature, and popular culture. The Spartans remain a symbol of resilience, strength, and the relentless pursuit of excellence.

Conclusion

Sparta’s warrior culture was a unique phenomenon in ancient history, shaping not only Greek warfare but also the broader perception of military discipline and societal organization. While its rigid system eventually led to its decline, the legend of Sparta remains immortal, embodying the ideals of courage, endurance, and martial supremacy.

The Myth of the Gorgon Medusa

The story of Medusa is one of the most captivating and enduring myths in Greek mythology. As one of the three Gorgons, Medusa was unique—unlike her immortal sisters, she was mortal. Her legend has been interpreted in various ways throughout history, evolving from a tale of terror to a powerful symbol of resistance, transformation, and protection.

The Myth of Medusa

Medusa's story has multiple versions, but the most well-known originates from Ovid’s Metamorphoses. According to this account, Medusa was once a beautiful maiden who served as a priestess in the temple of Athena. However, she attracted the unwanted attention of Poseidon, who violated her within the sacred space. Enraged, Athena did not punish Poseidon but instead cursed Medusa, transforming her into a monstrous figure with snakes for hair and a gaze that could turn anyone to stone.

Medusa's fate ultimately led to her beheading by the hero Perseus. Aided by divine gifts—including a mirrored shield from Athena, winged sandals from Hermes, and a magical sickle from Hephaestus—Perseus was able to slay Medusa without meeting her deadly gaze. Upon her death, from her severed neck sprang the winged horse Pegasus and the warrior Chrysaor, her offspring by Poseidon.

Symbolism and Interpretations

Over the centuries, Medusa's image has been interpreted in multiple ways, each reflecting cultural, philosophical, and artistic perspectives of the time.

Medusa as a Symbol of Protection

In ancient Greece and Rome, Medusa's head—known as the Gorgoneion—was frequently used as a protective amulet. It was often depicted on shields, armor, coins, and buildings to ward off evil. The belief in her apotropaic power, the ability to repel negative forces, made her a guardian figure rather than a mere monster.

Feminist Interpretations

In modern times, Medusa has been reclaimed as a symbol of female empowerment and resistance against oppression. Some feminist scholars interpret her transformation as a punishment for a woman’s suffering, a reflection of patriarchal fear of female autonomy and power. Her beheading is seen as an allegory for silencing strong women. Artists and writers have used Medusa’s image to challenge traditional narratives and reclaim her story from a lens of victimization to one of resilience.

Psychoanalytic and Philosophical Readings

Sigmund Freud viewed Medusa’s head as a symbol of castration anxiety, interpreting her petrifying gaze as a manifestation of male fear. Meanwhile, philosopher Hélène Cixous reinterpreted Medusa as a figure of laughter and liberation, encouraging women to embrace their voices and identities rather than fear societal condemnation.

Medusa in Art and Culture

Medusa has remained a popular figure in art, literature, and film. From classical sculptures and Renaissance paintings to modern-day logos like that of Versace, her image continues to fascinate and inspire. Each adaptation redefines her legacy, reinforcing her status as one of mythology’s most complex and multi-faceted characters.

Conclusion

The myth of Medusa is more than just a story of terror—it is a tale of transformation, power, and shifting perceptions. From an object of fear to an emblem of strength, Medusa’s legacy endures, offering a mirror through which each era reflects its own values and struggles. Whether viewed as a monstrous outcast or a figure of empowerment, Medusa remains one of Greek mythology’s most potent and thought-provoking symbols.

The Ancient City of Mycenae: A Glimpse into Greece’s Legendary Past

Introduction

The ancient city of Mycenae, one of the most influential centers of Greek civilization, flourished during the late Bronze Age (circa 1600–1100 BCE). Famous for its association with Homeric epics and the legendary King Agamemnon, Mycenae played a crucial role in shaping Greek culture, warfare, and architectural advancements. The city’s ruins, discovered in the 19th century, have provided invaluable insights into the Mycenaean civilization, which left an enduring mark on Greek history.

Historical Background

Mycenae was a dominant power in the Aegean world, serving as a major hub for trade, military expeditions, and political influence. The Mycenaean civilization, named after this city, was an early Greek-speaking culture that thrived during the late Bronze Age. The city is famously linked to the Trojan War, as described in Homer’s Iliad, where Mycenae’s king, Agamemnon, led the Greek forces against Troy. The city’s decline began around 1100 BCE, coinciding with the mysterious collapse of Bronze Age civilizations across the Mediterranean, often attributed to invasions, natural disasters, or internal conflicts.

Architectural Marvels of Mycenae

One of Mycenae’s most remarkable features is its impressive architecture, characterized by massive cyclopean walls, sophisticated drainage systems, and monumental structures. Among the most notable sites are:

• The Lion Gate: The iconic entrance to the city, adorned with a relief of two lions standing on either side of a column. This gate exemplifies Mycenaean engineering prowess and serves as a powerful symbol of the city’s strength.

• The Grave Circles: These royal burial sites contain shaft graves filled with gold artifacts, weapons, and ceremonial items, showcasing the wealth and artistry of the Mycenaeans.

• The Treasury of Atreus: Also known as the Tomb of Agamemnon, this beehive-shaped tholos tomb is a masterpiece of Mycenaean architecture, demonstrating advanced construction techniques.

• The Palace Complex: Situated on the city’s acropolis, this structure served as the political and administrative center, featuring a central megaron (throne room) with vibrant frescoes and elaborate decorations.

Archaeological Discoveries

Excavations at Mycenae, initiated by Heinrich Schliemann in the 19th century, unveiled a treasure trove of artifacts that reshaped the understanding of Mycenaean culture. Among the most significant discoveries are:

• The Mask of Agamemnon: A stunning gold funeral mask unearthed in Grave Circle A, though later research suggests it predates Agamemnon’s era.

• Linear B Tablets: Clay tablets inscribed with Linear B script, the earliest form of Greek writing, providing insights into Mycenaean administration and economy.

• Weapons and Jewelry: Exquisitely crafted swords, daggers, and gold ornaments that highlight Mycenaean craftsmanship and trade connections with Egypt and the Near East.

Conclusion

Mycenae stands as a testament to the ingenuity and influence of the Mycenaean civilization. Its architectural achievements, historical significance, and archaeological findings continue to captivate historians and enthusiasts alike. As a UNESCO World Heritage site, Mycenae remains a vital link to understanding Greece’s ancient past and its legendary narratives that have shaped Western civilization.