Roman Frescoes Reborn: Archaeologist Reassembles 2,000‑Year‑Old Masterpiece from Thousands of Fragments

In London’s Southwark district—on the future site of the “Liberty” development—a monumental archaeological undertaking is underway. What seemed initially like a chaotic mound of demolition rubble from around AD 200 has been meticulously transformed into a breathtaking reconstruction of Roman frescoes. Experts at the Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA) have painstakingly pieced together paintings from thousands of fragile plaster fragments, coming from at least 20 different wall panels.

🧩 A Herculean Puzzle

Senior specialist Han Li describes the task as “like solving the world’s most difficult jigsaw puzzle—with no box, missing edges, and pieces from multiple images mixed together”. Each fragment, often smaller than a palm, required delicate handling and expert scrutiny.

Science Meets Artistry

Advanced lighting and digital mapping helped distinguish fragments by brushstroke, pigment composition, and texture—enabling Li’s team to reconstruct motifs of birds, candelabras, fruit, lyres, and vibrant yellow panels. The bright yellow hue, rare in Roman Britain, and imitations of exotic stones such as red porphyry (from Egypt) and giallo antico (from North Africa), suggest the frescoes were commissioned by a wealthy patron.

Traces of the Artist and Ancient Hands

Among the fragments, a decorative tabula ansata bears the Latin word FECIT (“has made this”), marking possibly the earliest-known artist's signature discovered in Roman Britain—though the actual name is lost. Additionally, faint etchings include the Greek alphabet—likely used as a guide—and a sketched woman in tears, offering rare glimpses into the painter's creative process.

Beyond Decoration: A Cultural Snapshot

This project transcends mere artifact recovery—it's a recreation of a cultural masterpiece. The frescoes originated in a high‑status Roman villa or perhaps an elite commercial space in Londinium, often compared to the “Beverly Hills of Roman London”. The scale of this reconstruction—one of the largest collections of Roman wall plaster ever reassembled in Britain—is truly unprecedented.

What Lies Ahead

MOLA plans to release a detailed reconstruction report and hopes to exhibit the restored artworks to the public. Backed by developers Landsec, Transport for London, and Southwark Council, this project not only preserves historical art but revives it.

Also, here’s a fascinating video detailing the reconstruction process:

Key Takeaways:

• Immense Reconstruction Effort: Over months, experts reassembled fragments from 20+ walls—some no larger than a human palm.

• Evidence of Luxury: Exotic pigments and elaborate motifs indicate an affluent patronage.

• Human Touch: Graffiti, planning sketches, and the artist’s “fecit” mark bring unexpected personality to 2,000-year-old frescoes.

• A Cultural Renaissance: This project revives not just images, but the creative practices and aesthetic choices of Roman Londinium.

Elite Viking Family Tombs Discovered in Denmark Hint at Ties to King Harald Bluetooth

A remarkable archaeological find near Aarhus, Denmark, has brought to light approximately 30 Viking-era graves that may belong to a powerful aristocratic family, potentially connected to the court of King Harald Bluetooth—the 10th-century monarch who unified Denmark and Norway.

Found at a construction site in Lisbjerg, just north of modern Aarhus, the cemetery dates to the late 900s. Excavations by Moesgaard Museum experts revealed a lavish assortment of burial gifts—including coins, ceramic vessels, glass beads, and other luxury items—signaling that those interred were of elevated social status and engaged in far-reaching trade networks.

Signs of High Rank and Royal Affiliation

Archaeologist Liv Stidsing Reher‑Langberg described the assemblage as “quite special,” noting the variety in grave opulence. The disparities suggest a nuanced social structure—perhaps the remains of a ruling household, including both family and enslaved individuals.
Crucially, a fortified noble farm discovered nearby in the 1980s likely belonged to an aristocrat—possibly an earl or steward serving under King Harald Bluetooth.

The Rare and Splendid Casket

🔍 Significance & Outlook

• Power and Politics: The tombs reflect a structured, hierarchical community, likely ruled by a local chieftain operating just below royal authority.

• Women’s Roles: The ornate female burial suggests noblewomen held both material wealth and cultural significance.

• Connectivity: Exotic goods in the graves reinforce the idea of the Viking world as a dynamic nexus of trade and exchange.

• Historical Impact: These findings deepen our understanding of King Harald Bluetooth’s reign and the socio-political entanglements between his court and regional elites.

This discovery at Lisbjerg enriches the narrative of Viking society—infusing it with evidence of regional elites who were deeply connected to royal dynasties, spiritual traditions, and expansive trade networks.

How the Neanderthals Disappeared: A New and Controversial Theory

A fresh — and quite radical — theory has reignited the long-running scientific debate over what led to the disappearance of the Neanderthals. Agnit Mukhopadhyay, a physicist at the University of Michigan, suggests that the end of the Neanderthals may have been triggered by a dramatic geomagnetic event about 41,000 years ago, which exposed Earth to intense cosmic and ultraviolet radiation.

Mukhopadhyay’s hypothesis, recently published in Science Advances, is based on 3D models reconstructing Earth’s geospace environment during what’s known as the Laschamp event — a brief reversal of Earth’s magnetic poles that significantly weakened the planet’s magnetic shield. According to his research, this weakening allowed harmful radiation to reach the surface, creating an especially hostile environment for the Neanderthals.

In this scenario, Homo sapiens are thought to have had a crucial survival advantage. Mukhopadhyay argues that the use of tightly fitting clothing, ochre as a sunblock, and regular sheltering in caves likely gave modern humans a protective edge. Neanderthals, lacking comparable measures, may have succumbed to the harsher conditions.

However, this interpretation has drawn sharp criticism from the scientific community. Many researchers point out that it oversimplifies a highly complex topic. While it’s true that no direct evidence of Neanderthal clothing has survived, that doesn’t mean they didn’t wear clothes. In fact, there is strong archaeological evidence of hide processing with specialized tools, clearly suggesting they crafted basic garments. Surviving in Ice Age Europe without clothing would have been virtually impossible.

Ochre use, too, was not exclusive to Homo sapiens. Ample evidence shows that Neanderthals also used ochre for various purposes — symbolic, decorative, medicinal, or even as an insect repellent. One striking example is a perforated scallop shell from Cueva Antón in Spain, stained with ochre and attributed to Neanderthal craftsmanship.

Mukhopadhyay’s theory also argues that Neanderthals were at a disadvantage because they lacked long-range hunting technology, unlike modern humans who developed stone-tipped projectiles. While it’s true that technological innovation was a significant advantage for Homo sapiens, it alone cannot fully account for the disappearance of the Neanderthals.

In fact, genetic evidence indicates that Neanderthals didn’t vanish entirely — they were gradually absorbed into the Homo sapiens gene pool through interbreeding. The numerical superiority of modern humans likely played a decisive role in this integration.

Crucially, Mukhopadhyay’s hypothesis lacks strong archaeological support. There is no evidence of a sudden demographic collapse of Neanderthal populations during the Laschamp event, nor is there proof of mass extinctions among other human or animal species at that time. If increased solar radiation had been such a decisive factor, we would expect to see similar effects among Homo sapiens living in warmer parts of Africa — yet no such impact is evident.

The disappearance of the Neanderthals remains a puzzle that demands a multifaceted approach, combining archaeological, paleoanthropological, and genetic insights. They were not simply victims of natural disasters or technological inferiority. On the contrary, they were a culturally sophisticated species, highly adaptable, who endured dramatic climate shifts and magnetic anomalies, including the Blake event 120,000 years ago.

The idea that a pole reversal wiped out the Neanderthals is certainly an intriguing narrative, but it does not stand up to scrutiny. More likely, their story did not end in abrupt extinction — it lives on today, woven into our own.

Ancient Stone Tools from South African Cave Reveal Life at the Edge of the Ice Age

When we think of the last Ice Age — roughly 26,000 to 19,000 years ago — we often picture vast sheets of ice blanketing Europe and North America. But far to the south, in what is now coastal South Africa, a very different but equally dramatic landscape was taking shape.

As global sea levels fell by up to 125 meters, enormous stretches of the continental shelf emerged from the sea, creating the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain — an expansive grassland teeming with life, much like today’s Serengeti. This lost world supported large herds of animals and the hunter-gatherer communities who relied on them for survival.

Now, thanks to ongoing excavations at Knysna Eastern Heads Cave 1, perched 23 meters above today’s sea level along South Africa’s southern coast, we have an unprecedented glimpse into how humans adapted to this changing world at the close of the Ice Age.

A window into a changing world

Led by Dr. Naomi Cleghorn from the University of Texas, excavations at Knysna began in 2014 and have revealed that people used the cave repeatedly over the past 48,000 years. During the Ice Age, the coastline lay some 75 kilometers further out to sea — where the vast Palaeo-Agulhas Plain stretched to the horizon.

When sea levels dropped and the climate cooled, people who once foraged for shellfish turned their attention inland, relying more on hunting and land-based resources.

In a recent study, my colleagues and I examined stone tools from this site dating to around 19,000–18,000 years ago. These tools tell a story not only of survival but of innovation, learning, and connection among communities spread across southern Africa.

The Robberg tradition

The tools we found belong to what archaeologists call the Robberg Industry — one of southern Africa’s most distinctive Ice Age technologies. These small, sharp stone bladelets were likely parts of composite hunting weapons, such as barbed arrow tips used to bring down migrating game on the grassy plains below.

The Robberg toolkit appears across South Africa, Lesotho, and Eswatini, showing that people were sharing ideas and techniques across vast distances — much like how knowledge spreads today.

Most of the Knysna tools were crafted from locally available quartz, prized for its sharp edges despite its tendency to fracture unpredictably. Intriguingly, some tools were made from silcrete — a material that had to be heat-treated to improve its flaking quality. This indicates sophisticated craftsmanship: heat-treating silcrete for toolmaking is a skill South Africans have mastered since at least 164,000 years ago.

However, silcrete isn’t found near Knysna. The closest sources are in the Outeniqua Mountains, over 50 kilometers inland. Whether the cave’s occupants traveled these distances themselves or traded with other groups remains an open question.

A temporary Ice Age camp?

Compared to other sites, Knysna Eastern Heads Cave 1 holds relatively fewer tools in the younger layers, suggesting that people may have used the cave as a short-term shelter rather than a permanent home during the harshest Ice Age conditions.

Did they stop here while tracking game herds across the plains? Or gather here seasonally to share food, stories, and knowledge? Stone tools alone can’t answer all our questions, but they are invaluable pieces of the puzzle.

Echoes of humanity’s deep past

What’s clear is that Ice Age humans were not so different from us. They used complex tools, shared skills over great distances, made art and music, and connected with other communities — even as glaciers dominated far-off continents.

Sites like Knysna Eastern Heads Cave 1 remind us that our human story is one of resilience, innovation, and connection that stretches back tens of thousands of years.

Peru Gas Workers Uncover 1,000-Year-Old Mummy in Lima

A team of Peruvian gas workers has stumbled upon an ancient burial while laying pipes in Lima — unearthing the remarkably preserved mummy of a young boy believed to be over 1,000 years old.

The discovery was made earlier this week in the Puente Piedra district, a bustling neighborhood in northern Lima. According to Jesús Bahamonde, scientific coordinator for Calidda, the gas company overseeing the project, workers first encountered the trunk of a huarango tree — a native species once used by ancient cultures as a tomb marker — buried just half a meter below the surface.

At a depth of 1.2 meters, the team uncovered the mummified remains of a boy estimated to be between 10 and 15 years old. The burial is thought to date from between 1000 and 1200 CE.

“The remains were found in a seated position, with arms and legs bent, wrapped in a funerary shroud alongside calabash gourds,” Bahamonde said. Ceramic plates, bottles, and jugs decorated with geometric motifs and depictions of fishermen were also found beside the mummy.

Archaeologists have identified the burial as belonging to the pre-Inca Chancay culture, which flourished along Peru’s central coast from the 11th to the 15th centuries.

In Peru, utility companies are required to employ archaeologists when digging in urban areas due to the country’s rich buried heritage. Since 2004, Calidda alone has reported more than 2,200 archaeological finds.

Lima, once a hub for various ancient cultures long before the rise of the Inca Empire, is home to over 500 registered archaeological sites, including dozens of ancient cemeteries known as huacas in the Indigenous Quechua language.

This latest find is another reminder that beneath Peru’s modern capital lie countless hidden chapters of its deep past, waiting to be uncovered — sometimes by the most unexpected of digs.

Ancient Tel Dan Sanctuary Sheds New Light on Phoenician Ritual Bathing Traditions

A newly published study by Dr. Levana Tsfania-Zias in the journal Levant has unveiled fascinating insights into how ancient Phoenicians may have incorporated ritual bathing into their religious practices at the sacred sanctuary of Tel Dan — a site that flourished for nearly 500 years.

A Sanctuary on the Edge of the Jordan

Tel Dan, perched atop a massive Middle Bronze Age rampart about 12 kilometers from modern Qiryat Shemona in northern Israel, has long intrigued archaeologists. First excavated by Avraham Biran from 1969 to 1994 and later by David Ilan and Yifat Thareani for the Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology at Hebrew Union College in Jerusalem, the site has yielded clues about ritual life stretching from the Hellenistic to the Roman periods.

At its heart stands a temple with a rectangular plan: an entrance porch, a central cella (main worship hall), and an adyton (the most sacred inner chamber).

During a 1976 excavation season, a carved limestone slab inscribed in Greek and Aramaic was unearthed. It reads: “To the God who is in Dan, Zoilos made a vow. In Dan(?) a vow of Zilas to God.” While scholars still debate the deity’s identity — some linking it to the Israelite god, others to an unknown local divinity — it is clear that worship here involved acts of ritual cleansing, a hallmark of Phoenician and wider Near Eastern religious traditions.

Ritual Bathing: A Rare Glimpse into Phoenician Purity Rites

After the Seleucid conquest and the destruction of the original temple, a new sanctuary rose on the same site. This iteration included a carefully designed bathing unit: a two-part space consisting of a yellow-plastered dressing area and a blue-plastered basin room.

Interestingly, the basin was too small for full immersion and lacked heating features like a hypocaust, suggesting that priests performed cold water ablutions while standing. The unit’s discrete entrance, which bypassed the public porch and led directly into the cella, supports the idea that it was reserved for the temple’s priestly elite rather than ordinary worshipers.

However, centuries later — during the Middle to Late Roman period (late 1st to early 4th centuries CE) — the temple’s function evolved. A new “Fountain House” was added, transforming the site into a place of pilgrimage. Pilgrims could now perform ritual washing before entering the sacred space. Excavations revealed plain local clay vessels, likely purchased by visitors for these purification rites and intentionally broken afterward — a practice also echoed in biblical traditions.

A Local Sanctuary with Wider Reach

Dr. Tsfania-Zias emphasizes the dual character of the Tel Dan sanctuary: “I believe it primarily served the local community,” she says. “However, the discovery of imported ceramics and the inscribed dedication suggest it also drew worshipers from farther afield.”

While this study sheds new light on local ritual purity customs, many questions remain unanswered. How did these practices compare to bathing traditions at other Phoenician sites where specific gods are known? For now, Dr. Tsfania-Zias notes, “We have a gap in the comparative data. Future excavations in Area T may help us learn more about the beliefs and daily practices of the community that worshiped here.”

Tel Dan continues to stand as a vital window into the intertwined worlds of ritual, identity, and sacred space in the ancient Near East.

Proposed reconstruction of the ritual bathing unit in the Tel Dan sacred precinct. Credit: D. Porotsky; courtesy the Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology, Hebrew Union College, Jerusalem

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Ice Age Shelter High in Australia’s Blue Mountains Reveals 20,000 Years of Aboriginal Heritage

High in the rugged ridges of the Blue Mountains, archaeologists have uncovered remarkable evidence that Aboriginal people not only traversed but lived in this icy high-altitude country during the last Ice Age — more than 20,000 years ago.

Perched at 1,073 meters above sea level, Dargan Shelter is a dramatic rock alcove that once overlooked treeless, snow-swept slopes. At first glance, the harsh, frozen landscape might seem inhospitable. Yet new findings, published in Nature Human Behaviour, reveal that this site was a vital refuge — visited and inhabited again and again during the Pleistocene cold snap.

Australia’s Oldest High-Altitude Human Occupation

Our excavations at Dargan Shelter provide the earliest known evidence of people living at high elevations anywhere in Australia, cementing the Blue Mountains as the continent’s most archaeologically significant periglacial (seasonally frozen) environment.

This Country holds deep cultural significance for Aboriginal communities, woven with stories and ancestral ties handed down through countless generations. As we worked at the site, we remained mindful that we were not just uncovering stone and soil — we were sitting with our Ancestors, continuing an unbroken relationship with this land.

Before digging began, a lyrebird song and dance ceremony was held to pay respects. In a moment that felt like a bridge between worlds, real lyrebirds gathered at the cave’s entrance, their calls echoing through the shelter as if singing in answer to the past.

A Critical Stop on Ancient Pathways

Dargan Shelter sits along a known Aboriginal traveling route through the high country. Deep, undisturbed sediment layers preserved cultural objects exactly where ancient hands left them, allowing us to trace human movement and life through time.

Inside, we unearthed 693 stone artifacts — with 117 flakes dating back more than 16,000 years — and faint rock art, including a child-sized hand stencil and two forearm prints. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal hearths shows continuous use of the shelter between 22,000 and 19,000 years ago.

Most stone tools were crafted from local rock, but some originated as far away as the Jenolan Caves (50 km southwest) and the Hunter Valley (150 km north). This suggests that people journeyed from distant lands, gathering here for trade, ceremony, or shelter during seasonal travel.

Among the remarkable finds:

• A sandstone grinding slab, dated to 13,000 years ago, likely used to shape bone or wooden tools such as awls or nose points.

• A basalt anvil, bearing the marks of cracking tough seeds and nuts, dated to about 8,800 years ago.

A World Heritage Landscape of Living Culture

While the Greater Blue Mountains were recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2000 for their rich biodiversity, a parallel bid to list the area for its cultural significance fell short due to limited archaeological evidence.

This new research strengthens the case for acknowledging the region’s cultural heritage alongside its natural wonders. The Blue Mountains are far more than dramatic cliffs and eucalyptus forests — they are living Country, a testament to the resilience, knowledge, and traditions of Aboriginal people who have thrived here for millennia.

A Global Chapter in the Ice Age Story

This discovery places Australia alongside other parts of the world where humans adapted to high-altitude, cold-climate living during the last Ice Age — from mountain sites in Mexico to ancient refuges in Spain.

As new layers of evidence emerge, Aboriginal communities connected to the Blue Mountains gain opportunities to reclaim and strengthen cultural knowledge, weaving back stories and histories once disrupted by colonization.

Each artifact, each hand stencil, and each hearth we uncover deepens our understanding of how people endured, adapted, and celebrated life in this dramatic high country. Protecting and respecting these places ensures that this story — our story — remains strong for future generations.

Unique Ancient Lotus-Shaped Stone Pool Complex Unearthed in Astara, Azerbaijan

Archaeologists have uncovered a remarkable ancient stone pool complex, ingeniously shaped like a lotus flower, within the historic Alishah fortress in Azerbaijan’s Astara district.

According to Caliber.Az, the discovery dates back to between the 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE, making it an exceptionally rare find for the region. The National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan (NAS) confirmed the breakthrough, following extensive excavations carried out by experts from the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology.

The newly unearthed structure consists of interconnected stone pools arranged in a quatrefoil — or four-leaf clover — design, echoing the symbolic form of a lotus blossom. Such sophisticated water architecture is unprecedented in Azerbaijan and represents an invaluable addition to the nation’s archaeological record.

“This is the first complex of its kind discovered on Azerbaijani soil,” the Academy noted, highlighting its considerable scientific and historical significance.

Similar pool designs have so far been documented only among ancient civilizations of the Near East, Iran, and the Mediterranean. This unexpected find not only sheds light on ancient water management techniques in the South Caucasus but also suggests possible cultural exchanges with distant regions renowned for advanced hydraulic engineering.

Further studies are planned to examine the site in detail, with researchers hopeful that the discovery will deepen our understanding of the ancient settlements that once thrived in this part of Azerbaijan.

Stunning 12-Ton Assyrian Relief Unearthed in Iraq Reveals a Legendary King Among the Gods

Stunning 12-Ton Assyrian Relief Unearthed in Iraq Reveals a Legendary King Among the Gods

The king stands flanked by mighty deities and mythical guardians — a vivid testament to ancient Mesopotamia’s divine kingship.

Buried beneath centuries of earth in the ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh, archaeologists from Heidelberg University have made one of the most remarkable discoveries in the region in decades: a massive stone relief measuring five meters long and weighing about 12 tons.

But it’s not just the sheer size that makes this find extraordinary — it’s who it depicts. Carved in stone stands Ashurbanipal, the last great king of the Assyrian Empire, flanked by the gods Ashur and Ishtar, powerful figures at the heart of Mesopotamian belief.

Behind them is a fish-cloaked figure — a so-called “fish genius” — believed to embody protection and life. Just beyond stands another enigmatic figure, arms lifted in a gesture that archaeologists interpret as prayer or invocation. This figure may have originally represented a scorpion-man, a mythic guardian of the divine realm in Mesopotamian lore.

“While Assyrian palaces are famed for their intricate reliefs, depictions of major deities have never been found until now,” says Aaron Schmitt, professor at Heidelberg University.

A Throne Room Like No Other

This monumental find is part of the Heidelberg Nineveh Project, a collaboration between Heidelberg University and Iraq’s State Board of Antiquities and Heritage. Since 2018, under the leadership of Prof. Dr. Stefan Maul, the team has been working to uncover and understand layers of Nineveh’s lost grandeur. Schmitt’s excavation, begun in 2022, zeroes in on the heart of the palace — once the seat of one of the ancient world’s greatest empires.

At its peak, the Assyrian Empire stretched from the Persian Gulf to Egypt, ruling through formidable military might, advanced bureaucracy, and lavish cultural expression. But by the late 7th century BCE, Nineveh lay in ruins, its palaces torched, its gods cast down. Rediscovered by British explorers in the late 19th century, its famed reliefs now fill the halls of the British Museum.

“The reason these fragments remained hidden is simple — they were buried under layers that 19th-century explorers never reached,” Schmitt explains.

This time, however, the relief will stay in Iraq. Plans are underway for the sculpture to be displayed locally, allowing the public to reconnect with this monumental chapter of their heritage.

Reassessing a Complex King

The discovery comes at a moment of renewed dedication to safeguarding Mesopotamia’s endangered archaeological legacy, threatened for decades by war, looting, and neglect.

It also breathes new life into the story of Ashurbanipal — a ruler remembered as both ruthless conqueror and enlightened patron of knowledge, famously credited with building the world’s first systematically organized library.

His portrayal alongside supreme gods is more than royal propaganda. Scholars believe it reflects the Assyrian idea that mortal rule and cosmic order were inseparable: the king’s authority was an extension of divine will.

A Window Into a Lost World

Aaron Schmidt.

As the fragments are unearthed and digitally reconstructed, researchers are piecing together every symbol, figure, and gesture to understand how ancient Assyrians saw themselves and their gods. A detailed 3D model is already underway, promising to bring this forgotten masterpiece back to life for a new generation.

In a time when so much of Mesopotamia’s heritage has been endangered or lost, this stunning relief offers not just a glimpse of a vanished empire — but a powerful reminder of humanity’s timeless urge to tell our stories in stone.

Pembrokeshire: Ancient Stone Circle Damaged by Vandals

A 4,000-year-old Bronze Age stone circle in the Preseli Hills has fallen victim to vandalism, prompting heightened surveillance at one of Pembrokeshire’s most treasured heritage sites.

The recent acts of illegal digging at Gors Fawr have caused serious damage around the base of several standing stones, sparking alarm among conservationists and heritage authorities. Costly specialist repairs are now required to stabilise and protect the monument.

Tomos Ll. Jones, Community Archaeologist for the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Authority, described the situation as deeply troubling:

“Gors Fawr is a Scheduled Ancient Monument, legally protected due to its national importance. This damage threatens the structural integrity of the stones and shows a profound disrespect for thousands of years of history. Damaging a Scheduled Monument is a criminal offence. Sites like Gors Fawr have stood since before written history — safeguarding them is not optional; it’s our shared duty.”

(PCNPA)

In response to the incident, surveillance measures have been stepped up to deter further damage and help bring those responsible to justice.

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Giant Ancient Walls and 450 Lead Projectiles Unearthed — Echoes of a Legendary Siege

A newly discovered stretch of ancient fortifications and relics from a legendary siege have confirmed dramatic episodes from the Punic Wars, according to archaeologists working in southern Italy.

In the town of Cupa, near Ugento at the southeastern tip of Italy, excavations have brought to light massive walls from the ancient city of Messapia, along with remnants of a brutal siege carried out by Roman forces. During the Second Punic War, in the late 3rd century BCE, Messapia sided with Hannibal, prompting Rome to lay siege to the rebellious city.

The excavation project, led by Dr. Giuseppe Scardozzi from the Laboratory of Archaeological Cartography at the CNR ISPC, ran from April 7 to June 6, 2025.

Researchers uncovered over 170 meters of ancient defensive walls, including a remarkably well-preserved corner bastion. In addition, more than 450 lead sling bullets and nine iron arrowheads were unearthed — clear evidence of Roman siege weaponry.

Findings confirm that the walls were initially constructed around the mid-4th century BCE and expanded decades later to reach an impressive width of about seven meters at their strongest points. The original fortifications consisted of a limestone and soil core, known as emplecton, flanked by two layers of dried limestone sandstone. In the early 3rd century BCE, with Rome’s growing power, an additional outer and inner layer reinforced the walls to strengthen the city’s defenses.

One of the arrowheads that was discovered (Photo: CNR Institute of Cultural Heritage Sciences SABAP LE).

The Best-Preserved Bastion and Surviving Sections
The best-preserved stretch lies between S. Francesco and Bolzano streets, featuring a bastion still standing at 1.80 meters tall. Another area near the junction with Giannuzzi Street preserves three to four rows of stone masonry.

Lead ‘Bullets’ and Ancient Catapults
Yet, these sturdy fortifications ultimately fell to Rome’s military might. Near the corner of the wall, archaeologists found a layer packed with lead sling bullets known as ghiande missili — literally “lead acorns” — which Roman troops used for short-range attacks. Among these were also arrowheads fired from “scorpios,” an early version of the catapult, indicating a heavy bombardment during the siege.

The Beginning of the End
The defeat of the Messapians, who allied with Hannibal, marked the beginning of the wall’s decline. By the 2nd century BCE, sections were systematically dismantled to repurpose the stones for new buildings — a practice that gradually reduced the once-formidable fortifications to a humble quarry. This reuse pattern, familiar from previous digs, was confirmed once more at Cupa, where clear signs of stone removal are visible on collapsed wall faces.

Combining Tradition and Cutting-Edge Technology
This project merges classic excavation techniques with advanced technologies. Geophysical surveys conducted in 2024 by Dr. Giovanni Leucci’s team at CNR-ISPC’s Geophysics Laboratory in Lecce guided the placement of trial trenches that ultimately revealed these remarkable finds.

One of the ancient Roman lead projectiles (Photo: CNR Institute of Cultural Heritage Sciences SABAP LE).

Unlocking New Clues to the Punic Wars
All materials are now under careful study and are expected to shed new light on this pivotal chapter of the Second Punic War — a conflict during which Rome relentlessly crushed rebellious cities across southern Italy, reshaping the balance of power in the entire Mediterranean.

While experts continue to analyze the artifacts, the Ugento city council, which renewed its research partnership with the CNR in February, is taking steps to turn the site into a museum and educational center dedicated to the war that transformed the ancient world.

The United States has attacked three Iranian nuclear sites!

In a post on his social media platform Truth Social, Trump announced the apparent military strike.

The US President wrote: "We have completed our very successful attack on the three Nuclear sites in Iran, including Fordow, Natanz, and Esfahan.

"All planes are now outside of Iran air space. A full payload of BOMBS was dropped on the primary site, Fordow. All planes are safely on their way home.

"Congratulations to our great American Warriors. There is not another military in the World that could have done this. NOW IS THE TIME FOR PEACE!"

pic.twitter.com/wu9mMkxtUg

— Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) June 21, 2025

The Worship of Ereshkigal, the Queen of the Underworld

In the ancient pantheon of Mesopotamia — one of humanity’s oldest civilizations — few deities were as fearsome and enigmatic as Ereshkigal, the Queen of the Underworld. Revered yet dreaded, she ruled the shadowy realm of the dead with absolute authority, embodying the finality and inescapability of death in a culture deeply concerned with life’s fragility and the afterlife’s mysteries.

Who Was Ereshkigal?

Ereshkigal’s name means “Lady of the Great Earth,” reflecting her dominion over the subterranean world where the dead reside. Unlike many deities who had multiple roles, Ereshkigal was singularly associated with death and the land of no return. She governed Kur (or Irkalla), the Mesopotamian underworld, an ashen, dusty place where all souls — noble and common alike — drifted after death.

As the supreme ruler of this gloomy realm, she was both a feared judge and an essential part of cosmic balance. Her power kept the dead contained and preserved the boundary between the living and the departed — a boundary that, if crossed, threatened disorder and chaos.

Ereshkigal and the Myth of Inanna’s Descent

One of the most compelling stories in Sumerian and Akkadian mythology is the myth of Inanna’s Descent to the Underworld — a narrative that vividly highlights Ereshkigal’s might and her tense relationship with her sister, Inanna (known later as Ishtar).

In this myth, Inanna, the radiant goddess of love, fertility, and war, decides to descend to the Underworld, ostensibly to attend the funeral rites of Ereshkigal’s husband, Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven. However, some interpretations suggest that Inanna sought to extend her power over death itself.

Upon her arrival, Inanna must pass through seven gates, removing a piece of her divine regalia at each, until she stands naked and powerless before Ereshkigal. In this stark confrontation, the Queen of the Underworld judges Inanna, strikes her dead, and hangs her lifeless body on a hook — a chilling reminder that no one, not even the most exalted goddess, can defy death’s dominion.

Inanna’s eventual resurrection hinges on intervention from the other gods, showing that while Ereshkigal’s power is immense, cosmic balance required the return of life to the world above.

Ereshkigal’s Role in Mesopotamian Religion

Unlike gods of the heavens or the fertile earth, Ereshkigal was not a deity people petitioned for blessings in daily life. She received appeasements and rites to ward off her wrath and ensure that the dead remained content in her realm. Tomb inscriptions, funerary offerings, and protective incantations often invoked her name to safeguard the passage of souls and prevent restless spirits from disturbing the living.

Her underworld court included fearsome figures like Namtar, her loyal vizier and messenger of death, and a host of demons who enforced her decrees. Through them, she upheld the unyielding laws of mortality that governed the Mesopotamian understanding of life and death.

Symbolic Meaning and Cultural Legacy

Ereshkigal represents the inevitable, impartial reality of death and the shadows that lie beyond human comprehension. Her mythic opposition with Inanna illustrates a deep Mesopotamian theme: the tension between life’s generative forces and the relentless finality of death.

Where Inanna is vibrant and life-affirming, Ereshkigal is somber and immutable. Together, they embody a cosmic duality — creation and decay, desire and loss, birth and burial — each vital to the order of the universe.

Conclusion

While less celebrated than her sister Inanna, Ereshkigal’s role in Mesopotamian mythology is profound and hauntingly human. She personifies a truth all ancient peoples faced: that no matter one’s power, beauty, or glory, death is the ultimate equalizer.

In worship and in myth, Ereshkigal’s shadowy domain reminded the living of their mortal limits and the sacred duty to honor both life and death — a legacy that still echoes in the study of one of humanity’s earliest civilizations.

The Role of the Hoplites in Ancient Greek Warfare

In the annals of ancient military history, few figures are as emblematic of civic pride and collective defense as the Greek hoplite. These heavily armed infantrymen were the backbone of Greek city-state armies from the 7th to the 4th century BCE, embodying a unique fusion of citizen and soldier. Their discipline, tactics, and social significance shaped not only the battlefields of antiquity but also the very structure of Greek society and politics.

Who Were the Hoplites?

The word hoplite derives from hoplon, meaning the round shield each warrior carried. Unlike professional soldiers, hoplites were primarily free male citizens — farmers, artisans, and landowners — who trained to defend their polis (city-state) when called upon. This citizen-army model reinforced a powerful civic identity, blending martial duty with democratic participation.

Equipped with a bronze helmet, breastplate (thorax), greaves, and the iconic shield (aspis), hoplites wielded a long spear (doru) and a short sword (xiphos) for close combat. Their armor was heavy and costly, meaning that serving as a hoplite was both a privilege and a sign of one’s social standing.

The Phalanx: Tactics and Discipline

The defining feature of hoplite warfare was the phalanx, a tight formation of ranks and files that advanced as a single armored wall. Each hoplite’s shield protected not only himself but also his neighbor’s exposed side, creating an interlocking defense that demanded trust and cohesion.

This formation relied less on individual heroics and more on collective discipline. Battles were often brutal pushing matches — the infamous othismos — where success depended on maintaining unity and morale.

Hoplite tactics emphasized shock combat: lines would clash head-on in open fields, seeking to break the enemy phalanx through sheer force and resolve. While seemingly simple, this demanded years of drill and a strong sense of mutual responsibility. A single weak link could collapse the formation and doom the entire army.

Training and Citizen Duty

Though hoplites were not professional soldiers, training was a vital part of a Greek male’s upbringing. From youth, boys were taught basic weapons handling and the ideals of bravery, discipline, and loyalty to the polis. Many city-states, most famously Sparta, took this to an extreme with rigorous military education.

For most Greek men, however, hoplite service was intermittent: they farmed their lands in peacetime and marched to war when summoned by their leaders. This dual identity strengthened civic bonds — to fight bravely was to safeguard one’s home, family, and political freedoms.

Political and Cultural Impact

The rise of hoplite warfare transformed Greek society. In earlier eras, aristocratic cavalry and individual champions dominated the battlefield and the social order. The hoplite phalanx, by contrast, leveled the playing field. It empowered the middle class — the small landholders who could afford armor — and anchored early democratic reforms in city-states like Athens.

Moreover, the phalanx nurtured ideals of equality and solidarity among citizens. On the battlefield, aristocrats and commoners alike stood shield-to-shield, equally vulnerable and equally responsible for victory or defeat.

Legacy

By the 4th century BCE, changes in tactics, the rise of professional mercenaries, and the influence of Macedonian innovations like the longer sarissa spear gradually supplanted the traditional hoplite. Yet their influence endured.

The hoplite phalanx symbolized the power of collective action and civic responsibility — a vision of warfare where the defense of freedom rested not on kings but on the courage and unity of ordinary citizens. This legacy remains one of ancient Greece’s most enduring contributions to military history and democratic thought.

The hoplite was more than just a warrior; he was a living testament to the idea that freedom must be defended by those who cherish it most — the citizens themselves.

The Myth of the Kappa, the River Demon of Japan

Among the many supernatural creatures that populate Japanese folklore, the Kappa stands out as one of the most curious and enduring. Known as a river demon or water sprite, the Kappa (河童, literally “river child”) is both feared and mischievously admired in the folklore of rural Japan. Its legend reflects deep cultural beliefs about nature, water spirits, and the thin line between prankster and monster.

The Appearance and Nature of the Kappa

Traditionally depicted as a child-sized creature with green, scaly skin, webbed hands and feet, and a turtle-like shell on its back, the Kappa is instantly recognizable by the small depression or dish (sara) on top of its head. This dish holds water — the source of the Kappa’s life force and power.

The Kappa’s duality is at the heart of its myth: it is a trickster that delights in causing trouble, yet it also plays an important role as a water spirit, enforcing respect for rivers, ponds, and irrigation canals.

Pranks and Perils

Kappa are notorious for their pranks. In old stories, they hide in rivers waiting to startle horses, drag unsuspecting swimmers underwater, or even challenge humans to sumo wrestling matches. While many of their tricks are harmless mischief, some tales turn darker, warning that Kappa can drown people, particularly children, and are said to crave shirikodama — a mythical ball believed to reside inside a person’s anus, which the Kappa tries to extract.

These cautionary tales served as a way to instill fear and respect for dangerous bodies of water, keeping children away from deep rivers and ponds where drowning accidents were a real threat.

Appeasement and Trickery

Despite their unsettling habits, Kappa can be outwitted. Japanese folklore offers clever methods for dealing with them. Because Kappa are obsessed with politeness, they cannot resist bowing back if bowed to. This simple act causes the water in their head-dish to spill, rendering them powerless and forcing them to retreat or beg for mercy.

People would also leave cucumbers — said to be the Kappa’s favorite food — as offerings to appease them and protect swimmers and livestock. To this day, the cucumber roll (kappa maki) in sushi restaurants pays playful tribute to this part of the legend.

Kappa as Water Deities

Beneath the mischief, the Kappa embodies the complex relationship between humans and nature. They are an expression of the vital but dangerous power of water, personifying both its life-giving and destructive qualities. In some regions, Kappa were even worshipped as minor water deities, and villagers would pray to them for rain, abundant harvests, or protection from floods.

Over time, the terrifying aspects of the Kappa softened, evolving into more comedic figures in popular culture, children’s stories, and mascots. They still appear in festivals and folklore, reminding new generations of the old wisdom: respect nature’s forces, lest they play tricks on you.

From riverbanks to modern media, the Kappa remains one of Japan’s most iconic yokai — a mischievous guardian of the waterways and a timeless symbol of the delicate balance between humans and the natural world they inhabit.

The Worship of Veles, the Slavic God of the Underworld

In the rich and complex tapestry of Slavic mythology, few deities embody such a multifaceted and essential role as Veles. Revered across ancient Slavic lands, Veles was a god of the underworld, cattle, wealth, commerce, and sorcery — a figure whose influence wove together the realms of the living and the dead, the mundane and the mystical.

Veles: Master of Cattle and Wealth

At the heart of agrarian Slavic societies, cattle were a symbol of prosperity and a measure of wealth. Veles was the divine protector of herds and flocks, ensuring their fertility and safeguarding them from disease or theft. Offerings to Veles were common among herders and farmers, who depended on his favor for bountiful pastures and thriving livestock.

His domain over cattle naturally extended to wealth and commerce. In an age when livestock functioned as currency, Veles became the patron of traders and craftsmen. Marketplaces and trade routes fell under his unseen guardianship, and prayers for successful transactions and fair dealings invoked his name.

Lord of the Underworld and the Otherworldly

Veles’ power did not stop at earthly riches — he was also the ruler of the underworld and guardian of the dead. In this role, he presided over the realm of spirits, ancestors, and all that lay hidden beneath the earth, including its waters and treasures. Many Slavic myths depict him as a serpent or dragon-like being coiled around the roots of the World Tree, symbolizing his connection to subterranean and chthonic forces.

This dual aspect — nurturing wealth in the mortal world and reigning over the afterlife — made Veles a liminal figure bridging life and death. Rituals and songs called velicanje honored him during seasonal festivals, particularly at times of transition such as the winter solstice, when the boundary between worlds was thought to be thin.

Rivalry with Perun: The Cosmic Balance

One of the most enduring myths surrounding Veles is his eternal rivalry with Perun, the thunder god and ruler of the sky. This mythological conflict embodies the archetypal struggle between order and chaos, sky and earth. Veles, as a trickster, would steal Perun’s cattle, wife, or treasures, hiding them in his watery or underground domain. In response, Perun pursued him, unleashing thunderbolts until Veles was defeated and order was restored.

This myth played out symbolically in nature — thunderstorms were seen as Perun’s battle against Veles, the bringer of chaos and fertility alike. Their cosmic duel ensured the cycle of rain and growth, keeping the balance that sustained life.

God of Magic and Poetic Inspiration

Beyond his ties to wealth and the underworld, Veles was deeply associated with magic, divination, and poetic art. Shamans and seers, believed to draw their wisdom from his realm, sought his guidance for healing rituals and prophecy. Bards and storytellers also revered Veles as a patron of the spoken word and enchantment, weaving tales that kept the old myths alive through the ages.

Legacy in Slavic Culture

Although Christianization absorbed and transformed many Slavic deities, echoes of Veles survive in folklore and place names. In some regions, he merged with Saint Blaise (Sveti Vlaho), who retained aspects of Veles’ guardianship over animals. His spirit endures in folk customs, rural rituals, and the collective memory of a god who ruled over cattle and commerce yet whispered secrets from the depths of the underworld.

Veles remains a powerful symbol of the ancient Slavic worldview — a god who united earth and underworld, livestock and magic, chaos and wealth, embodying the enduring bond between nature, prosperity, and the unseen forces that shape human life.

The Role of Jade in Ancient Chinese Culture: Stone of Heaven and Symbol of Virtue

In the tapestry of ancient Chinese civilization, few materials held such profound spiritual and social resonance as jade. Known as yu (玉) in Chinese, jade was far more than a beautiful ornamental stone — it was revered as the “Stone of Heaven,” embodying ideals of purity, immortality, moral integrity, and cosmic harmony. For millennia, jade permeated every aspect of life, from ritual and burial customs to imperial authority and philosophical thought.

Jade as a Spiritual Conduit

In ancient China, jade was believed to possess protective and transcendent qualities. As early as the Neolithic period, jade objects — meticulously carved into bi disks and cong tubes — were used in rituals to communicate with heaven and the spirit world. These ceremonial artifacts, often buried with the dead, were thought to safeguard the soul and ensure a smooth passage to the afterlife.

Taoist traditions later embraced jade as a symbol of immortality and incorruptibility. Jade amulets were worn to ward off evil and disease, while jade burial suits — intricate suits of hundreds of jade plaques sewn together with gold or silver thread — were crafted for Han dynasty royalty to preserve the body and spirit eternally.

A Symbol of Moral Virtue

Confucian philosophy elevated jade to a powerful moral metaphor. Confucius himself praised jade for embodying the five cardinal virtues: benevolence (ren), righteousness (yi), wisdom (zhi), propriety (li), and integrity (xin). Its smooth yet strong nature was likened to a gentleman’s character — resilient, unyielding to corruption, yet gentle and harmonious.

This moral symbolism influenced Chinese elite culture deeply. Jade pendants, plaques, and seals became badges of scholarly refinement and high moral standing, signifying that the wearer aspired to the Confucian ideal of the noble person, or junzi.

Jade and Imperial Power

Jade was also inseparably linked to political authority. Jade tablets and ritual scepters, known as gui and zhang, were used in court ceremonies and as emblems of sovereign power. The possession of jade objects signified legitimacy and heavenly mandate, reinforcing the ruler’s divine connection and right to govern.

Ancient texts, such as the Book of Rites (Li Ji), recorded elaborate protocols for presenting jade gifts to emperors and dignitaries. These precious offerings cemented alliances, honored ancestors, and underscored the virtue of the ruling class.

Enduring Cultural Legacy

Even after thousands of years, jade continues to captivate Chinese culture and identity. Its symbolism persists in modern jewelry, art, and ceremonial objects. To this day, jade is gifted at significant life events — weddings, births, and milestone birthdays — to bestow blessings of health, longevity, and harmony.

The ancient Chinese belief that “gold has a price, but jade is priceless” eloquently captures its enduring value: jade transcends material worth to embody the highest ideals of spiritual beauty and moral excellence.

In essence, jade in ancient China was more than adornment — it was a living philosophy, a cosmic link, and a timeless testament to the civilization’s profound reverence for nature, virtue, and the eternal cycle of life.

The Myth of the Wendigo in Algonquian Legends: Starvation, Greed, and a Warning Echoed Through Time

In the vast forests and unforgiving winters of the North American Great Lakes region and parts of Canada, a chilling figure stalks the edges of human consciousness — the Wendigo. This mythic creature, rooted deeply in the oral traditions of Algonquian-speaking peoples such as the Cree, Ojibwe, Innu, and Saulteaux, serves as both a monster and a moral lesson, a supernatural embodiment of hunger, greed, and the violation of communal taboos.

The Origins of the Wendigo

The term “Wendigo” (also spelled Windigo, Wetiko, or Witiko, depending on the dialect) roughly translates to “the evil spirit that devours mankind.” The myth emerges from environments where starvation was an all-too-real threat during long, harsh winters. In these stories, the Wendigo is not just a monster lurking in the woods — it is also the terrifying result of a human who succumbs to the ultimate taboo: cannibalism.

Legends describe the Wendigo as once-human beings transformed by an insatiable hunger for flesh. As they feed, they grow in proportion to their consumption, yet their hunger is never satisfied. Emaciated yet towering, with frost-bitten skin stretched over bones, glowing eyes, and a heart of ice, the Wendigo roams the forests in search of its next victim — often preying on those who wander alone or are isolated by snowstorms.

Starvation and Greed: The Heart of the Myth

The Wendigo myth is more than a tale of horror; it is an allegory for the dangers of selfishness and unchecked appetites. In communities where survival depended on mutual care and strict resource sharing, greed could mean death for the many. The Wendigo, then, embodies the social horror of placing individual survival above collective well-being.

During times of famine, this cautionary tale reminded people that giving in to the desperation of hunger and resorting to cannibalism meant losing one’s humanity and becoming a monster in the eyes of the community — and the spirits.

The Wendigo’s Place in Native American Lore

In Algonquian cosmology, the Wendigo also symbolizes spiritual imbalance. Shamans were often called upon to diagnose and treat what some anthropologists describe as “Wendigo psychosis” — a culturally specific mental disorder in which a person developed an intense craving for human flesh, even when other food was available.

European explorers and fur traders in the 17th and 18th centuries recorded such cases, further cementing the Wendigo in the Western imagination as an eerie symbol of the untamed North American wilderness and the dark side of human survival instincts.

The Enduring Power of the Wendigo

Today, the Wendigo remains a potent figure in popular culture, inspiring horror films, novels, and video games. Yet, beyond its frightening imagery, the legend endures as a powerful reminder of humanity’s capacity for destruction when driven by greed, hunger, or disregard for communal bonds.

In essence, the Wendigo is not merely a beast to fear in the forested shadows, but a timeless warning whispered by the ancestors: respect the balance of nature, care for your community, and beware the monster that can awaken within us all when we consume more than we need.

The Renovated Archaeological Museum of Thira Reopens Its Doors — Atlantea

After years of closure for extensive renovations, the Archaeological Museum of Thira, located in Fira, is finally reopening to the public. Visitors will once again be able to explore its treasures starting Saturday, June 21.

At the heart of the museum’s collection is the renowned Kore of Thira — a rare masterpiece of 7th-century BC Greek sculpture. This extraordinary find came to light unexpectedly in November 2000 during a rescue excavation at the ancient city’s cemetery in southeastern Sellada, led by the late Thiran archaeologist Charalambos Sigalas.

This larger-than-life archaic kore, carved from white Naxian marble and standing an impressive 2.48 meters tall (including its integral base peg), survives almost intact. Only the tip of her nose and the bent right arm resting on her chest are missing. The statue is among the few surviving monumental early Greek sculptures in stone, embodying the timeless kouros and kore archetypes that exemplify the beauty ideals of that era.

The Kore of Thira during its recent exhibition at the Museum of Cycladic Art in Athens

A Rare Glimpse Into Archaic Beauty

During her recent showcase at the Museum of Cycladic Art in Athens, the Kore of Thira captivated audiences with her remarkable state of preservation, offering scholars invaluable insights into the development of the kore type in the late 7th century BC and highlighting her unique artistic value.

Now, the Kore returns to Thira on a new base, free of iron supports, and will be surrounded by her “Cycladic Sisters” — statues and artifacts gathered from islands across the archipelago to celebrate her homecoming.

Following her five-month stay in Athens from December to May, the landmark exhibition Cycladic Women: Untold Stories of the Women of the Cyclades will inaugurate the newly renovated Archaeological Museum of Thira. Organized by the Museum of Cycladic Art and Greece’s Ministry of Culture via the Ephorate of Cycladic Antiquities, the exhibition will run through October 31, 2025.

Cycladic Women: Uncovering Hidden Stories

This exhibition presents Cycladic history through the eyes of its women, spanning from antiquity to the 19th century. It features 180 remarkable artifacts sourced from nearly every museum and archaeological collection in the Cyclades: Amorgos, Andros, Delos, Thira, Ios, Kea, Kythnos, Milos, Mykonos, Naxos, Paros, Serifos, Sikinos, Sifnos, Syros, Tinos, and Folegandros.

The exhibits, dating from early prehistory to the dawn of the modern Greek state, include iconic marble figurines from the Museum of Cycladic Art’s Early Cycladic collection, along with 135 pieces from the Ephorate of Cycladic Antiquities and works on loan from the Kanellopoulos Museum, the Epigraphic Museum of Athens, the Ephorate of Paleoanthropology and Speleology, prominent foundations, and private collections.

A Mosaic of Women’s Lives

© Paris Tavitian – Museum of Cycladic Art

The exhibition aims to shed light on the roles of women in island societies through untold stories — pieced together from written words, material remains, and often through the lens of their male contemporaries. It reveals how insularity shaped women’s roles over time. Deities and mothers, priestesses, courtesans, merchants, warriors, intellectuals, mourners, witches, and migrants — all take center stage. Visitors encounter Cycladic women in both public and private life, exploring their social, political, religious, and familial spheres.

The exhibition’s rich tapestry includes figurines, large-scale sculptures, pottery, jewelry, coins, funerary steles and inscriptions, wall paintings, mosaics, engravings, manuscripts, and icons spanning from prehistory to post-Byzantine times. Among these treasures, three standout pieces are celebrated for their uniqueness and scale: the monumental Kore of Thira, the iconic fresco from Akrotiri on Santorini depicting Women in the Adyton, and the Hellenistic statue of Artemis Elaphibolos from Delos.

Curators and Opening Details

© Paris Tavitian – Museum of Cycladic Art

The exhibition is curated by Dr. Dimitris Athanasoulis, Director of the Ephorate of Cycladic Antiquities; Dr. Panagiotis Iossif, Scientific Director of the Museum of Cycladic Art and Professor at Radboud University in the Netherlands; and Dr. Ioannis Fappas, Assistant Professor of Prehistoric Archaeology at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.

The official opening of the Archaeological Museum of Thira and the Cycladic Women exhibition is scheduled for Friday, June 20 at 7:00 PM and will be accessible by invitation only.

Starting Saturday, June 21, the museum will welcome visitors daily except Mondays. Opening hours are:
Tuesday–Friday & Sunday: 08:30–15:30
Saturday: 09:00–21:00
Admission: €10.

Special Guided Tour on Sunday, June 22

As part of the initiative Santorini 2025: A Year of Supporting and Showcasing Authenticity, the Municipality of Thira invites the public to a special open guided tour of the renovated museum on Sunday, June 22 at 5:30 PM, led by the curators of Cycladic Women: Untold Stories of the Women of the Cyclades.

“We look forward to discovering together the unique stories and faces of the women who shaped the Cyclades!” says the Municipality of Thira in its invitation.

Acropolis Museum: Record Visitor Numbers and the Ongoing Fight for the Parthenon Sculptures

The Acropolis Museum consistently ranks among the world’s most popular museums, welcoming around 2 million visitors through its doors every year, according to figures for 2023–2025.

Visitor Records and a Strong Message

Between early 2023 and the end of 2024 alone, the Acropolis Museum attracted a remarkable 3,904,768 visitors. These figures, shared during a recent presentation of the Museum’s activities over the past two years, also highlighted key milestones from June 2024 to June 2025.

“The numbers are carefully managed,” emphasized the Museum’s Director General, Professor Nikolaos Stampolidis. Visitor flow is kept under control, avoiding the overcrowding problems faced by the Louvre — still the world’s most visited museum. Even during peak tourist season — May through August — daily attendance at the Acropolis Museum rarely exceeds 7,000 people on average, and when it nears 10,000, visitors are smoothly distributed throughout the Museum’s opening hours, from 9 a.m. to 8 p.m.

A Global Favorite

Since opening its doors in 2009, the Acropolis Museum has consistently featured on The Art Newspaper’s annual list of the world’s 100 most visited museums. In 2024, it ranked 33rd globally with 2,000,312 visitors.

View of the Archaic Acropolis Gallery from the second floor of the Acropolis Museum. Photo by Sofia Papastrati.

Although the first half of 2025 is still underway, early figures suggest that this year’s attendance will match or even surpass last year’s numbers, possibly topping 2 million once again.

![View of the Archaic Acropolis Gallery from the second floor of the Acropolis Museum, Photo: Sofia Papastrati]

The Acropolis Museum remains the only Greek museum — and one of the few in Southeastern Europe — included in this prestigious global list. More than just a top tourist attraction, it draws new audiences through a steady program of exhibitions and cultural events, as demonstrated by the success of the NoHMATA exhibition.

Beyond ticketed visitors, the Museum welcomed an additional 10,000 people last year for special events in the “Dimitrios Pantermalis” Auditorium, as well as musical performances in the Museum’s foyer and courtyard.

The Parthenon Sculptures: A Continuing Cause

With renewed attention on the Parthenon Sculptures following London’s Parthenon Project initiative — which included Greek First Lady Mareva Grabowski Mitsotaki — and reports of progress in talks between the Greek government and the British Museum, Professor Stampolidis outlined recent milestones in the ongoing negotiations. These include the successful return of the “Fagan fragment” from the A. Salinas Museum in June 2022, and Greece’s position at the 24th session of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to its Countries of Origin (ICPRCP) in May 2024.

“The Acropolis Museum is the guardian and showcase of the Acropolis and the Parthenon. For that reason, the sculptures must come home.”

He also highlighted key events from 2025, including a special gathering by the Acropolis Friends Association in January and the launch of British author and vocal Parthenon repatriation advocate Sir Stephen Fry’s new book, hosted by Greece’s Ministry of Tourism and the Greek National Tourism Organisation. Additionally, Scottish filmmaker David Wilkinson has produced a documentary on the Parthenon Sculptures, arguing passionately that their return is a matter of moral principle.

The Director-General of the Acropolis Museum, Professor Nikolaos Chr. Stampolidis, during a presentation on the reunification of the Parthenon Sculptures, at the “Dimitrios Pandermalis” Amphitheater, Acropolis Museum. Photo by Studio Panoulis.

Symbolism in a Fragmented World

Professor Stampolidis stressed:

“The Acropolis Museum is not just a museum — it is the home where the Acropolis and Parthenon artworks are protected and celebrated. That’s why the sculptures must return. In a fragmented world — just look around: divided societies, wars, pandemics, economic crises — this reunification stands as a symbolic act, a reminder of how nations and people should relate to one another and to our shared heritage.”

Exhibitions and Cultural Initiatives

A small but meaningful exhibition, The Parthenon and Byron, continues in the Museum’s ground-floor foyer, exploring the removal of the Parthenon’s architectural sculptures by Lord Elgin. Earlier this year, from March to April 2025, a digital version of this exhibition was also displayed on the first floor of Athens International Airport, reaching global travelers.

![Presentation titled "On Health: Tracing a Universal and Timeless Value," European Heritage Days 2024, Photo: Nikos Katsaros]

On June 25, 2024, the Museum officially opened the Excavation Museum, which uses 1,150 carefully chosen artifacts to vividly depict daily life in the ancient neighborhood beneath the site. The Antiquities Collection Department has since documented these items in the Museum’s Collection Management System (MuseumPlus), adding to the digital catalog’s existing 2,264 objects.

From October 18, 2024, to January 26, 2025, the Museum hosted Ancient Civilizations of Basilicata: Treasures Brought to Light, organized in collaboration with Italy’s Directorate General of Museums and the Basilicata Museum Network.

Presentation titled “On Health: Tracing a Universal and Timeless Value,” European Heritage Days 2024. Photo by Nikos Katsaros.

More recently, from May 13 to October 31, 2025, the Museum presents the first part of the trilogy Allspice | Michael Rakowitz & Ancient Cultures. This collaboration with the Ministry of Culture and the NEON Organization showcases works by internationally acclaimed contemporary artist Michael Rakowitz, juxtaposed with artifacts from ancient civilizations of the Middle East and Southeastern Mediterranean.

Visitor Numbers at a Glance

A Celebration of 16 Years

On Friday, June 20, 2025, the Acropolis Museum will celebrate its 16th anniversary. To mark the occasion, the Symphony Orchestra of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens’ Department of Music Studies will perform an open-air concert featuring classical works by Greek composers and beloved film scores, conducted by acclaimed Assistant Professor and internationally renowned maestro Zoe Zeniodi. The concert will begin at 9:00 p.m. in the Museum’s courtyard, with free admission for all visitors.