How the Wheel Was Really Invented: Simulations Reveal the Surprising Origins of a World-Changing Technology

Imagine you're a copper miner in southeastern Europe around 3900 B.C.E. Day in, day out, you drag heavy loads of ore through the sweltering tunnels. It’s grueling work—until one day, you see a fellow miner effortlessly hauling triple the usual load using a strange contraption. Suddenly, everything changes.

What you’ve witnessed isn’t just a handy hack—it’s the beginning of a revolution that will reshape the world.

The First Wheel?

Despite the wheel’s enormous impact on human civilization, no one knows exactly where or when it was first invented. But one compelling theory suggests it all began in the Carpathian Mountains—now part of Hungary—nearly 6,000 years ago. Archaeologists working in the region have uncovered over 150 miniature clay wagons engraved with wicker-like patterns, echoing the baskets used by local mining communities. Radiocarbon dating places them among the earliest known representations of wheeled transport.

This theory raises a fascinating question: How did an obscure, technologically limited mining community invent something that even the mighty Egyptians never managed?

Rethinking the Roller Theory

For decades, scholars assumed that the wheel evolved from simple wooden rollers. But since the 1960s, that idea has faced increasing skepticism. Rollers are hard to use: they need flat, even terrain, and once your cart passes over them, you have to carry them forward again. Not very efficient.

But inside a mine? That’s a different story. In those narrow, human-made tunnels, rollers would have been more practical—enclosed, predictable terrain with fewer variables. That led my team to revisit the roller-to-wheel hypothesis.

Two Breakthroughs That Changed Everything

The evolution from roller to wheel required two key innovations.

First, carts needed to be modified with semicircular sockets to hold the rollers in place, so they could move along with the cart without constantly being repositioned.

Second, something had to change in the shape of the rollers themselves. To explore how this might’ve happened, we turned to computer simulations.

Simulating the Wheel’s Evolution

Using engineering software, we created a program to simulate how rollers might evolve over time. Our goal: to test whether mechanical advantage—a principle that makes tools like pliers more effective—could explain the leap from roller to wheel.

We modeled hundreds of roller shapes, evaluating each for mechanical efficiency and structural strength. Over time, the algorithm gravitated toward a now-familiar form: the wheel-and-axle. It was the optimal solution.

How might this have happened in real life? One possibility is that friction between the roller and its socket caused the contact area to wear down, gradually forming a narrowed axle. Or maybe miners intentionally slimmed the rollers to help carts clear small obstacles. Either way, the changes made pushing easier—and better designs were naturally favored and copied.

Eventually, the rollers became so narrow in the middle and wide at the ends that they took on the basic structure of a wheel: an axle and two disks.

No Moment of Invention—Just Evolution

According to our theory, the wheel wasn’t invented in a single flash of genius. Like natural evolution, it emerged gradually through trial, error, and tiny improvements—refinements passed down through generations of craftspeople and laborers.

Full Circle

Thousands of years later, the invention of radial ball bearings in 19th-century Paris transformed wheeled transportation yet again. Ironically, ball bearings work just like those early rollers: small cylinders that reduce friction by creating a rolling interface between two surfaces.

In this way, the wheel's story has come full circle. Its evolution—much like its shape—follows a looping, continuous path, with no clear beginning or end. Just countless, quiet revolutions.

Unearthing Guac’s Roots: Anthropologist Traces 11,000 Years of Avocado Domestication

We might take our morning avocado toast or side of guac for granted, but beneath that creamy green goodness lies a deep and fascinating story—one that spans more than 11,000 years.

Dr. Heather B. Thakar, an anthropological archaeologist at Texas A&M University, is leading groundbreaking research into the origins of avocado domestication. Her findings, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, reveal how ancient communities in Central America carefully cultivated one of the world’s most beloved fruits—thousands of years before the rise of modern agriculture.

“Our work at El Gigante is revealing how humans adapted and innovated with avocados in response to a changing climate,” said Thakar. “This kind of historical insight can inform how we grow and manage crops today.”

Avocado Origins at El Gigante Rockshelter

Located in the highlands of western Honduras, El Gigante Rockshelter is one of the rare tropical archaeological sites where organic plant material has been remarkably well preserved. For over 11 millennia, the shelter has stored layers of botanical remains—offering researchers a rare look at how humans shaped their ecosystems long before industrial agriculture.

“It’s incredibly rare to find this level of plant preservation in the tropics,” Thakar noted. “The site gives us a nearly continuous record of how people interacted with plants—especially avocados.”

Early in their evolutionary history, avocados served a very different purpose: they were a favorite snack for now-extinct megafauna like giant sloths and mammoths. When these creatures disappeared, humans took over the role of avocado dispersers and stewards. Over thousands of years, ancient farmers began selecting trees that produced larger, fleshier, and more transportable fruits.

By around 7,500 years ago, traditional forest management and seed selection had already led to noticeable improvements in avocado quality. And by 2,000 years ago, domesticated avocados were being cultivated regularly—well before staple crops like maize, beans, or squash became widespread in the region.

Radiocarbon Dating and Deep Time Agriculture

To create a timeline of avocado use, Thakar’s team analyzed hundreds of radiocarbon samples, many directly from avocado pits and rinds. Their data showed a clear trend toward the selection of larger seeds and thicker rinds—hallmarks of domestication.

These findings not only push back the timeline of avocado cultivation, but also highlight how early Mesoamerican communities actively engineered their environments long before written history.

“Avocados offered rich, fatty nutrition and were relatively easy to grow and manage,” said Thakar. “They became an essential part of the human diet and culture in the region.”

El Gigante also contains early evidence of squash and maize domestication, providing an even broader perspective on ancient agricultural innovation. Thakar is currently preparing a separate publication that traces 4,500 years of maize development at the site.

A Site of Global Significance

El Gigante is now recognized as one of the most important archaeological discoveries in Central America in the last four decades. It is currently under review for UNESCO World Heritage status. Thakar and her team are actively working with the Honduran government to preserve and promote the site.

“All of our research supports El Gigante’s UNESCO nomination,” said Thakar. “We’re providing documentation, expert analysis, and historical context to protect this incredible place.”

Despite its relative isolation—which has protected it from looting—the site has experienced minor modern disturbances. Yet its deepest, oldest layers remain intact, preserving vital evidence of ancient human ingenuity.

Lessons for Today’s Agriculture

Thakar’s work isn’t just about the past—it has urgent implications for the future of food. In an era of monocultures and climate uncertainty, the genetic diversity preserved in wild avocados could be key to creating more resilient crops.

“We’re relying too much on cloning in modern avocado farming,” she explained. “By reintroducing ancient varieties and learning from traditional practices, we can create avocados—and agricultural systems—that are better equipped for future challenges.”

As a leading expert in ancient agriculture, Thakar also studies crop domestication and knowledge transmission in southern Mexico, Belize, and Nicaragua. Her work bridges science and the humanities, using tools like radiocarbon dating, stable isotope analysis, and morphometrics to unlock secrets buried deep in the soil.

Why the History of Guac Matters

“Domestication wasn’t a one-time event—it was a long, dynamic process,” Thakar emphasized. “The food we eat today is the result of millennia of human innovation, observation, and experimentation.”

By unearthing the stories behind ancient crops like avocados, researchers like Thakar are not only enriching our understanding of the past—they’re offering practical tools for creating a more secure and sustainable food future.

Ancient Carbon Record Reveals Widespread Human Fire Use 50,000 Years Ago

A new study has uncovered compelling evidence that humans were extensively using fire as far back as 50,000 years ago—much earlier than previously believed.

Fire has shaped Earth’s ecosystems for over 400 million years, influencing habitats, climate systems, and the global carbon cycle. While naturally occurring wildfires have always played a role in shaping the environment, the emergence of humans marked a turning point. Fire was no longer just a natural force—it became a powerful tool.

Yet, the timeline for when humans began consistently using fire to alter their surroundings has remained unclear.

To help resolve this mystery, a team of scientists from the Institute of Oceanology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (IOCAS), in collaboration with researchers from Germany, France, and other Chinese institutions, analyzed a 300,000-year-old sediment core from the East China Sea. Their findings, recently published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, reveal a dramatic shift in fire activity around 50,000 years ago—likely driven by early Homo sapiens.

“Our findings challenge the long-held assumption that significant human impact on fire regimes began only during the Holocene,” said Dr. Zhao Debo, the study’s lead author.

The team focused on pyrogenic carbon—the microscopic remnants of vegetation partially burned in fire. This material, preserved in layers of sediment, acts as a geological fingerprint of ancient fire activity. The core showed a marked rise in pyrogenic carbon starting about 50,000 years ago, indicating a surge in regional fires. Similar patterns have been observed in archaeological records from Europe, Southeast Asia, and the Papua New Guinea–Australia region, suggesting a broader, continental-scale trend.

This period coincides with the rapid global spread of Homo sapiens, who began migrating out of Africa between 70,000 and 50,000 years ago, replacing older human populations across Europe and Asia. As these populations expanded, so did their reliance on fire—not just for cooking, but also for warmth, protection, hunting, and landscape management.

“Even during the Last Glaciation, humans were likely already reshaping ecosystems and altering carbon flows through the use of fire,” added co-author Prof. Wan Shiming.

Beyond its practical uses, fire played a foundational role in the development of human societies. It enhanced nutrient absorption from food, improved survival in harsh climates, and may have accelerated technological and cultural evolution.

The study’s conclusions raise important questions about the timeline of human environmental impact. If early Homo sapiens were already influencing the carbon cycle tens of thousands of years ago, our understanding of pre-industrial climate baselines may be due for revision.

As climate scientists grapple with modeling future change, this research offers a sobering reminder: humans have been shaping the Earth far longer than we once believed.

A 3D-Printed Prosthetic Recreates the Life of a Renaissance Amputee

Technology is never just about mechanics—at its heart, it's about people. A 3D-printed model of a 500-year-old prosthetic hand is helping modern researchers bridge centuries to better understand the lived experience of a Renaissance amputee.

To consider an artificial limb is to consider a life. A prosthetic is a tool built for the body—one that touches, moves, and interacts with the world. Yet surviving historical examples of prosthetics are static, fragile, and stripped of their human context. Time and decay have left them inert, tucked away in museum cases, their users long gone.

These rare artifacts offer one of the few direct connections to the lives of amputees in the 16th and 17th centuries. Written records from amputees of the period are scarce, and those that exist reveal little about what it meant to live with a prosthesis day to day.

Now, historians and engineers are turning to technology to reconstruct those forgotten experiences.

Bringing the Kassel Hand Back to Life

Mechanical prosthetic hands emerged in the early 1500s—a revolutionary moment in the history of disability and medical innovation. But most surviving examples, like the Kassel Hand, are incomplete, nonfunctional, or of unknown origin. Their mechanical function remains poorly understood.

To change that, researchers from Auburn University, in collaboration with mechanical engineer Chad Rose and a team of students, used computer-aided design (CAD) and 3D printing to recreate the inner workings of the Kassel Hand—a 16th-century German iron prosthesis, one of only about 35 known from the period.

Rather than merely speculate on how the device worked, they built it. And tested it.

“We wanted to understand the life of the person who used this hand 500 years ago,” says Heidi Hausse, an early modern historian leading the project.

By printing the hand in lightweight polylactic acid (PLA) plastic, the team made the design accessible for anyone with a consumer-grade 3D printer. But before sharing the model publicly, they needed to see how it held up in real-world conditions.

A Lesson in Fragility

In March, Hausse carried a carefully packed 3D-printed Kassel Hand model to a guest lecture at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. After years of work and excitement, disaster struck just 15 minutes in: the release lever snapped.

This lever, a key component of the prosthesis, locks the fingers in place and triggers their release. Without it, the hand can’t function. Oddly, the break had never occurred during prior testing—even when the model lifted a 20-pound load.

Was it a material flaw? A design oversight? A printing error?

The team turned to their “Hand Whisperer,” a graduate student in mechanical engineering who had assembled the models hundreds of times and knew every nuance of their behavior.

Engineering Insights

For the Hand Whisperer, the break wasn’t shocking.

“I’d seen that lever break many times during quality control,” the student explained. “But never in public use—until now.”

PLA plastic, while easy to work with, lacks the strength of the original iron. The historical lever would have been five times stronger. But the real culprit wasn’t material weakness—it was user error.

Unlike the engineering team, who had developed an intuitive feel for the model over years of handling and testing, new users didn’t know how much pressure was too much. The team hadn’t realized they had unconsciously learned the prosthesis’ limits through practice.

The original user of the Kassel Hand likely had to do the same.

Relearning the Past

This insight reframed the issue. The problem wasn’t the model—it was unfamiliarity.

So the team made a plan:

• The engineers redesigned the model slightly, shortening the release lever’s opening to prevent overextension. Ironically, this tweak made the model more historically accurate, as the larger opening had only been required for earlier prototypes.

• The historians created a short instructional video demonstrating how to operate the hand—how to lock and release the fingers and troubleshoot stuck components.

One week after what they dubbed “The Birmingham Break,” the team tried again—this time with four modified models and a classroom full of students at Auburn.

First, they played the video. Then, they handed over the prosthetics.

Not a single lever broke.

Technology and Touch

The experiment proved a key point: just like its 16th-century counterpart, using the Kassel Hand requires learning, practice, and patience. The user is part of the mechanism.

“Technology isn’t just about design—it’s about people,” the team reflected.
“How they use it, adapt to it, and learn from it.”

This project is more than a reconstruction of a mechanical hand. It’s a reconstruction of experience—a way to understand how a Renaissance amputee might have lived, struggled, and adapted with the help of human-made technology.

More Precise Dating Sheds New Light on Carnac’s Megalithic Monuments Fresh insights into the ancient stone alignments of Brittany

The enigmatic stone alignments of Carnac, located in Brittany, northwestern France, are among the most iconic megalithic monuments in Europe—alongside Stonehenge, the dolmens of Menga, and the prehistoric temples of Malta.

Now, for the first time, archaeologists have been able to date sections of these alignments with remarkable precision, revealing new information about their origins and purpose.

This major breakthrough comes from a French–Swedish collaboration under the NEOSEA research project, led by the University of Gothenburg in partnership with the French excavation firm Archeodunum and the University of Nantes.

“The Carnac alignments now appear to be among the earliest megalithic monuments in Europe. This particular section was built between 4600 and 4300 cal BC,” explains archaeologist Bettina Schulz Paulsson of the University of Gothenburg, who leads the NEOSEA project and is a co-author of the study, recently published in Antiquity.

“We have also confirmed that the Bay of Morbihan is the earliest known megalithic region in Europe.”

More than 3,000 standing stones once stretched across 10 kilometers of landscape, from Carnac and La Trinité-sur-Mer to Erdeven—making it one of the most concentrated and extensive megalithic complexes in a coastal setting.

A key part of the study was the excavation of a previously unexplored site known as Le Plasker, located at the heart of Plouharnel. Conducted ahead of the construction of a 7,000 m² business park, the rescue excavation was led by Audrey Blanchard of Archeodunum, who also serves as a researcher on the NEOSEA project.

Utilizing modern excavation methods and systematic sampling strategies, the team uncovered numerous archaeological features. Nearly 50 radiocarbon dates were obtained from the site, which were then analyzed using Bayesian statistical modeling—a technique that allowed the researchers to create a highly detailed and reliable chronology of the site’s use.

Credit: Bettina Schulz Paulsson

“Thanks to this approach, we’ve been able to reconstruct the site's history with unprecedented chronological precision,” says Schulz Paulsson.

Decoding Carnac’s Prehistoric Landscape

One of the longstanding challenges in dating sites in the Morbihan region is the highly acidic soil, which often prevents the preservation of organic materials such as bone. This has traditionally made radiocarbon dating difficult, and methods like optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) have proven too imprecise to yield useful results.

However, the sheer volume of radiocarbon samples collected—and the application of advanced Bayesian modeling—allowed researchers to overcome this hurdle.

Several alignments of standing stones were dated to between 4600 and 4300 cal BC. Although many of the stones were removed in antiquity or later, their foundation pits remain intact. These pits were found adjacent to hearths and cooking features, suggesting that the act of building the alignments may have been linked to rituals involving fire—whether for lighting, feasting, or cooking remains to be seen.

Additionally, the site yielded the remains of a monumental tomb, dated to around 4700 cal BC, built directly over a Mesolithic hunter-gatherer hut—further underscoring the site’s deep historical significance.

Further analyses of sediments and stone fragments are ongoing and may offer more clues about the ceremonial and social functions of these megalithic constructions.

New Study Debunks Long-Held Myth: Early Andean Farmers Thrived, Not Struggled

Contrary to the long-standing belief that the shift from foraging to farming was driven by desperation and dwindling food supplies, a new study shows that early agricultural communities in the Andean Altiplano were thriving—and innovating—during this pivotal period in human history.

Published in PLOS One, the research led by Luis Flores-Blanco of the University of California Davis and Arizona State University, along with a team of interdisciplinary scholars, sheds new light on the origins of agriculture in the Lake Titicaca Basin of southern Peru and Bolivia.

“Our research shows that the origin of agriculture in the Titicaca Basin was a resilient process,” Flores-Blanco said. “Rather than reacting to crisis, ancient Andean communities actively managed their ecosystems and gradually incorporated domesticated species into their diets.”

A Smooth Transition, Not a Crisis Response

The dominant theory has long portrayed the agricultural revolution as a last resort—an outcome of overpopulation and resource scarcity that forced humans to adopt farming. But Flores-Blanco and his colleagues present a compelling alternative.

By analyzing carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in the bones of 16 individuals buried at the archaeological sites of Kaillachuro and Jiskairumoko, the researchers reconstructed the ancient diets of people living between 5,000 and 3,000 years ago—precisely during the forager-to-farmer transition.

Their findings are striking: 84% of dietary intake came from plants, with the remainder consisting of meat from large mammals. These proportions remained consistent across time, and were nearly identical to both earlier foraging groups and later full-fledged agricultural communities.

In short, the data undermines the idea that early Andean societies turned to farming because they had no other choice.

The Andean Way: Stability, Not Scarcity

Instead of abandoning foraging, these communities blended it with early agriculture. The result was a hybrid economy—one that combined wild food harvesting with gradual domestication of staple crops like quinoa and potatoes, and the sustainable management of camelids such as llamas and alpacas.

“They didn’t just survive—they thrived,” said co-author Luisa Hinostroza. “The Altiplano transition to agriculture was not a response to crisis, but a stable, self-sufficient process that endured for millennia.”

Key to this resilience were cultural and technological advances of the time, including:

• Expanding trade networks

• Innovations in ceramics and archery

• A deep ecological understanding of their local landscape

A Cross-Disciplinary Approach

The study’s conclusions were made possible by integrating methods from isotope chemistry, archaeobotany, and zooarchaeology—including the analysis of macrobotanical remains and statistical dietary modeling.

It adds to a growing body of evidence that challenges outdated views of early agriculture as a desperate measure, offering instead a more nuanced, human-centered view of innovation and sustainability.

“This work is more than just data,” Flores-Blanco noted. “It’s about rewriting history to better reflect the ingenuity and adaptability of ancient Andean societies.”

Ancient Mosaics and Sacred Inscriptions Unearthed in Olympos Excavations

Archaeological excavations in the ancient city of Olympos, located in Türkiye’s Antalya Province, have brought to light intricate mosaic floors and early Christian inscriptions within a 5th-century church. The discovery is part of an ongoing, year-round project supported by the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism.

Once a thriving hub through the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods, Olympos has already yielded an array of monumental structures, including churches, a bishop’s palace, and elaborate tombs. The latest focus is on Church No. 1, where archaeologists uncovered a mosaic inscription at the main entrance of the building. It reads:

“Only those on the right path may enter here,”
offering an enduring spiritual message that once greeted early Christian worshippers.

Inside, additional mosaics were revealed in both the central nave and side aisles. These feature geometric motifs, botanical patterns, and inscriptions naming the patrons who funded the church’s construction—offering a rare glimpse into the social and religious networks of the time.

According to Associate Professor Gökçen Kurtuluş Öztaşkin, excavation director from Pamukkale University, Olympos is proving to be one of Lycia’s richest archaeological sites in terms of mosaic artistry. Similar finds in 2017, 2022, and 2023 further support this designation.

Elsewhere on the site, the team uncovered a 5th-century residence built atop a former Roman necropolis. Following a destructive fire in the 6th century, the building was reconstructed—preserving much of its original layout.

Looking ahead, archaeologists plan to investigate what may be a temple complex at the heart of Olympos. Architectural elements such as finely carved stone blocks and bossage masonry point to a monumental religious structure yet to be fully explored.

Plans for the 2025 excavation season include continued work in the western necropolis, the bishop’s palace, and additional church sites. Researchers anticipate completing excavations in the city’s northern zone within the next two years before expanding their focus to the southern areas of Olympos.

Remarkably Preserved Roman-Era Settlement Unearthed in Alès, Southern France

Archaeologists from Inrap (France’s National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research) have uncovered a stunning Roman-era settlement during excavations on the Hermitage hill overlooking Alès in southern France.

Conducted under the direction of the French Ministry of Culture (Drac Occitanie), the excavation explored a 3,750-square-metre area and revealed traces of uninterrupted habitation spanning nearly five centuries—from the 2nd to the 6th century AD.

A Mosaic Masterpiece

Among the most striking finds is a vividly colored, polychrome mosaic floor, discovered in a 4.5 x 3.8 meter room believed to be part of a substantial Roman residence—possibly a domus, the kind of high-status urban home owned by wealthy families.

The mosaic features a complex geometric design in black and white, with additional tesserae painted in hues of deep red, yellow, and purplish tones. Early analysis suggests the use of cinnabar, a rare and expensive mineral pigment in antiquity, highlighting the affluence and artistic sophistication of the inhabitants.

Adjacent to the mosaic, archaeologists uncovered white-tiled alcove-like spaces that may have supported furniture or served decorative functions. A striking border of white crosses set against a black background likely marked an entrance leading to another part of the home.

Layers of History and Innovation

The residence itself appears to have undergone multiple phases of architectural enhancement. Early floors were constructed from compacted earth, later replaced by lime-based concrete, and ultimately adorned with decorative mosaic elements—reflecting a clear evolution in taste, status, and technology.

One of the most ingenious features of the site is its ancient water management system. Excavators revealed a drainage conduit composed of interlocking fragments of amphorae, carefully laid to direct rainwater away from the building’s foundation—a practical and elegant solution to a timeless architectural challenge.

Sophisticated Roman Engineering

Elsewhere on the site, four dwellings partially carved into the limestone bedrock further demonstrate the advanced engineering techniques employed by Roman builders. Their walls were sealed with clay to prevent water infiltration, and terracotta pipe systems helped drain excess moisture—hallmarks of Roman ingenuity and attention to comfort.

A Glimpse into Late Antiquity

To the south of the site, archaeologists uncovered a small burial ground dating from the mid-5th to late 6th century AD. Ten west-oriented graves, likely used for wooden coffins, were found with few or no accompanying grave goods—a sign of changing funerary customs. Two additional isolated burials nearby suggest that the area continued to serve as a burial site well into Late Antiquity.

Preserving a Piece of Roman Legacy

This remarkable discovery offers invaluable insight into domestic life, architecture, and social evolution during a transformative period in Roman Gaul. As excavation and analysis continue, the site promises to shed further light on how communities in the region adapted across centuries of imperial rule and transition.

The Richest People Who Ever Lived: Global Empires and Business Giants

From ancient emperors to modern billionaires, this exploration uncovers the lives and sources of wealth behind the nine richest individuals in human history.

Throughout history, wealth hasn’t always been measured in coins or stocks—it was often defined by land, resources, influence, and dominion over millions. The accumulation of vast fortunes was closely tied to political power, military control, or groundbreaking economic strategies of the time.

Across continents and centuries, individuals with immense influence managed entire economies as if they were personal assets. Some dominated the world’s earliest markets. These stories not only highlight how much wealth has been concentrated in the hands of a few but also reflect how the concept of power has evolved over time.

The Richest Individuals in History

9. Mir Osman Ali Khan – $230 billion

• Lived: 1886–1967, India (Hyderabad)

• Empire/State: Last Nizam of Hyderabad (1911–1948)

• Wealth Source: Control of the Golconda diamond mines, along with a massive private treasure trove of gold, silver, and jewels

• Region: British India (now India)

8. John D. Rockefeller – $340 billion

• Lived: 1839–1937, United States

• Wealth Source: Founder of Standard Oil; at one point controlled 3% of U.S. GDP through oil monopolization

7. Elon Musk – $366 billion

• Born: 1971, U.S./South Africa

• Wealth Source: Major stakes in Tesla (~58%), SpaceX (~27%), X.AI, and more. He also acquired Twitter and rebranded it as X

6. Mansa Musa – $400 billion

• Lived: 1280–1332/37, West Africa

• Empire/State: Mali Empire (1312–1332)

• Wealth Source: Control of half the Mediterranean’s gold supply and vast salt trade routes across the Sahara

5. Augustus Caesar – $5 trillion

• Lived: 63 BC – 14 AD

• Empire/State: Roman Empire

• Wealth Source: Complete control over state treasury, tax revenues, mines, conquered lands, and Egyptian wealth after annexation

4. Empress Wu Zetian – $16 trillion

• Lived: 624–705

• Empire/State: Tang/Zhou Dynasty

• Wealth Source: State control over taxes, land, and mineral resources; access to some of China's richest provinces

• Country: China

3. Akbar the Great – $25 trillion

• Lived: 1542–1605

• Empire/State: Mughal Empire

• Wealth Source: Dominated trade in silk, spices, and cotton; implemented structured taxation with secure trade routes

• Country: India

2. Emperor Shenzong of Song – $30 trillion

• Lived: 1048–1085

• Empire/State: Northern/Southern Song Dynasty

• Wealth Source: Monetary reforms, centralized taxation, and tight control over the economy—ruled over roughly 30% of the world’s GDP

• Country: China

1. Genghis Khan – $100 trillion

• Lived: 1162–1227

• Empire/State: Mongol Empire (largest contiguous empire in history)

• Wealth Source: Vast conquests across Asia, the Middle East, and Europe; control over land, trade, taxation, and war spoils

Pompeii: A 2,000-Year-Old Ancient Garden Blooms Again

Once, in the heart of Pompeii, there was a lush garden filled with olive trees, roses, and grapevines. At its entrance stood a small Latin inscription that read “Cras Credo”—“Tomorrow, I believe.” But in 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius erupted, covering the garden in volcanic ash and erasing every trace of life from the site.

Now, two millennia later, archaeologists and botanists have brought this ancient space back to life.

The Pompeii Archaeological Park recently unveiled the newly restored "Garden of Hercules," named after a small statue of the mythical hero once found there.

The garden has been replanted with over 1,200 violets, 1,000 butcher’s broom plants, 800 rose bushes, as well as grapevines, cherry trees, and apple trees—each species carefully selected based on the discoveries of botanist Wilhelmina Jashemski, who, in the 1950s, uncovered pollen, seeds, and plant fossils from the area. The goal? To recreate the garden just as it would have appeared before the volcanic disaster.

“In Pompeii, nature and archaeology become one,” said Gabriel Zuchtriegel, director of the archaeological park. “The greenery of Pompeii, which was once seen as a problem in terms of maintenance, is now recognized as an essential element of the archaeological landscape—and of the park’s larger agricultural initiative,” he added.

Located in Regio VIII, Insula 2, the revived garden lies next to a house first unearthed in 1953, with additional excavations completed in the 1970s. Researchers discovered that the home had been rebuilt following a major earthquake in 62 AD. Its owner had acquired the surrounding land, likely intending to use it for agricultural or commercial purposes.

Numerous perfume bottles were also found at the site, offering clues that the garden’s caretakers may have been involved in the production of fragrances. According to researchers, flowers would have been pressed together with olive oil or grape juice, then bottled and sold as perfume.

Equally remarkable was the discovery of an ancient irrigation system. This allowed gardeners to water the plants through a hole in the wall—without even entering the garden. The water then flowed through a network of stone channels that encircled the flowerbeds or collected in clay cisterns strategically placed around the garden.

This irrigation system has now been fully reconstructed in the restored Garden of Hercules, with stone basins and troughs running along the flowerbeds just as they did 2,000 years ago. A terracotta statue of Hercules has also been reproduced and discreetly placed in a corner near an outdoor dining area, helping restore the ambiance of a private Roman garden.

“This was a space with a practical function,” Zuchtriegel told The Times of London, “but it was also truly beautiful.”

With every plant replanted and every ancient detail restored, the Garden of Hercules is more than a revival—it's a living memory of a world lost to time.

Ancient Egyptian Genome Sequenced for the First Time: New Clues About Egypt’s Genetic Past Revealed

A groundbreaking scientific milestone has been achieved as researchers have fully sequenced the genome of an ancient Egyptian individual for the first time (published in Nature). The remains belong to a man buried more than 4,500 years ago, during the Middle Kingdom period, whose skeleton was discovered preserved inside a sealed ceramic pot near Nuwayrat, Egypt.

The extraordinary state of preservation allowed scientists to extract high-quality DNA, providing a rare genetic snapshot of one of the oldest known Egyptians to undergo such detailed analysis. The individual, believed to have been a middle-aged craftsman—possibly a potter—showed clear skeletal markers linked to manual labor.

The genome results revealed that his ancestry was predominantly North African, with approximately 20% genetic contribution from regions of the Fertile Crescent, such as Mesopotamia. This finding supports long-standing historical evidence of interaction between ancient Egypt and neighboring civilizations of the Near East.

Experts consider this development a turning point for bioarchaeology in Egypt, where the harsh climate has often hindered DNA preservation. The success of this project opens the door to future large-scale genetic studies, which may reconstruct the complex population history of ancient Egypt with greater precision. Researchers aim to analyze more individuals from different eras and regions, potentially reshaping our understanding of ancient Egyptian identity and their connections with surrounding cultures.

From Pharaoh’s Curse to Cancer Cure: A Deadly Fungus Offers New Hope Against Leukemia

In a remarkable convergence of ancient history and modern science, a toxic fungus once suspected of causing the mysterious deaths of archaeologists in King Tutankhamun’s tomb is now showing promise as a weapon against leukemia. Aspergillus flavus—a mold long linked to the infamous “pharaoh’s curse”—has revealed a startling potential: it produces compounds that can kill cancer cells in the lab.

The Curse That Sparked Curiosity

When Howard Carter opened Tutankhamun’s tomb in 1922, the world was captivated not only by the dazzling artifacts but also by the legend of a deadly curse. Over the following years, several expedition members died under unusual circumstances, fueling sensational stories of ancient vengeance. But decades later, science provided a more plausible explanation.

Researchers proposed that Aspergillus flavus, a mold thriving in the tomb’s sealed, humid conditions, could have released toxic spores. When inhaled—especially by individuals with weakened immune systems—these spores might trigger severe respiratory infections. Similar outbreaks were documented in the 1970s, when archaeologists exploring the tomb of King Casimir IV in Poland fell mysteriously ill. Though the “curse” made for captivating headlines, the true culprit may have been fungal toxicity.

Now, that same fungus is grabbing headlines again—but this time, for offering hope rather than harm.

A Breakthrough in the Lab

In a study published in Nature Chemical Biology in June 2025, a team of researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, led by Professor Sherry Gao, identified a new class of anti-cancer compounds produced by Aspergillus flavus. These molecules, called asperigimycins, belong to a family of natural products known as RiPPs (ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides).

The team tested four asperigimycin variants and discovered that two significantly disrupted the growth of leukemia cells. The compounds target microtubules—essential structures that cancer cells rely on to divide and multiply. One modified variant, enhanced with a lipid molecule, performed on par with established leukemia drugs like cytarabine and daunorubicin—but with a key advantage: it left healthy cells untouched.

A Targeted Strike on Cancer

The secret to asperigimycins’ selectivity lies in a protein called SLC46A3, which acts like a cellular gateway. This protein is abundant in leukemia cells but far less common in healthy ones, allowing the compound to zero in on its target with precision—unlike traditional chemotherapy, which often harms both cancerous and healthy tissue.

The discovery emerged from a sophisticated screening process. Gao’s team analyzed multiple Aspergillus strains, searching for rare genetic clusters linked to RiPP production. Though the strain they used wasn’t taken directly from King Tut’s tomb, it belongs to the same species—drawing a poetic connection between ancient fears and modern healing.

From Myth to Medicine

While this research is still in its early phases, the implications are powerful. Animal trials and, eventually, human clinical testing lie ahead. If successful, asperigimycins could represent a new class of highly targeted leukemia treatments with fewer side effects.

The story is more than scientific progress—it’s a reminder of nature’s hidden potential. Fungi, often viewed as nuisances or threats, are proving to be unexpected treasure troves of pharmaceutical innovation.

An Ancient Foe Turned Ally

The transformation of Aspergillus flavus from a suspected killer to a possible lifesaver is a striking tale of serendipity and scientific persistence. What began as the legend of a curse in a dusty Egyptian tomb may ultimately contribute to saving thousands of lives around the world.

In the end, the "pharaoh’s curse" might never have been real—but its legacy now includes a glimmer of hope in the fight against cancer.

Meet the Newly Discovered Pocket Shark: Glow in the Dark and Smaller Than Your Hand:

In the inky black depths of the Gulf of Mexico, scientists have uncovered a marvel that feels like something out of science fiction—a tiny, glowing shark no longer than your hand. Meet Mollisquama mississippiensis, the newly discovered species of pocket shark, and only the second of its kind ever recorded.

Measuring a mere 14 centimeters (just over 5 inches), this miniature predator is a master of the deep-sea stealth game. But what truly sets it apart is its eerie glow. The pocket shark possesses specialized bioluminescent glands near its gills that emit a soft light—an adaptation perfectly suited to the pitch-black world it inhabits.

Bioluminescence in marine life isn’t unusual, but the exact reasons this pocket shark glows are still a subject of study. Scientists suggest the glow may serve several purposes: luring unsuspecting prey, mimicking faint sunlight from above to avoid detection, or communicating with other deep-sea dwellers in a language of light.

This dazzling discovery is more than just cute or quirky—it’s a powerful reminder of how little we truly know about Earth’s oceans. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), an estimated 91% of marine species remain undocumented. Each new find like the pocket shark shines a light—literally and figuratively—on the staggering biodiversity still hidden beneath the waves.

The pocket shark is a symbol of mystery, adaptation, and the thrilling potential of deep-sea exploration. As one of the smallest known sharks, it may not look threatening, but its existence challenges our assumptions about life in the ocean’s darkest places. It’s another tiny clue in the grand puzzle of marine evolution—and a perfect example of why the deep sea remains one of Earth’s greatest frontiers.

From its glowing gills to its pint-sized body, the pocket shark is a marvel of nature’s creativity. It invites us to look deeper, wonder more, and remember that even the smallest creatures can make the biggest splash in science.

Spectacular Celebration in Naples: Honoring Their Greek Founders (Photo Gallery)

This year, Naples is not only celebrating their football championship but also their… Greek origins!

Edited by: Sotiris Skouloudis, NEWSBOMB.GR

In a dazzling event attended by thousands of people—an event that certainly rivaled the grandeur of ancient festivities—the people of Naples, as well as those from southern Italy and the broader region once known as Magna Graecia, honored the foundation of their beloved city by the Greeks!

This year's historical reenactment, held for the sixth time, took on special significance as it marked the 2,500th anniversary of the founding of Campania’s capital. Sports and cultural activities also extended to Casamicciola on the island of Pithecusa on June 20, and on June 21 in Dicearchia (modern Pozzuoli) and Cumae.

The highlight was the revival of the two historic torch relays, held for over two millennia in honor of the Siren Parthenope, the mythical symbol and founder of Naples. Businessmen Giuseppe Serroni of the association "I Sedili di Napoli" and Fiammetta Miele passionately revived this ancient tradition—and succeeded.

Watch the spectacular video of the events:

Credits: Dimitris Zisopoulos

The initiative was supported by Italy’s Ministry of Cultural Heritage, the Municipality of Chalkida (Greece), the Municipalities of Naples and Casamicciola on Ischia island, and the Greek Embassy in Italy.

A Journey to the Roots of Naples

On June 20, festivities began on the lush island of Pithecusa—the first landing point of the Greek settlers. The first edition of the "Magna Graecia Hellenic Fest" took place there, featuring over 100 artists in ancient Greek costumes.

On the evening of June 21, the celebration continued with a grand procession through Naples's historic sites—from Castel dell'Ovo to Monte Echia—culminating in the reenactment of the Lampadedromia, the traditional torch-lit procession honoring Parthenope.

In Pozzuoli, the festivities included educational and theatrical workshops, along with the awarding of the "Salvatore Lopresti Prize" to distinguished individuals promoting classicism and reinforcing Greek and Roman identity.

Theatrical performances included ancient Greek plays, under the artistic direction of Angelantonio Aversana: Medea, Odysseus and the Sirens, accompanied by evocative tributes to the sacred fire of Pithecusa (Ischia), Cumae (Kuma, Bacoli), Dicearchia (Pozzuoli), and Parthenopolis (Naples)—the city destined to surpass all others, celebrating the transition from the ancient torch relays to their modern revival.

On June 22, the festivities concluded with the Neapolitan Torch Relay—a 15 km race from Pozzuoli’s Macellum to the islet of Megaride, home to today’s Castel dell'Ovo.

The Greek Origins of Naples

The city that would later become Naples was founded by settlers from Rhodes, who established new colonies along the coast to expand their maritime trade routes.

The city’s founding dates to the 8th century BCE, an era famous for the establishment of numerous cities collectively known as Magna Graecia. In the 7th century BCE, the colony was named Parthenope after the mysterious Siren—whose name means "Maiden." According to scholars, the worship of Parthenope likely predated the arrival of the Greeks from Cumae, who, respecting existing cults, dedicated the new settlement to her.

See the Photographs:

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

Photo Credits: Giancarlo De Luca, Rossella Crugliano

Parthenope, the Siren of Naples

Parthenope embodies many identities, much like Naples itself: she is a protector of harvests and the sea, a shield against Vesuvius’s wrath, a lover of song and music, and a hospitable spirit guarding the bay. She stands as an enemy to tyranny and injustice. Her most vivid and heartfelt memory lives on in the odes of Naples's greatest poetess, Matilde Serao.

The event’s organizers succeeded in reviving the city's oldest expression of devotion to Parthenope—a cult that, despite surviving over 2,000 years of profound social, political, and religious transformation, had disappeared by around 1912.

The Passion for Greek Heritage

As previously documented by Newsbomb.gr site during its travels across Magna Graecia, for many Italians in southern Italy, no form of culture surpasses classical Greek culture. There are no greater playwrights than Aeschylus, Euripides, or Aristophanes; no loftier literary works than Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. The philosophical brilliance of Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, and Parmenides remains unmatched.

These performances transported audiences two millennia back in time, offering rare moments of refinement and profound atmosphere. News of the celebrations honoring Parthenope spread across the world within hours, with millions of views on social media.

Saverio De Florio: "We Feel Greek!"

We asked Saverio De Florio, co-founder of the Magna Graecia Artists Network—alongside Giuseppe Serroni and deputy director of the Naples performances—about the meaning and significance of reviving a tradition lost for over a century.

Saverio emphasized that Greek heritage is the foundation of his homeland and highlighted the immense challenge of reviving ancient popular traditions, which, in his view, gain even greater importance the older they are.

He also stressed the need not to lose the ancient sense of the sacred and of profound meaning, especially in an era dominated by technology. He reminded us of the wise Greek warnings about the dangers of excessive technological advancement, referencing Aeschylus's Prometheus Bound as an allegory of mankind's disastrous attempt to replace the divine. He criticized the modern obsession with technology, no longer seen as a tool but as an ultimate goal—a technology that, according to AI creators themselves, humanity has lost control over, opening dangerous new scenarios that defy natural balance and order.

For Saverio, history—understood as the collective human experience—is a safe haven, offering lessons that, however ancient, remain essential for securing the future. Those without memory, he concluded, have no perspective and no future.

"We Southern Italians Feel Greek"

Saverio concluded:
"The most important thing is to send a strong message: our commitment to honoring the ancient Greek founders of our cities and expressing our love and closeness to Greece. That is what matters most to us. Southern Italians feel Greek, and they proudly demonstrate this by reviving the oldest rituals of their cities—to showcase the greatness, beauty, and sacred spirit of the ancients."

The Contributors to the Event

Saverio explained:
"This dream of formal celebrations had been long-awaited and was realized thanks to nearly a hundred artists from companies representing the oldest and greatest cities founded by the Greeks."

In addition to the participating groups from Sedili di Napoli, Nastazio De Marin, Angela Di Cicco, the Falero Polyphonic Choir and Small Orchestra under Patrizia Fanelli, and the Terra e Lavoro Folk Group, performers filled Parthenope with theater, dance, Greek music, and the ceremonial procession of the Siren’s statue.

Participants included actors, dancers, and musicians from the Nereids of Taranto (led by Clelia Madaro), the Naiads of Metapontion (led by Giuseppe Barberino and Ilde Calvello), the Olympia Dance School of Crotone (directed by four generations of the Blaconà family), the Guardia Krotoniate School (Antonio Parrotta), and the Brettii group (Luigi Rubino).

Artists from Agrigento and Gela joined as well. Honorary guests included performers from Athens, part of the Atrapos and Atthios groups, renowned for their Greek ceremonial performances.

On the return route from Santa Lucia to Castel dell’Ovo, alongside the procession, the commemorative Lampadedromia took place—the ancient torch race once dedicated to Parthenope by the bay's inhabitants to ensure fertility and prosperity.

A Journey Back in Time… 2,500 Years Ago in Ancient Greece is Now Possible!

What if I told you that for the most distant trip you can take, you wouldn’t even need to go to the airport? And no, I haven’t lost my mind.

And what if I told you that the most distant journey you can embark on is… to Athens in 415 BCE(!) with your starting point located on Piraeus Street? What would you think then?

All of this may sound strange, but it’s entirely true. Let’s take it from the beginning. You drive down Piraeus Street, park at the Hellenic Cosmos Cultural Center’s parking lot, and… minutes later, you find yourself 2,500(!) years in the past.

But how is that possible? The answer lies in eXtended Reality.

What is eXtended Reality?

The term eXtended Reality—refers to all real, virtual, and mixed environments and human-machine interactions created by computer technologies and portable devices.

In simpler terms, it resembles virtual reality, but this time, people can interact with each other and with machines within a virtual environment. Moreover, they can move freely through a digitally generated space entirely created by computers.

The use of eXtended Reality (XR) is growing rapidly and is expected to revolutionize various sectors in the coming years—from industry and firefighting to culture and education.

The XR Experience "In the House of Ergocharis"

A Journey to 415 BCE

Our team visited one of the first XR applications in Greece (and among the few in Europe) to experience it firsthand. The program is called BRIDGES.

The process for visitors is very simple. We arrived at the specially designed area within the Hellenic World Cultural Center, received information from program officials, and watched a short instructional video. Then we were ready to experience it ourselves.

The first stage of this time-traveling adventure involved the equipment: a lightweight computer worn like a backpack and classic virtual reality glasses. We were ready to begin.

The moment you put on the glasses, you see your reflection in the mirror—but it’s your "new self." I was no longer Panos; I had become "Apollonios." The figure in the mirror—Apollonios—mirrored my every move.

I then passed through a doorway and magically found myself in the 5th century BCE. Once the other participants joined—Antigone, Linos, Melissa, and Hippias (up to four people can participate in each exploration cycle)—the adventure began.

A Dramatic Night in an Athenian House of the 5th Century BCE

We were now in Athens, 415 BCE. The Peloponnesian War was ongoing, following 15 years of armed conflict with Sparta and its allies. The city was in turmoil.

The Athenians had decided to send a major expedition to Sicily to conquer Syracuse, believing this would give them a strategic base against the Greek cities of southern Italy.

We were invited to the house and workshop of Ergocharis, a renowned potter, where a farewell party had been organized for his son, Euthymachos, who would soon be leaving with the Athenian fleet for Sicily.

Alongside them was Perictione, Ergocharis's wife and Euthymachos's mother. The three of them were the hosts and virtual characters of the story.

The invited guests included the family of Apollonios (me)—a dear friend of Ergocharis and father of Euthymachos's best friend, Linos. Also present were Antigone, Apollonios's wife, and Melissa, their young daughter.

The XR Experience Inside Ergocharis's House

The experience inside Ergocharis’s home was unforgettable. You could explore nearly the entire house, paint amphorae, sit at the same table with the hosts, and even engage in conversation with these people, who lived… 2,500 years ago!

What we saw, heard, and experienced was as historically accurate as possible. The BRIDGES project consulted historians and archaeologists to ensure the 20-minute narrative was based on solid research.

The experience was truly immersive. Beyond the visuals and interactions, XR allowed us to feel elements like wind, warmth, scents, and vibrations—so vividly that, at times, you forgot it was all happening inside a digital simulation and believed you were experiencing it for real.

What is BRIDGES?

The Hellenic World Cultural Foundation, a pioneer in using new technologies and virtual reality to promote cultural heritage, participates in the BRIDGES project:

A hyBRID [physical-diGital] multi-user Extended reality platform as a stimulus for industry uptake of interactive interfaceS.

The BRIDGES solution is based on the Immersive Deck platform developed by Illusion Walk and the Vienna University of Technology. It has been further enhanced into a comprehensive, ready-to-use tool with a wide range of applications to promote interactive technologies across different industries.

For example, BRIDGES can significantly aid firefighter training by providing realistic simulations without the need to rebuild structures or vehicles, reducing costs while enhancing effectiveness.

Firefighters have already begun testing the BRIDGES platform at international airports in Berlin (Flughafen Berlin Brandenburg-BER) and Athens (Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport), both program partners.

BRIDGES in Greece

In the field of culture, the XR platform is being tested at the "Hellenic Cosmos" Cultural Center, part of the Hellenic World Foundation. Here, users can experience a multi-sensory (visual, auditory, and tactile) simulation of life in an ancient Athenian household.

Remarkable Discovery: 22 Massive Stone Blocks from the Lighthouse of Alexandria

An international archaeological mission, spearheaded by Isabelle Hairy of France’s CNRS under Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, has successfully recovered 22 colossal stone blocks from the submerged remains of the ancient Lighthouse (Pharos) in Alexandria’s Eastern Harbor (labrujulaverde.com). Weighing between 70 and 80 tons, these blocks include the lintels and uprights of the lighthouse’s grand entrance, foundational slabs, and a previously unknown pylon combining Egyptian design with Greek engineering.

Scientific Significance & Digital Resurrection

These monumental blocks are destined for high-resolution 3D photogrammetric scanning as part of the “PHAROS” project—a collaboration between CNRS/CEAlex and France’s Dassault Systèmes Foundation. They will be digitally reconstructed to test architectural hypotheses on the lighthouse’s original construction and causes of its collapse. Having previously digitized over a hundred underwater fragments, this latest find deepens our understanding of the ancient structure and helps fill crucial gaps in its architectural narrative.

Why This Discovery Matters

• Recovering One of the Seven Wonders: The Lighthouse of Alexandria was a landmark of ancient maritime innovation. No other major lighthouse of antiquity remains; this digital rebirth offers a rare opportunity to virtually “restore” a world marvel lost to earthquakes and centuries of quarrying.

• Insights into Ancient Engineering: The recovered lintels, jambs, and base pieces can help scholars unravel 3rd-century BCE Ptolemaic construction techniques and structural composition through virtual testing.

• Cultural Symbolism: Beyond aiding navigation, the lighthouse represented Alexandria’s power, technological mastery, and fusion of Hellenistic-Egyptian culture. Reconstructing it reawakens a symbol that shaped Mediterranean intellectual and trading networks.

A reconstruction of the Alexandria Lighthouse following a 2013 survey. Credit: Emad Victor SHENOUDA / Wikimedia Commons

The Hellenistic Alexandria Section

Founding and Cultural Fusion
Founded in 332 BC by Alexander the Great and developed under the Ptolemies—Alexander’s successors—Alexandria stood as a beacon of Hellenistic civilization. The Pharos, commissioned during the reign of Ptolemy I and completed under Ptolemy II Philadelphus, was both functional and symbolic: a towering fusion of Greek engineering and Egyptian tradition.

A Beacon of Knowledge and Commerce
Rising well over 100 m, the lighthouse was a marvel of its time—often likened to the world’s first skyscraper. It helped guide ships safely into Alexandria’s harbor, underpinning its status as a global center for trade, scholarship, and culture .

Architectural Splendor of the Hellenistic Era
The structure’s tripartite design—square at the base, octagonal in the middle, cylindrical above—is a testament to Hellenistic architectural brilliance. Traditional accounts credit Sostratus of Cnidus, a Greek engineer, signaling continuity of classical architectural patterns in Egypt.

Endurance and Eventual Collapse
Standing for more than 1,600 years, the lighthouse endured and adapted through multiple earthquakes before ultimately collapsing in the 14th century. Its stones later formed the Qaitbay Fortress, but its legacy remained central to Alexandria’s identity.

Future Outlook

• Educational Outreach: A documentary produced by GEDEON Programmes, slated for broadcast on France Télévisions, will chronicle the recovery and reconstruction process in a 90-minute feature.

• Academic and Public Engagement: Through digital models, historians and engineers will re-examine hypotheses on design and collapse scenarios. The end goal? A virtual twin that could form the basis for interactive exhibits, educational tools, and perhaps future physical reconstructions.

• Underwater Heritage Preservation: This operation builds on a continuum of work stretching back to Jean‑Yves Empereur’s 1994 discovery and adds momentum to Alexandria’s transformation into a center for submerged cultural tourism.

Lighthouse of Alexandria Ruins Egypt Tours Portal

Conclusion

The recovery of these twenty-two massive limestone blocks is far more than an archaeological feat—it’s a bridge to a civilization that changed the course of Mediterranean history. By digitally resurrecting the Pharos, we don’t just rebuild a structure; we reclaim an icon of Hellenistic ingenuity, cultural fusion, and enduring influence. It marks the return of a beacon that once lit the way—in more ways than one—and now has the potential to illuminate our understanding of the ancient world once again.

A New “Alexander the Great” Chair to Be Established at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

A major new academic initiative is about to launch in Thessaloniki, bringing global attention to Greece’s rich historical and cultural heritage. On June 30, 2025, the rectors of the five universities in the regions of Macedonia and Thrace convened—at the invitation of Deputy Minister of Interior Kostas Gioulekas and with the participation of Deputy Minister of Education Nikos Papaïwannou—to agree on the founding of a dedicated Chair in Alexander the Great Studies within the Faculty of Philosophy at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH) .

As Deputy Minister Gioulekas emphasized, "We decided it is essential to establish a Chair focused on the history of Alexander the Great, which is currently missing in our homeland, and this must proceed" . Although AUTH will serve as the base, the initiative is designed as a transdisciplinary collaboration involving all five regional universities (ipaidia.gr).

This institution is expected to become a hub for historians, postgraduate students, and international researchers, centralizing resources and scholarship about Alexander—“the greatest and most important Greek of all time” .

Importantly, the project is being framed within the context of cultural diplomacy. Gioulekas noted that the Chair “is expected to attract many students from abroad” and, especially at a time when historical narratives are under scrutiny, “having it located at AUTH—in the heart of Macedonia and the largest university in Southeast Europe—sends a message” (xronometro.com).

From their side, officials from both the public and private sectors are expected to support and finance the Chair, and a working group at the Ministry for Macedonia and Thrace will be established to gather needs and suggestions from local actors and international partners . Deputy Minister Papaïwannou pointed out that in the past year, around €600 million—largely from EU recovery funds—has been allocated into Greek public universities, enabling infrastructure and excellence programs, as well as links between research and industry .

As someone interested in Greece’s cultural landscape, this development signals a few key points:

1. Revitalization of Hellenistic Scholarship
   Greece is asserting its role as the academic epicenter for studying Alexander—providing international scholars with centralized archives, seminars, and collaborative networks.

2. Strategic Cultural Diplomacy
   At a time of contested historical narratives in the Balkans and beyond, the Chair represents Greece’s active engagement in the global discourse surrounding Hellenistic legacy.

3. Interdisciplinary and International Scope
   By design, the Chair invites historians, archaeologists, political scientists, and foreign-language experts—transforming Thessaloniki into a melting pot for cross-disciplinary projects.

4. Economic and Educational Impact
   With substantial funding behind it, the Chair may help draw international students and researchers, aiding both university prestige and regional development.

For foreign academics, researchers, and institutions, the establishment of this Chair is a golden opportunity to collaborate deeply with Greek scholars in the cradle of Alexander’s cultural heritage. It’s a statement: Greece is not only reclaiming its ancient past but inviting the world to study and engage with it—right from the source in Macedonia.

Ancient Library Discovered in the City of Gladiators – Why Archaeologists Call It an Architectural Marvel

A remarkable marvel of antiquity—unique in both design and history—has emerged from archaeological excavations in the heart of southeastern Turkey.

Deep within ancient Caria, a rare and architecturally stunning Roman-era library has been unearthed in Stratonicea, a major city of the ancient world located in the province of Muğla. This extraordinary find offers fresh insight into the intellectual and architectural achievements of the past.

Known as the “City of Gladiators” and once one of the largest cities built primarily from marble, Stratonicea has been the focus of continuous archaeological efforts since 1977. Excavations today are conducted year-round under the leadership of Professor Dr. Bilal Söğüt of Pamukkale University, who heads the Stratonicea and Lagina research team.

Stratonicea: A Marble Masterpiece of Ancient Caria

Founded during the Hellenistic period by the Seleucids, ancient Stratonicea was situated in the Carian region of Asia Minor, southeast of Mylasa and south of the Marsyas River, a tributary of the Maeander. Today, the city is listed on UNESCO’s tentative list of World Heritage Sites and is regarded as one of the largest ancient cities in the world built extensively from marble.

A wonder of antiquity, unparalleled in both design and history, is being unearthed in the heart of southeastern Turkey.
Photo: AA

A Library at the Crossroads of Civilizations

Strategically located at the junction of four major roads in the city center, the library was originally built during the Hellenistic period and later redesigned in the Roman era. By the 4th century AD, the addition of intricate mosaics showed that the building continued to play a vital role well into Late Antiquity.

According to inscriptions discovered on site, the library was constructed by a master artisan from Ephesus, the cultural heart of Ionia. “Over the past five years, we’ve been excavating this particular structure,” explained Professor Söğüt. “We’ve uncovered key areas, including the main entrance, the southern colonnade, the central courtyard, the reading room, and adjacent chambers. These findings reveal a library of impressive scale and significance.”

Withstanding Earthquakes and the Test of Time

A marvel of antiquity—unique in both design and history—emerges from excavations in the heart of southeastern Turkey.
Photo: AA

In the early 7th century AD, a powerful earthquake struck the region, inflicting major damage. While much of the city contracted in size and function, the library endured—standing as a silent witness to centuries of cultural continuity and scholarly life. The excavation team not only mapped the entire layout of the library but also identified its architectural evolution over time.

“We now understand how the building was altered in various areas, how it was restored after disasters, and how it continued to serve the community,” said Professor Söğüt.

What makes this discovery truly exciting is the library’s architectural design. Researchers found that the layout of the Stratonicea library is unlike any other known in Anatolia. In fact, it appears to have served as a model for a later library constructed in North Africa—offering invaluable clues about cultural exchanges across the Mediterranean.

“Our goal is to reconstruct sections of the columns and structural elements,” Söğüt added, “so visitors can experience its original grandeur. This isn’t just a building—it’s a testament to the enduring value of knowledge.”

A Cultural Landmark for the Future

With each new layer unearthed, Stratonicea continues to reveal the complex social, architectural, and intellectual fabric of ancient Anatolia. As restoration and conservation efforts progress, this recently uncovered library is expected to become a central hub for both scholarly research and cultural tourism.

Share this story with fellow history lovers and help shed light on a forgotten intellectual treasure of the ancient world.

One of the Strangest Churches in the World Is in the Peloponnese!

In the region of Mantineia, Arcadia, stands a church unlike any other in Greece.

Rising out of the plain of Mantineia, just about 15 kilometers from Tripoli, this unusual yet captivating structure catches the eye of all who pass by. The Church of Saint Photini of Mantineia sits directly opposite the archaeological site of ancient Mantineia — and it's nothing short of extraordinary.

Built in the 1970s, the church is an eclectic blend of ancient Greek architectural forms and Byzantine influences. It is the life’s work of architect, painter, and iconographer Kostas Papatheodorou, a student of the renowned Greek architect Dimitris Pikionis.

What makes the church even more unique is its construction — made entirely from local, natural materials like stone, tiles, and marble, with absolutely no cement used.

Many visitors are initially drawn to the area simply because they’ve heard tales of this so-called “most unorthodox church in Greece.”

According to traveltripolis.gr, the church’s dedication to Saint Photini reflects Arcadia’s historical connection with light. In fact, Mount Lykaion, a name derived from the Greek word for “light,” shares this symbolism — as does the name Lycaon, a mythical founder of Arcadia. The iconography inside the church continues this spirit of cultural synthesis: the saints are depicted with features reminiscent of ancient Greek philosophers. You’ll also find references to the cult of Isis, once widespread in Arcadia.

Watch the stunning aerial video by Up Drones below and see for yourself what makes this church so uniquely compelling.

At the Acropolis Museum, There's a LEGO Parthenon Made of 120,000 Bricks — and It Includes Gandalf

“One does not simply walk to the Acropolis”

If you’ve visited the Acropolis Museum (and if not, you really should — it’s well worth it), you may have noticed an eye-catching miniature model of the Parthenon made entirely out of LEGO bricks.

As reported on resgerendae.wordpress.com, this massive LEGO Acropolis was created in 2018 by Australian artist Ryan McNaught using an incredible 120,000 LEGO pieces. It tells the story of the Acropolis hill from the Mycenaean era all the way to the present day.

The model doesn't just include the Parthenon — complete with its two chambers, the treasury and the inner sanctuary with the famed chryselephantine statue of Athena — but also depicts legendary scenes like the mythological contest between Athena and Poseidon. It features the Panathenaic procession, the Theater of Dionysus with scenes from Oedipus Rex and Lysistrata, and even the Odeon of Herodes Atticus in its modern use, with an Elton John concert in full swing — and a souvlaki stand, of course.

The LEGO Acropolis combines humor with historical accuracy, showcasing how the past and present coexist at Greece’s most iconic archaeological site — complete with tourists, tour guides, and yes… Gandalf.

In fact, Gandalf was recently spotted by a sharp-eyed tourist, who shared the discovery on TikTok — and the post quickly went viral!

@rick_and_marty_ Gandalf the Greek . . . . . . . . #acropolis #parthenon #lego #lordoftherings ♬ Lord Of The Rings: The Shire (Concerning Hobbits) - Geek Music