Rare Byzantine Coin Discovered at Historic Fortress—What It Reveals About the Region’s Importance and History

A rare gold coin from the Byzantine Empire, dating to the reign of Emperor Justin II (565–578 CE), was recently unearthed at a fortress site—offering valuable insight into the economic history of Byzantium and the strategic significance of the location.

A Treasure from the Early Byzantine Period

The coin was found at the Tuida Fortress, a site of major strategic importance during the early Byzantine period. Located in the northeastern part of Sliven, Bulgaria, the discovery was announced by the Regional Historical Museum of Sliven.

This find marks the fourth gold coin discovered at Tuida and is especially significant due to its rarity and historical context.

The Emperor Behind the Coin

Emperor Justin II was the nephew and successor of the famous Emperor Justinian I, continuing his uncle’s legacy of ambitious construction and territorial expansion. However, Justin II’s reign was also marked by mounting pressure from the Sassanid Empire in the east and the Lombards in the west.

His rule is historically notable not just for political and military developments, but also for reports of mental instability in his later years—leading his wife, Empress Sophia, and general Tiberius to take control of imperial affairs.

The Fortress of Tuida: A Sentinel Through the Ages

Perched atop Hisarlaka Hill, Tuida Fortress was part of the Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains) defense network. Initially constructed at the end of the Roman period, it was rebuilt during the early Byzantine era. It served as a key military and administrative hub and played a crucial role in the defense of the region throughout Roman, Byzantine, and medieval Bulgarian history—guarding trade routes and deterring invasions.

Details of the Discovery

Initially believed to date to Justinian I’s reign, the coin was confirmed—after cleaning and analysis—to belong to Justinian II’s rule. On its obverse (front side), the coin features a bust of the emperor holding an orb topped with the Roman goddess Victory (Nike).

The Latin inscription reads:

D N IVSTINVS P P AVG, which translates to:

• D N = Dominus Noster = Our Lord

• IVSTINVS = Justin (name)

• P P = Perpetuus (or Perpetuus Pontifex) = Eternal

• AVG = Augustus = The Revered One

Together: “Our Lord Justin, Eternal Augustus”—a traditional imperial title reflecting divine authority and sovereignty.

The reverse side bears the inscription: VICTORIA AVGGG ΘS, commonly seen on Roman and Byzantine coins. It breaks down as:

• VICTORIA = Victory

• AVGGG = Plural of Augustus, suggesting three emperors (possibly representing a triarchy or shared rule)

• ΘS = Abbreviation from the Greek “Theos” = God or Divine

This side also features Emperor Justin holding an orb with Nike, gazing forward. Experts believe the coin was likely minted in Theopolis—the historical name for Antioch, one of the Byzantine Empire’s most significant cities.

Located in modern-day southern Turkey, near the Syrian border, Antioch was a major administrative, commercial, and religious hub during both the Roman and Byzantine eras. The “ΘS” mint mark supports the theory that the coin was struck at the Antioch mint, further enhancing the find’s historical and geographical importance.

Why This Find Matters

To date, archaeologists have uncovered 23 coins at Tuida during this season alone, ranging from the 2nd–3rd centuries CE to the 12th–13th centuries. These discoveries provide a wealth of information about continuous habitation and regional importance during centuries of political upheaval.

The discovery of this rare solidus of Justin II adds significantly to the numismatic and economic history of Byzantium. It also highlights Tuida Fortress’s role as a vital link in the empire’s defensive and administrative network during the early Byzantine period.

For historians and scholars alike, this gold artifact opens new windows into the rich cultural heritage of the Byzantine Empire in southeastern Europe, while reinforcing the legacy of Sliven—one of Bulgaria’s oldest continually inhabited regions.

Ancient Temple of a Lost Civilization Discovered — A Mysterious Culture Leaves More Questions Than Answers

On the southern shores of Lake Titicaca, in what is now Bolivia, more than a thousand years ago, one of the most powerful—yet enigmatic—civilizations of the Andes once thrived.

Known as the Tiwanaku, this culture is considered one of the earliest complex societies in the region and a forerunner of the Inca Empire. Despite their influence, the Tiwanaku mysteriously declined around 1000 CE, leaving behind a legacy clouded in mystery.

Now, a newly uncovered ancient temple by researchers from Penn State University and Bolivia may help illuminate the grandeur and influence of this lost culture that once dominated the Andean highlands.

A Discovery That Reshapes History

Published in the journal Antiquity, the find confirms that the Tiwanaku's territorial reach extended farther than previously believed. It also reveals how the civilization developed intricate economic and religious networks across an ecologically diverse region.

The temple, named Palaspata, after its surrounding area, lies nearly 130 kilometers south of the main archaeological site of Tiwanaku. Located atop a hill, it remained invisible to archaeologists for centuries, though known to local farmers.

A Strategic Location

According to lead researcher José Capriles, associate professor of anthropology at Penn State, the site’s location was no accident. Perched on high ground, Palaspata sits at a crossroads between three major trade routes: the highlands around Lake Titicaca to the north, the arid Andean plateau ideal for llama grazing to the west, and the fertile Cochabamba valleys to the east.

“This convergence of distinct ecosystems likely made Palaspata a hub of exchange and cooperation between diverse communities,” Capriles explains.

A Ceremonial Complex Hidden in Plain Sight

Using satellite imagery and drone photography, the research team digitally reconstructed the temple’s structure in 3D. The results revealed a ceremonial complex measuring roughly 125 by 145 meters, composed of 15 enclosed quadrants arranged around a central courtyard. Its alignment follows the solar equinox, suggesting a strong ritualistic function.

Although located 209.2 kilometers south of the main Tiwanaku site, Palaspata had never been fully explored—perhaps because of its seemingly unremarkable setting.

Signs of Ritual and Divine Legitimacy

The team unearthed fragments of ceremonial vessels (kerus) used for drinking chicha, a corn beer traditionally consumed during agricultural festivals. The presence of these items is significant, as maize does not grow at such altitudes—it must have been brought from the lower Cochabamba valleys.

This points to Palaspata not just as a religious center, but as a redistribution hub—a place where economic exchange was sanctioned through spiritual practices.

“In societies like the Tiwanaku,” Capriles notes, “religion was the common language that enabled collaboration across scattered communities. Even political and economic control was exercised through the divine.”

For Justo Ventura Guarayo, mayor of the nearby town of Caracollo, the discovery is more than academic. “This legacy had been completely forgotten—even by us,” he admitted.

From Forgotten Hilltop to National Treasure

Local authorities are now collaborating with the Bolivian government to preserve the site and promote it as a cultural and tourist destination. Experts like Capriles have committed to ensuring its protection and public recognition.

But as one mystery unfolds, new questions emerge:

• How far did the Tiwanaku's influence truly stretch?

• How exactly were their trade and religious networks organized?

Capriles remains cautious: “There’s still so much to discover. Sometimes, the clues are right in front of us—we just need to learn how to see them.”

Marble Caves: Chile’s Natural Wonder That Leaves Visitors in Awe

Tucked away in the heart of Patagonia, on the shimmering waters of General Carrera Lake—shared by Chile and Argentina—lies one of the most breathtaking natural wonders of the world: the Marble Caves, also known as Capillas de Mármol or “Marble Chapels,” and often referred to as Marble Cathedrals due to their majestic beauty.

These awe-inspiring caves are not the result of human design, but rather the work of nature's slow and steady hand. Formed over 6,000 years ago, the caves were sculpted by the gentle but persistent erosion of limestone, a sedimentary rock, by the lake’s waters. The result is a series of wave-like, flowing geological formations that seem almost otherworldly.

A Symphony of Light, Water, and Stone

The three most famous formations in the Aysén region are La Capilla (The Chapel), El Catedral (The Cathedral), and La Cueva (The Cave). Visitors are mesmerized by the way the crystal-clear turquoise waters interact with the natural light, casting dazzling reflections on the marble walls. These surfaces shimmer in shades of gray, white, green, and even yellow, creating a dreamlike, ethereal atmosphere inside the caves.

What makes the experience even more magical is its ever-changing nature. Depending on the time of day, season, weather, and angle of sunlight, the caves offer different visual spectacles—ensuring that no two visits are ever quite the same. It's no surprise that thousands of travelers from around the world flock to this hidden gem to witness its surreal beauty up close.

Accessing the Marble Caves

The only way to reach the caves is by boat or kayak, making the journey part of the adventure. Travelers must first arrive at the small town of Puerto Río Tranquilo, where they can join guided tours using small boats or kayaks that glide through the serene lake waters, bringing them into the heart of the marble labyrinth.

The full excursion typically lasts around two hours, allowing ample time for exploration, photography, and peaceful contemplation.

Best Time to Visit

The optimal time to visit is between December and March, when weather conditions are more favorable and the lake is calmer, making navigation easier and the experience safer and more enjoyable. During this period, the emerald and aquamarine hues of the lake contrast beautifully with the backdrop of the majestic Andes Mountains, offering a picture-perfect setting.

A Sanctuary for Wildlife

Beyond their visual splendor, the caves also provide shelter for various species of wildlife, including birds, fish, and even sea lions, adding another layer of wonder to an already unforgettable experience.

Researchers Create “Living Material” That Captures Carbon Dioxide

A groundbreaking innovation with the potential to transform building materials and environmental technology has been unveiled by a research team at ETH Zurich. The team has developed a new kind of living material—one that not only "breathes" but also actively captures carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere. This novel material incorporates cyanobacteria, photosynthetic microorganisms among the oldest life forms on Earth, into a 3D-printable gel.

The result of this interdisciplinary approach—recently published in Nature Communications—is a living, growing material with dual carbon capture capability. Specifically, it stores CO₂ both by creating biomass and by forming inorganic compounds like carbonate salts. This dual function ensures more stable, long-term carbon storage.

A Material That Grows—and Captures CO₂

The new material can take various shapes through 3D printing and requires only light, artificial seawater, and CO₂ to grow. According to the researchers, it could one day be integrated directly into buildings, making carbon capture a built-in function of architectural infrastructure.

The key innovation lies in the cyanobacteria’s ability not only to absorb CO₂ and convert it into organic matter, but also to alter their chemical environment to form solid carbonate salts such as limestone. Researchers leveraged this process so that minerals deposit inside the material, reinforcing it over time. As a result, the initially soft material gradually hardens, gaining structural stability.

In tests lasting 400 days, the material continued to absorb CO₂, with most of the carbon stored in inorganic form—about 26 milligrams of CO₂ per gram of material. This is a significantly higher performance than other biological methods and is comparable to chemical carbon storage used in recycled concrete.

Designed for Performance and Longevity

The cyanobacteria are housed in a hydrogel—a water-rich polymer designed to allow light, CO₂, and nutrients to reach the cells. This setup keeps the microbes alive and active for extended periods. To boost performance, the team also optimized the geometry of the printed structures, increasing surface exposure to light and promoting capillary-driven nutrient distribution.

Dalia Dranseike, co-author of the study, emphasized that this design enabled the cyanobacteria to remain productive for over a year, showcasing the system's durability and viability.

This living material is expected to become a sustainable and energy-efficient solution for atmospheric carbon capture, complementing existing chemical methods. The research team plans to explore its use as a façade coating for buildings, offering continuous CO₂ absorption throughout the building’s lifespan.

From the Lab to Real-World Applications

The concept has already moved beyond the lab to its first real-world applications. At the Venice Architecture Biennale, the installation Picoplanktonics showcased 3D-printed structures made from the material, shaped like tree trunks up to three meters tall. These living sculptures can capture up to 18 kilograms of CO₂ per year—the equivalent of what a 20-year-old pine tree absorbs annually.

At the Triennale di Milano, another project titled Dafne's Skin explores the use of living materials as architectural coatings. Microorganisms grow on wooden tiles, forming a green patina that transforms weathering into an aesthetic and functional feature.

This living material is the result of the ALIVE (Advanced Engineering with Living Materials) initiative at ETH Zurich, which fosters collaboration among architects, biologists, engineers, and materials scientists. The aim is to develop new bio-based materials for a more sustainable future.

Third Phase of the Kasta Tomb Restoration and Promotion Project Enters Bidding Stage

The third phase of the restoration and promotion of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis, Serres, has officially entered the public bidding stage, according to Serres Deputy Regional Governor Panagiotis Spyropoulos. Speaking during a special session of the Regional Council of Central Macedonia—focused on the accountability of the regional administration—Spyropoulos responded to a proposal by regional councilor Maria Papadimitriou, from the “Change in the Region of Central Macedonia” party, regarding accessibility improvements to the Kasta Tomb site.

Spyropoulos emphasized that Phase III – Stabilization, Conservation, Restoration, and Promotion of the Kasta Tomb Monument in Amphipolis, Serres has already been approved for funding under the Operational Program of the Region of Central Macedonia, with support from the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) for the 2021–2027 programming period, with a total budget of €3,407,452. The project is being executed by the Department of Ancient Monuments of the Ministry of Culture, and, per the approval decision, is scheduled for completion by December 31, 2027.

What the Restoration Work Includes

The planned works include reshaping the eastern and northern slopes downstream of the Peribolos wall and modifying the overall geometry of the tumulus. It will also involve the construction of a perimeter path, the installation of drainage and hydraulic systems within the tomb and surrounding area, and the restoration and highlighting of additional sections of the Peribolos as well as scattered architectural elements.

One key part of the project is a special geotechnical operation to stabilize the excavation of the burial chamber, along with the installation of a metal support structure along the chamber walls in Chamber 4 of the tomb. Other interventions include:

• Stabilization and restoration of Chamber 4

• Restoration of the corbelled arch, diaphragm D3, and surrounding masonry

• Reinstallation of the two-leaf marble door and the marble wings and head of the sphinx sculptures

• Remodeling of the external façades of the tomb

• Installation of monumental lighting

• Construction of an internal staircase in Chamber 1

The project will also involve the conservation of plasters, mosaics, stone decorative elements, and sculptures in Chamber 4, specifically focusing on the mortars and coatings in the box-shaped burial structure. Additionally, a monitoring system for environmental conditions will be installed inside the tomb.

Collaboration for a Second Major Project

Furthermore, the Special Management Service is currently working with the Ministry of Culture to prepare a second project proposal for inclusion in the program. This project, titled “Exhibition Space, Visitor Reception and Information Infrastructure for the Kasta Tomb Monument in Amphipolis, Serres,” has a proposed budget of €6,927,000.

This second project includes two major components:

1. Exhibition and Reception Building

The first component involves constructing a partially underground exhibition building with a green roof, designed so that the visible part offers direct views of the tomb and surrounding archaeological site. In addition to the exhibition hall—occupying the largest part of the structure—the building will include a visitor reception area, public service spaces, a refreshment area, and electromechanical facilities. The project will ensure that all construction and technical systems meet modern standards for accessibility, full functionality, and energy efficiency.

2. Archaeological Site Design and Visitor Infrastructure

The second component focuses on developing the archaeological site with visitor pathways and informative infrastructure. The visitor route will loop around the tumulus at an appropriate distance to allow clear views of the monument, while also emphasizing its relationship to the broader Amphipolis site and the Strymon River. This path will connect directly to the exhibition center, with a branch leading to the entrance of the tomb itself.

Designated viewing platforms and an open-air exhibit area for architectural fragments (which cannot be reinstalled on the monument) will also be created. Additionally, the final stone surfaces (marble and porous limestone) of the Peribolos wall—restored as part of the monument’s reconstruction—will be conserved.

Enhancing the Visitor Experience

Inside the exhibition building, the first room will showcase findings from the tomb, presented through informational panels and digital displays. The second room will feature immersive augmented-reality installations, allowing visitors to interact virtually with the monument. In the third section, an open-air portico facing the tomb, visitors will gain a comprehensive understanding of the Kasta mound and its preserved original marble façade.

The visitor experience will also be enhanced with informational signs, tactile models, printed guides (including Braille editions), and a mobile-friendly digital app accessible to people with disabilities (PWDs). The plan also includes a slope reinforcement study for access routes and the entrance, and the construction of a parking lot and PWD-friendly access routes.

Timeline and Oversight

The first component of the new project will be carried out by the Museum Directorate of the Ministry of Culture and completed by April 30, 2027. The second component will be implemented by the Ephorate of Antiquities of Serres and is scheduled for completion by July 31, 2027.

Spyropoulos reaffirmed the Regional Government’s strong commitment to supporting this globally significant Macedonian monument, emphasizing that all progress must happen under the careful supervision of the Ministry of Culture's specialized services. He concluded by stating that the Region of Central Macedonia has been, is, and will remain a steadfast partner in the ongoing effort, ensuring uninterrupted financial support for all necessary projects.

Controversial Project to Create Artificial Human DNA Underway

Work has officially begun on a controversial initiative to create the basic elements of human life from scratch—an unprecedented global milestone, according to the BBC. Until recently, such research had been considered taboo, primarily due to fears it could result in unpredictable consequences for future generations.

But now, as the BBC reports, the world’s largest medical charity, the Wellcome Trust, has kickstarted the project with an initial £10 million investment. The organization argues that the benefits of the project outweigh the risks, with the potential to accelerate treatments for numerous incurable diseases.

Dr. Julian Sale of the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, who is part of the project, told the BBC that this research marks the next giant leap in biology. “The possibilities are endless,” he said. “We’re exploring therapies that could improve human health during aging, leading to healthier aging with fewer diseases. Our goal is to engineer disease-resistant cells that could be used to repair damaged organs—like the liver or heart—and even the immune system.”

Ethical Concerns and Scientific Hopes

Despite its promise, the project is stirring concern among critics, who worry it could pave the way for unethical scientists to create enhanced or genetically modified humans. Dr. Pat Thomas, director of Beyond GM, warned: “We like to believe all scientists have good intentions, but science can be used for harm—and for war.”

Details of the project were released to coincide with the 25th anniversary of the completion of the Human Genome Project, which mapped out the molecules that make up human DNA—a major achievement also heavily funded by Wellcome.

Every cell in our body contains a molecule called DNA, which holds the genetic instructions essential for life. DNA is composed of four chemical bases—A, G, C, and T—repeated in countless combinations. Astonishingly, this molecular code contains all the genetic information that defines us.

The Human Genome Project enabled scientists to read all human genes like a barcode. The new effort—called the Synthetic Human Genome Project—aims to go far beyond that. It may one day allow researchers not just to read DNA, but to construct it molecule by molecule, entirely from scratch.

Building Life from the Ground Up

The immediate goal is to develop methods for synthesizing larger and larger segments of human DNA, ultimately working up to an entire synthetic human chromosome. These chromosomes contain the genes that guide our development and protect our health. Scientists hope that by artificially constructing these genes, they can study them more effectively—and conduct experiments to learn how DNA truly regulates our bodies.

According to Professor Matthew Hurles, director of the Wellcome Sanger Institute—which mapped the largest section of the human genome—many diseases arise when genes malfunction. Studying synthetic genes could therefore lead to more targeted and effective treatments. “Building DNA from scratch lets us test how DNA really works and try new theories—something we can currently only do by modifying DNA that already exists in living systems,” he explained.

The Dark Side of Innovation

While the project focuses on medical applications, experts warn that the same technology could easily be misused. Rogue scientists might attempt to create biological weapons, enhanced humans, or even hybrid creatures containing human DNA. Professor Bill Earnshaw, a genetics expert at the University of Edinburgh and pioneer of artificial human chromosomes, voiced serious concerns:

“The genie is out of the bottle,” he told the BBC. “We might have some regulations now, but if a group with access to the right technology decided to synthesize anything—they probably couldn’t be stopped.”

Dr. Thomas also questioned how such technologies would be commercialized by healthcare companies. “If we create synthetic body parts—or even synthetic humans—who owns them? And who owns the data generated from those creations?” she asked.

Why Fund It?

Given the risks, why did Wellcome decide to fund the project? According to Dr. Tom Collins, who authorized the funding, the decision wasn’t taken lightly.

“We asked ourselves what the cost of inaction would be,” he said. “This technology is going to be developed eventually. By doing it now, we aim to guide it in the most responsible way possible and address the ethical challenges proactively.”

To ensure that, a dedicated social science program will run alongside the scientific research, led by Professor Joy Zhang, a sociologist at the University of Kent.

“We want to gather input from experts, social scientists, and most importantly, the public—how they feel about the program, how it might benefit them, and what questions or concerns they have,” Zhang noted.

Rock-Carved Roman-Era Homes Unearthed in Southern France

A five-month-long excavation in southeastern France has revealed a remarkable archaeological site featuring rock-hewn dwellings, an elaborate polychrome mosaic, Late Roman tombs, and a sophisticated drainage system—all of which offer new insight into ancient craftsmanship and urban design.

Archaeologists from France’s National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research (INRAP) conducted the excavation on the slopes overlooking Alès, a city in the Occitanie region. Their findings point to continuous human occupation at the site from the 2nd to the 6th century CE, during the Gallo-Roman period.

Homes Carved Into the Hillside

The excavation, which covered an area of 3,750 square meters in the L’Hermitage district, uncovered at least four ancient homes partially carved directly into the rock. The inner walls were lined with clay coatings to prevent rainwater from seeping in through the limestone bedrock—an early example of passive water management.

The drainage system beneath these homes was equally impressive: built using repurposed roof tiles and bricks, the network efficiently channeled water away, showcasing a deep understanding of hydraulic and architectural engineering in antiquity.

A Masterpiece in Stone and Color

The most striking discovery was a 750-square-meter structure that had undergone at least two major renovations. Initially featuring an earthen floor, the house was later upgraded with cement-based flooring and mosaic panels—testifying to the elevated status of its occupants.

In a room measuring 4.5 by 3.8 meters, archaeologists revealed a well-preserved mosaic floor. At its center: intricate interlaced geometric patterns in black and white tesserae, accented with rare purple-red tones—likely derived from vermilion, a mercury-based mineral pigment reserved for the elite.

Even rarer were yellow tesserae, which further underscore the artistic sophistication and uniqueness of the piece. Some parts of the floor remained plain white, possibly to accommodate furniture or storage benches, while a bordering motif of white crosses on black may mark passageways to other rooms.

Researchers are now examining whether the building was a Roman domus—a type of upper-class urban home characteristic of the Roman Empire.

A Clever Clay Jar Drainage System

On the building’s eastern side, a particularly ingenious sewage system was discovered. Made from a sequence of amphorae (ceramic storage jars) with their bases removed and necks fitted together, the system drained rainwater from the roof outward—an innovative use of available materials for environmental control.

A Silent Necropolis

To the south of the site, archaeologists unearthed a Late Roman necropolis (5th–6th century CE), with at least ten tombs. The deceased were interred facing west, likely in wooden coffins that have since decomposed. Some tombs were covered with stone slabs, but grave goods were rare.

Two isolated burials to the northwest appear to belong to the same era, though radiocarbon dating will help refine their timeline.

Layers of History Above and Below

Between the 16th and 18th centuries, the landscape was reshaped into agricultural terraces, and in the 19th century, the land was again altered—explaining the overlying deposits that preserved these ancient layers.

The discovery reinforces Alès’s importance as a continuously inhabited settlement since antiquity and showcases the advanced technical skill and aesthetic sensibility of its ancient inhabitants.

The mosaic, in particular, stands out as one of the most significant archaeological finds in the region in decades, offering a vibrant glimpse into domestic life and artistic expression in Roman Gaul.

Massive Marble Marketplace Unearthed in Ancient Greek City of Asia Minor

Turkish archaeologists have unearthed a vast, beautifully preserved marble-paved square in the ancient city of Magnesia ad Maeandrum, revealing what is now confirmed as the largest known marketplace (agora) of the city—spanning a staggering 25,000 square meters.

An Ancient City at the Crossroads of Civilizations

Founded by settlers from Thessalian Magnesia and Crete in the 10th century BCE, Magnesia was strategically located near the cities of Priene, Ephesus, and Tralles, flourishing as one of the major urban centers in western Anatolia. Though geographically part of Ionia, its residents spoke the Aeolic dialect, a unique cultural blend that made Magnesia distinct.

Located near present-day Germencik in Turkey’s Aydın province, and nestled at the base of Mount Thorax near the Lethacus River (a tributary of the Maeander), the ancient city was also renowned for its fertile lands, which produced excellent wine and fruits.

A Monumental Agora Reemerges

The monumental agora, believed to be the city’s main civic and ceremonial center, was buried under nearly four meters of sediment due to ancient earthquakes and flooding from the Maeander River.

Despite this, excavations—ongoing since 2021—have revealed over 10,000 square meters of the site so far, including intact marble flooring and surrounding architectural elements in exceptional condition.

Leading the dig is Associate Professor Gorkem Kokdemir, of Ankara University’s Archaeology Department, under the auspices of Turkey’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism as part of the “Heritage for the Future” program.

“This is one of the most important discoveries in Western Anatolia,” Kokdemir told Anadolu Agency. “The agora's marble pavement has survived almost completely intact. It’s a remarkable preservation of ancient urban infrastructure.”

The Heart and Memory of the City

Contrary to a commercial marketplace as we understand it today, the ancient agora functioned as a civic core, where public memory, governance, and knowledge were preserved and transmitted.

“Imagine a place not centered around trade, but the very soul of the city,” Kokdemir emphasized. “This is where the community gathered, where decisions were made, and where the past was safeguarded for the future.”

The agora is surrounded on all four sides by colonnaded stoas and enclosed rooms, some of which are believed to have housed public archives.

Previous German-led excavations unearthed nearly 200 inscriptions from just two of these chambers—suggesting that the site could yield a wealth of historical records as excavations expand.

Next Steps and Cultural Significance

With approximately 15,000 square meters still buried, archaeologists plan to extend excavations toward the southern stoa, where more structures may lie hidden.

As work continues, the research team envisions the site as a future archaeological park, complete with visitor pathways and interpretive displays—bringing the once-forgotten civic heart of Magnesia back into public consciousness.

This rediscovery not only deepens our understanding of urban life in ancient Anatolia but also highlights Magnesia’s role as a beacon of Hellenistic architecture, civic planning, and cultural memory.

Italy Returns 145 Ancient Coins to Greece in Landmark Cultural Agreement

In a landmark gesture of cultural cooperation, Italy will return 145 ancient Greek coins to Greece, as announced during a high-level bilateral meeting held in Athens between Greece’s Minister of Culture Lina Mendoni and her Italian counterpart Alessandro Giuli.

The coins, originally discovered on the island of Kos between 1929 and 1930, have been stored for nearly a century at the Archaeological Museum of Rome. Their return is part of a broader Memorandum of Understanding signed by the two countries, aimed at enhancing collaboration in cultural heritage preservation and the fight against antiquities trafficking.

A Renewed Cultural Partnership

This meeting follows up on talks held two weeks earlier during the Naples Conference, and underscores the “excellent and creative partnership” between Greece and Italy on multiple cultural fronts—including institutional, museum-based, archaeological, and artistic collaborations.

Minister Mendoni emphasized the joint role of Greece and Italy as guardians of Greco-Roman civilization, noting that Western culture is rooted in the wisdom of both ancient Greece and Rome. She called for united efforts to showcase this shared heritage throughout Europe and globally.

A Symbolic Conclusion to a Longstanding Case

The signing of the Memorandum of Understanding also marked the official conclusion of the "Symes Collection" case—a long-running and complex antiquities repatriation effort involving illegally exported cultural artifacts. Thanks to effective collaboration between Greek and Italian authorities, the case reached a just resolution with the restoration of key objects to their rightful home.

Cultural Proposals and New Joint Initiatives

During the meeting, Minister Giuli—on his first official visit to Athens as Italy’s Minister of Culture—proposed two significant new initiatives:

1. A joint exhibition featuring works by Greco-Italian artists Giorgio de Chirico and Alberto Savinio, displayed alongside the ancient artifacts that inspired their "metaphysical school" of painting.

2. A Mediterranean Festival of Intangible Cultural Heritage, focused on preserving and promoting folk traditions and highlighting the deep cultural ties across the region.

Mendoni enthusiastically welcomed both proposals, stating they offer a timely opportunity to showcase the Mediterranean as a cradle of civilization and cross-cultural dialogue.

In addition, Syrago Tsiara, General Director of Greece’s National Gallery, suggested organizing a thematic exhibition exploring the relationship between Futurism and modern Greek art, through the lens of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Constantine Cavafy, and Constantinos Parthenis. Giuli readily agreed, proposing that the exhibition be hosted at the National Museum of 21st Century Arts (MAXXI) in Rome.

Ancient Women: Shared Narratives from Greece and Italy

The ministers also agreed to collaborate on a dual exhibition project that merges two current shows:

• “Cycladic Women: Untold Stories of the Aegean”, presented in Santorini, and

• “Being a Woman in Pompeii”, currently on display at the Archaeological Park of Pompeii.

Their goal is to create a unified exhibition highlighting women’s lives in the ancient world, to be displayed both in Greece and Italy, followed by a joint international tour.

Support for the Return of the Parthenon Sculptures

As part of the visit, Mendoni guided Giuli through the Acropolis Museum, accompanied by Director Nikos Stampolidis. The ministers held detailed discussions about Greece’s ongoing request for the return of the Parthenon Sculptures.

Minister Giuli expressed support for the cause, stating that the British Museum should act in accordance with modern museum ethics and return the sculptures to their rightful place in Athens.

Cultural Diplomacy in Action

The visit concluded with the ministers attending a special anniversary event marking 18 years of the European Public Law Organization, held at the Roman Agora, alongside Greek Parliament Speaker Nikitas Kaklamanis.

Later that evening, the two ministers attended a moving performance of Euripides’ Medea by Italy’s Teatro Patologico, a troupe composed of actors with intellectual disabilities—underscoring how culture can be both inclusive and transformative.

A Partnership Rooted in Shared Heritage

From joint exhibitions to the repatriation of cultural treasures, this meeting reaffirmed the strong bonds between Greece and Italy—two nations with deeply intertwined histories and a shared commitment to preserving the legacy of the ancient world.

As Mendoni stated, initiatives like these are “not just cultural milestones—they are acts of international respect, restitution, and unity.”

Teen Girl with Cone-Shaped Skull Unearthed in Ancient Iranian Cemetery: Evidence of Head Binding and Violent Death

In the dusty soil of an ancient cemetery in western Iran, archaeologists have uncovered the remains of a teenage girl whose life—and death—offer a rare and haunting glimpse into a 6,200-year-old world.

Her skull was intentionally reshaped during childhood, forming a distinctive cone shape through the ancient practice of cranial modification. But CT scans revealed something even more chilling: a massive, fatal skull fracture. Researchers now believe she died from a brutal blow to the head.

An Extraordinary Find at Chega Sofla

The discovery was made by archaeologists Mahdi Alirezazadeh and Hamed Vahdati Nasab, who have spent over a decade excavating the Chega Sofla site, a prehistoric cemetery located in Iran’s Deh Luran Plain. The site has yielded hundreds of burials—some solitary, others communal. Some include entire families. A few feature signs of intentional cranial deformation, a cultural practice seen in various ancient civilizations around the world.

But one grave—labeled BG1.12—stood out.

There, the team unearthed the skull of a young girl, estimated to be under 20 years old when she died. Her head had been tightly bound with cloth or wooden boards during early childhood, forcing her skull to grow in a long, tapered shape—a form possibly associated with beauty, identity, or social status in her community.

Head Binding: A Painstaking Practice

Cranial modification was widespread in many prehistoric societies and was often performed on children while their skulls were still soft and malleable. The reasons varied—from aesthetic ideals to social hierarchy to spiritual beliefs. Interestingly, the practice has been observed more often in female remains than male, possibly reflecting gendered traditions or expectations.

In this case, the girl’s modified skull had one dangerous side effect: thinner cranial bones. This left her far more vulnerable to traumatic injury.

A Violent End

CT imaging of the skull revealed a devastating fracture starting at the front of the skull and stretching diagonally to the left side of the parietal bone. The damage showed no signs of healing, indicating it was perimortem—occurring at or just before the time of death.

Though the blow did not fully penetrate the skull, the bone’s reduced thickness meant that the force likely caused severe brain trauma. The researchers suggest it was inflicted by a broad-edged weapon, such as a blade, club, or axe.

Only the girl's skull has been recovered so far, as the grave was densely packed with remains. Still, her head alone tells a powerful story of pain, identity, and perhaps violence within her community.

A Tomb of Many Stories

The Chega Sofla site continues to surprise archaeologists. Among its most striking features is the oldest known brick tomb, found near the girl's burial—a sign of architectural sophistication and funerary care.

With each new discovery, researchers are learning more about the rituals, social structures, and cultural practices of this ancient population. The teenage girl with the cone-shaped skull is just one chapter in that evolving story, but hers is among the most vivid: a young life shaped—literally and figuratively—by tradition, and tragically ended by violence.

Neanderthal Fingerprint Found on Ancient Art May Be the Oldest Human Mark in History

A remarkable archaeological discovery in Spain has uncovered the oldest known human fingerprint—left not in wet clay or soft soil, but pressed into pigment on a piece of Neanderthal artwork more than 42,000 years ago.

The object: a granite stone painted with a red ochre dot, intentionally placed to highlight the image of a human face. This is currently the oldest known example of portable art linked to a Neanderthal—and thanks to a smear of pigment, the most direct and personal evidence of symbolic behavior we've ever found from one.

An Ancient Portrait in Stone

The discovery was made at Abrigo de San Lázaro, an archaeological site near the Eresma River valley, just downstream from Segovia, Spain. The area is known for evidence of Neanderthal settlements, including Mousterian tools characteristic of their culture.

The stone itself likely came from the riverbed. Its natural indentations resemble eyes and a mouth—features that would’ve triggered pareidolia, the human tendency to see faces in random shapes. A red ochre dot was carefully applied where a nose would be, visually completing the face and suggesting the image was not just imagined—but symbolically enhanced.

This act of turning a found object into a piece of symbolic expression is a powerful insight into Neanderthal cognition. And it gets even more compelling.

The Fingerprint That Traveled Through Time

For over two years, a multidisciplinary team of archaeologists, geologists, and forensic experts studied the object. Using high-resolution 3D scanning, they confirmed the stone wasn’t used as a tool—ruling out practical use. Then, chemical analysis showed the red pigment was externally applied ochre, not a natural stain in the granite.

The breakthrough came through multispectral imaging, a method adapted from forensic science by the Spanish Scientific Police. It revealed a hidden fingerprint embedded in the pigment—left by the Neanderthal who painted the stone.

Forensic experts, including fingerprint specialists from Spain’s Central Identification Unit, analyzed the print in stunning detail. They concluded that it belonged to an adult human male—a Neanderthal—making it the oldest and most complete human fingerprint ever found.

Symbolism and Art Before Homo sapiens?

For decades, scientists believed symbolic thinking and art were unique to Homo sapiens. But discoveries like this continue to challenge that narrative.

The shift began with the 2018 publication in Science of symbolic cave paintings in three Spanish caves—Ardales, La Pasiega, and Maltravieso—dating to before modern humans arrived in Europe. The Neanderthals who created those paintings used patterns, lines, and shapes repeatedly, suggesting shared symbolic language and meaning.

Now, the Abrigo de San Lázaro stone takes this even further. It’s not only a representation of a human face—created by one of Europe’s last Neanderthals—but it also preserves the literal touch of its maker, a fingerprint pressed into history.

More Than a Mark

This discovery isn’t just about pigment and stone. It’s about cognition, identity, and the deep human desire to express, symbolize, and mark the world.

And in this case, that mark was quite literal.

Over 42,000 years ago, a Neanderthal saw a face in a stone, picked up a piece of ochre, and painted a red dot for a nose. He left behind more than just a piece of art—he left himself.

Now, thousands of years later, forensic scientists—using techniques once meant for solving modern crimes—have traced that ancient gesture back to its source.

Because it turns out, even Neanderthals couldn’t escape leaving fingerprints.

How the Wheel Was Really Invented: Simulations Reveal the Surprising Origins of a World-Changing Technology

Imagine you're a copper miner in southeastern Europe around 3900 B.C.E. Day in, day out, you drag heavy loads of ore through the sweltering tunnels. It’s grueling work—until one day, you see a fellow miner effortlessly hauling triple the usual load using a strange contraption. Suddenly, everything changes.

What you’ve witnessed isn’t just a handy hack—it’s the beginning of a revolution that will reshape the world.

The First Wheel?

Despite the wheel’s enormous impact on human civilization, no one knows exactly where or when it was first invented. But one compelling theory suggests it all began in the Carpathian Mountains—now part of Hungary—nearly 6,000 years ago. Archaeologists working in the region have uncovered over 150 miniature clay wagons engraved with wicker-like patterns, echoing the baskets used by local mining communities. Radiocarbon dating places them among the earliest known representations of wheeled transport.

This theory raises a fascinating question: How did an obscure, technologically limited mining community invent something that even the mighty Egyptians never managed?

Rethinking the Roller Theory

For decades, scholars assumed that the wheel evolved from simple wooden rollers. But since the 1960s, that idea has faced increasing skepticism. Rollers are hard to use: they need flat, even terrain, and once your cart passes over them, you have to carry them forward again. Not very efficient.

But inside a mine? That’s a different story. In those narrow, human-made tunnels, rollers would have been more practical—enclosed, predictable terrain with fewer variables. That led my team to revisit the roller-to-wheel hypothesis.

Two Breakthroughs That Changed Everything

The evolution from roller to wheel required two key innovations.

First, carts needed to be modified with semicircular sockets to hold the rollers in place, so they could move along with the cart without constantly being repositioned.

Second, something had to change in the shape of the rollers themselves. To explore how this might’ve happened, we turned to computer simulations.

Simulating the Wheel’s Evolution

Using engineering software, we created a program to simulate how rollers might evolve over time. Our goal: to test whether mechanical advantage—a principle that makes tools like pliers more effective—could explain the leap from roller to wheel.

We modeled hundreds of roller shapes, evaluating each for mechanical efficiency and structural strength. Over time, the algorithm gravitated toward a now-familiar form: the wheel-and-axle. It was the optimal solution.

How might this have happened in real life? One possibility is that friction between the roller and its socket caused the contact area to wear down, gradually forming a narrowed axle. Or maybe miners intentionally slimmed the rollers to help carts clear small obstacles. Either way, the changes made pushing easier—and better designs were naturally favored and copied.

Eventually, the rollers became so narrow in the middle and wide at the ends that they took on the basic structure of a wheel: an axle and two disks.

No Moment of Invention—Just Evolution

According to our theory, the wheel wasn’t invented in a single flash of genius. Like natural evolution, it emerged gradually through trial, error, and tiny improvements—refinements passed down through generations of craftspeople and laborers.

Full Circle

Thousands of years later, the invention of radial ball bearings in 19th-century Paris transformed wheeled transportation yet again. Ironically, ball bearings work just like those early rollers: small cylinders that reduce friction by creating a rolling interface between two surfaces.

In this way, the wheel's story has come full circle. Its evolution—much like its shape—follows a looping, continuous path, with no clear beginning or end. Just countless, quiet revolutions.

Unearthing Guac’s Roots: Anthropologist Traces 11,000 Years of Avocado Domestication

We might take our morning avocado toast or side of guac for granted, but beneath that creamy green goodness lies a deep and fascinating story—one that spans more than 11,000 years.

Dr. Heather B. Thakar, an anthropological archaeologist at Texas A&M University, is leading groundbreaking research into the origins of avocado domestication. Her findings, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, reveal how ancient communities in Central America carefully cultivated one of the world’s most beloved fruits—thousands of years before the rise of modern agriculture.

“Our work at El Gigante is revealing how humans adapted and innovated with avocados in response to a changing climate,” said Thakar. “This kind of historical insight can inform how we grow and manage crops today.”

Avocado Origins at El Gigante Rockshelter

Located in the highlands of western Honduras, El Gigante Rockshelter is one of the rare tropical archaeological sites where organic plant material has been remarkably well preserved. For over 11 millennia, the shelter has stored layers of botanical remains—offering researchers a rare look at how humans shaped their ecosystems long before industrial agriculture.

“It’s incredibly rare to find this level of plant preservation in the tropics,” Thakar noted. “The site gives us a nearly continuous record of how people interacted with plants—especially avocados.”

Early in their evolutionary history, avocados served a very different purpose: they were a favorite snack for now-extinct megafauna like giant sloths and mammoths. When these creatures disappeared, humans took over the role of avocado dispersers and stewards. Over thousands of years, ancient farmers began selecting trees that produced larger, fleshier, and more transportable fruits.

By around 7,500 years ago, traditional forest management and seed selection had already led to noticeable improvements in avocado quality. And by 2,000 years ago, domesticated avocados were being cultivated regularly—well before staple crops like maize, beans, or squash became widespread in the region.

Radiocarbon Dating and Deep Time Agriculture

To create a timeline of avocado use, Thakar’s team analyzed hundreds of radiocarbon samples, many directly from avocado pits and rinds. Their data showed a clear trend toward the selection of larger seeds and thicker rinds—hallmarks of domestication.

These findings not only push back the timeline of avocado cultivation, but also highlight how early Mesoamerican communities actively engineered their environments long before written history.

“Avocados offered rich, fatty nutrition and were relatively easy to grow and manage,” said Thakar. “They became an essential part of the human diet and culture in the region.”

El Gigante also contains early evidence of squash and maize domestication, providing an even broader perspective on ancient agricultural innovation. Thakar is currently preparing a separate publication that traces 4,500 years of maize development at the site.

A Site of Global Significance

El Gigante is now recognized as one of the most important archaeological discoveries in Central America in the last four decades. It is currently under review for UNESCO World Heritage status. Thakar and her team are actively working with the Honduran government to preserve and promote the site.

“All of our research supports El Gigante’s UNESCO nomination,” said Thakar. “We’re providing documentation, expert analysis, and historical context to protect this incredible place.”

Despite its relative isolation—which has protected it from looting—the site has experienced minor modern disturbances. Yet its deepest, oldest layers remain intact, preserving vital evidence of ancient human ingenuity.

Lessons for Today’s Agriculture

Thakar’s work isn’t just about the past—it has urgent implications for the future of food. In an era of monocultures and climate uncertainty, the genetic diversity preserved in wild avocados could be key to creating more resilient crops.

“We’re relying too much on cloning in modern avocado farming,” she explained. “By reintroducing ancient varieties and learning from traditional practices, we can create avocados—and agricultural systems—that are better equipped for future challenges.”

As a leading expert in ancient agriculture, Thakar also studies crop domestication and knowledge transmission in southern Mexico, Belize, and Nicaragua. Her work bridges science and the humanities, using tools like radiocarbon dating, stable isotope analysis, and morphometrics to unlock secrets buried deep in the soil.

Why the History of Guac Matters

“Domestication wasn’t a one-time event—it was a long, dynamic process,” Thakar emphasized. “The food we eat today is the result of millennia of human innovation, observation, and experimentation.”

By unearthing the stories behind ancient crops like avocados, researchers like Thakar are not only enriching our understanding of the past—they’re offering practical tools for creating a more secure and sustainable food future.

Ancient Carbon Record Reveals Widespread Human Fire Use 50,000 Years Ago

A new study has uncovered compelling evidence that humans were extensively using fire as far back as 50,000 years ago—much earlier than previously believed.

Fire has shaped Earth’s ecosystems for over 400 million years, influencing habitats, climate systems, and the global carbon cycle. While naturally occurring wildfires have always played a role in shaping the environment, the emergence of humans marked a turning point. Fire was no longer just a natural force—it became a powerful tool.

Yet, the timeline for when humans began consistently using fire to alter their surroundings has remained unclear.

To help resolve this mystery, a team of scientists from the Institute of Oceanology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (IOCAS), in collaboration with researchers from Germany, France, and other Chinese institutions, analyzed a 300,000-year-old sediment core from the East China Sea. Their findings, recently published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, reveal a dramatic shift in fire activity around 50,000 years ago—likely driven by early Homo sapiens.

“Our findings challenge the long-held assumption that significant human impact on fire regimes began only during the Holocene,” said Dr. Zhao Debo, the study’s lead author.

The team focused on pyrogenic carbon—the microscopic remnants of vegetation partially burned in fire. This material, preserved in layers of sediment, acts as a geological fingerprint of ancient fire activity. The core showed a marked rise in pyrogenic carbon starting about 50,000 years ago, indicating a surge in regional fires. Similar patterns have been observed in archaeological records from Europe, Southeast Asia, and the Papua New Guinea–Australia region, suggesting a broader, continental-scale trend.

This period coincides with the rapid global spread of Homo sapiens, who began migrating out of Africa between 70,000 and 50,000 years ago, replacing older human populations across Europe and Asia. As these populations expanded, so did their reliance on fire—not just for cooking, but also for warmth, protection, hunting, and landscape management.

“Even during the Last Glaciation, humans were likely already reshaping ecosystems and altering carbon flows through the use of fire,” added co-author Prof. Wan Shiming.

Beyond its practical uses, fire played a foundational role in the development of human societies. It enhanced nutrient absorption from food, improved survival in harsh climates, and may have accelerated technological and cultural evolution.

The study’s conclusions raise important questions about the timeline of human environmental impact. If early Homo sapiens were already influencing the carbon cycle tens of thousands of years ago, our understanding of pre-industrial climate baselines may be due for revision.

As climate scientists grapple with modeling future change, this research offers a sobering reminder: humans have been shaping the Earth far longer than we once believed.

A 3D-Printed Prosthetic Recreates the Life of a Renaissance Amputee

Technology is never just about mechanics—at its heart, it's about people. A 3D-printed model of a 500-year-old prosthetic hand is helping modern researchers bridge centuries to better understand the lived experience of a Renaissance amputee.

To consider an artificial limb is to consider a life. A prosthetic is a tool built for the body—one that touches, moves, and interacts with the world. Yet surviving historical examples of prosthetics are static, fragile, and stripped of their human context. Time and decay have left them inert, tucked away in museum cases, their users long gone.

These rare artifacts offer one of the few direct connections to the lives of amputees in the 16th and 17th centuries. Written records from amputees of the period are scarce, and those that exist reveal little about what it meant to live with a prosthesis day to day.

Now, historians and engineers are turning to technology to reconstruct those forgotten experiences.

Bringing the Kassel Hand Back to Life

Mechanical prosthetic hands emerged in the early 1500s—a revolutionary moment in the history of disability and medical innovation. But most surviving examples, like the Kassel Hand, are incomplete, nonfunctional, or of unknown origin. Their mechanical function remains poorly understood.

To change that, researchers from Auburn University, in collaboration with mechanical engineer Chad Rose and a team of students, used computer-aided design (CAD) and 3D printing to recreate the inner workings of the Kassel Hand—a 16th-century German iron prosthesis, one of only about 35 known from the period.

Rather than merely speculate on how the device worked, they built it. And tested it.

“We wanted to understand the life of the person who used this hand 500 years ago,” says Heidi Hausse, an early modern historian leading the project.

By printing the hand in lightweight polylactic acid (PLA) plastic, the team made the design accessible for anyone with a consumer-grade 3D printer. But before sharing the model publicly, they needed to see how it held up in real-world conditions.

A Lesson in Fragility

In March, Hausse carried a carefully packed 3D-printed Kassel Hand model to a guest lecture at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. After years of work and excitement, disaster struck just 15 minutes in: the release lever snapped.

This lever, a key component of the prosthesis, locks the fingers in place and triggers their release. Without it, the hand can’t function. Oddly, the break had never occurred during prior testing—even when the model lifted a 20-pound load.

Was it a material flaw? A design oversight? A printing error?

The team turned to their “Hand Whisperer,” a graduate student in mechanical engineering who had assembled the models hundreds of times and knew every nuance of their behavior.

Engineering Insights

For the Hand Whisperer, the break wasn’t shocking.

“I’d seen that lever break many times during quality control,” the student explained. “But never in public use—until now.”

PLA plastic, while easy to work with, lacks the strength of the original iron. The historical lever would have been five times stronger. But the real culprit wasn’t material weakness—it was user error.

Unlike the engineering team, who had developed an intuitive feel for the model over years of handling and testing, new users didn’t know how much pressure was too much. The team hadn’t realized they had unconsciously learned the prosthesis’ limits through practice.

The original user of the Kassel Hand likely had to do the same.

Relearning the Past

This insight reframed the issue. The problem wasn’t the model—it was unfamiliarity.

So the team made a plan:

• The engineers redesigned the model slightly, shortening the release lever’s opening to prevent overextension. Ironically, this tweak made the model more historically accurate, as the larger opening had only been required for earlier prototypes.

• The historians created a short instructional video demonstrating how to operate the hand—how to lock and release the fingers and troubleshoot stuck components.

One week after what they dubbed “The Birmingham Break,” the team tried again—this time with four modified models and a classroom full of students at Auburn.

First, they played the video. Then, they handed over the prosthetics.

Not a single lever broke.

Technology and Touch

The experiment proved a key point: just like its 16th-century counterpart, using the Kassel Hand requires learning, practice, and patience. The user is part of the mechanism.

“Technology isn’t just about design—it’s about people,” the team reflected.
“How they use it, adapt to it, and learn from it.”

This project is more than a reconstruction of a mechanical hand. It’s a reconstruction of experience—a way to understand how a Renaissance amputee might have lived, struggled, and adapted with the help of human-made technology.

More Precise Dating Sheds New Light on Carnac’s Megalithic Monuments Fresh insights into the ancient stone alignments of Brittany

The enigmatic stone alignments of Carnac, located in Brittany, northwestern France, are among the most iconic megalithic monuments in Europe—alongside Stonehenge, the dolmens of Menga, and the prehistoric temples of Malta.

Now, for the first time, archaeologists have been able to date sections of these alignments with remarkable precision, revealing new information about their origins and purpose.

This major breakthrough comes from a French–Swedish collaboration under the NEOSEA research project, led by the University of Gothenburg in partnership with the French excavation firm Archeodunum and the University of Nantes.

“The Carnac alignments now appear to be among the earliest megalithic monuments in Europe. This particular section was built between 4600 and 4300 cal BC,” explains archaeologist Bettina Schulz Paulsson of the University of Gothenburg, who leads the NEOSEA project and is a co-author of the study, recently published in Antiquity.

“We have also confirmed that the Bay of Morbihan is the earliest known megalithic region in Europe.”

More than 3,000 standing stones once stretched across 10 kilometers of landscape, from Carnac and La Trinité-sur-Mer to Erdeven—making it one of the most concentrated and extensive megalithic complexes in a coastal setting.

A key part of the study was the excavation of a previously unexplored site known as Le Plasker, located at the heart of Plouharnel. Conducted ahead of the construction of a 7,000 m² business park, the rescue excavation was led by Audrey Blanchard of Archeodunum, who also serves as a researcher on the NEOSEA project.

Utilizing modern excavation methods and systematic sampling strategies, the team uncovered numerous archaeological features. Nearly 50 radiocarbon dates were obtained from the site, which were then analyzed using Bayesian statistical modeling—a technique that allowed the researchers to create a highly detailed and reliable chronology of the site’s use.

Credit: Bettina Schulz Paulsson

“Thanks to this approach, we’ve been able to reconstruct the site's history with unprecedented chronological precision,” says Schulz Paulsson.

Decoding Carnac’s Prehistoric Landscape

One of the longstanding challenges in dating sites in the Morbihan region is the highly acidic soil, which often prevents the preservation of organic materials such as bone. This has traditionally made radiocarbon dating difficult, and methods like optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) have proven too imprecise to yield useful results.

However, the sheer volume of radiocarbon samples collected—and the application of advanced Bayesian modeling—allowed researchers to overcome this hurdle.

Several alignments of standing stones were dated to between 4600 and 4300 cal BC. Although many of the stones were removed in antiquity or later, their foundation pits remain intact. These pits were found adjacent to hearths and cooking features, suggesting that the act of building the alignments may have been linked to rituals involving fire—whether for lighting, feasting, or cooking remains to be seen.

Additionally, the site yielded the remains of a monumental tomb, dated to around 4700 cal BC, built directly over a Mesolithic hunter-gatherer hut—further underscoring the site’s deep historical significance.

Further analyses of sediments and stone fragments are ongoing and may offer more clues about the ceremonial and social functions of these megalithic constructions.

New Study Debunks Long-Held Myth: Early Andean Farmers Thrived, Not Struggled

Contrary to the long-standing belief that the shift from foraging to farming was driven by desperation and dwindling food supplies, a new study shows that early agricultural communities in the Andean Altiplano were thriving—and innovating—during this pivotal period in human history.

Published in PLOS One, the research led by Luis Flores-Blanco of the University of California Davis and Arizona State University, along with a team of interdisciplinary scholars, sheds new light on the origins of agriculture in the Lake Titicaca Basin of southern Peru and Bolivia.

“Our research shows that the origin of agriculture in the Titicaca Basin was a resilient process,” Flores-Blanco said. “Rather than reacting to crisis, ancient Andean communities actively managed their ecosystems and gradually incorporated domesticated species into their diets.”

A Smooth Transition, Not a Crisis Response

The dominant theory has long portrayed the agricultural revolution as a last resort—an outcome of overpopulation and resource scarcity that forced humans to adopt farming. But Flores-Blanco and his colleagues present a compelling alternative.

By analyzing carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in the bones of 16 individuals buried at the archaeological sites of Kaillachuro and Jiskairumoko, the researchers reconstructed the ancient diets of people living between 5,000 and 3,000 years ago—precisely during the forager-to-farmer transition.

Their findings are striking: 84% of dietary intake came from plants, with the remainder consisting of meat from large mammals. These proportions remained consistent across time, and were nearly identical to both earlier foraging groups and later full-fledged agricultural communities.

In short, the data undermines the idea that early Andean societies turned to farming because they had no other choice.

The Andean Way: Stability, Not Scarcity

Instead of abandoning foraging, these communities blended it with early agriculture. The result was a hybrid economy—one that combined wild food harvesting with gradual domestication of staple crops like quinoa and potatoes, and the sustainable management of camelids such as llamas and alpacas.

“They didn’t just survive—they thrived,” said co-author Luisa Hinostroza. “The Altiplano transition to agriculture was not a response to crisis, but a stable, self-sufficient process that endured for millennia.”

Key to this resilience were cultural and technological advances of the time, including:

• Expanding trade networks

• Innovations in ceramics and archery

• A deep ecological understanding of their local landscape

A Cross-Disciplinary Approach

The study’s conclusions were made possible by integrating methods from isotope chemistry, archaeobotany, and zooarchaeology—including the analysis of macrobotanical remains and statistical dietary modeling.

It adds to a growing body of evidence that challenges outdated views of early agriculture as a desperate measure, offering instead a more nuanced, human-centered view of innovation and sustainability.

“This work is more than just data,” Flores-Blanco noted. “It’s about rewriting history to better reflect the ingenuity and adaptability of ancient Andean societies.”

Ancient Mosaics and Sacred Inscriptions Unearthed in Olympos Excavations

Archaeological excavations in the ancient city of Olympos, located in Türkiye’s Antalya Province, have brought to light intricate mosaic floors and early Christian inscriptions within a 5th-century church. The discovery is part of an ongoing, year-round project supported by the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism.

Once a thriving hub through the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods, Olympos has already yielded an array of monumental structures, including churches, a bishop’s palace, and elaborate tombs. The latest focus is on Church No. 1, where archaeologists uncovered a mosaic inscription at the main entrance of the building. It reads:

“Only those on the right path may enter here,”
offering an enduring spiritual message that once greeted early Christian worshippers.

Inside, additional mosaics were revealed in both the central nave and side aisles. These feature geometric motifs, botanical patterns, and inscriptions naming the patrons who funded the church’s construction—offering a rare glimpse into the social and religious networks of the time.

According to Associate Professor Gökçen Kurtuluş Öztaşkin, excavation director from Pamukkale University, Olympos is proving to be one of Lycia’s richest archaeological sites in terms of mosaic artistry. Similar finds in 2017, 2022, and 2023 further support this designation.

Elsewhere on the site, the team uncovered a 5th-century residence built atop a former Roman necropolis. Following a destructive fire in the 6th century, the building was reconstructed—preserving much of its original layout.

Looking ahead, archaeologists plan to investigate what may be a temple complex at the heart of Olympos. Architectural elements such as finely carved stone blocks and bossage masonry point to a monumental religious structure yet to be fully explored.

Plans for the 2025 excavation season include continued work in the western necropolis, the bishop’s palace, and additional church sites. Researchers anticipate completing excavations in the city’s northern zone within the next two years before expanding their focus to the southern areas of Olympos.

Remarkably Preserved Roman-Era Settlement Unearthed in Alès, Southern France

Archaeologists from Inrap (France’s National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research) have uncovered a stunning Roman-era settlement during excavations on the Hermitage hill overlooking Alès in southern France.

Conducted under the direction of the French Ministry of Culture (Drac Occitanie), the excavation explored a 3,750-square-metre area and revealed traces of uninterrupted habitation spanning nearly five centuries—from the 2nd to the 6th century AD.

A Mosaic Masterpiece

Among the most striking finds is a vividly colored, polychrome mosaic floor, discovered in a 4.5 x 3.8 meter room believed to be part of a substantial Roman residence—possibly a domus, the kind of high-status urban home owned by wealthy families.

The mosaic features a complex geometric design in black and white, with additional tesserae painted in hues of deep red, yellow, and purplish tones. Early analysis suggests the use of cinnabar, a rare and expensive mineral pigment in antiquity, highlighting the affluence and artistic sophistication of the inhabitants.

Adjacent to the mosaic, archaeologists uncovered white-tiled alcove-like spaces that may have supported furniture or served decorative functions. A striking border of white crosses set against a black background likely marked an entrance leading to another part of the home.

Layers of History and Innovation

The residence itself appears to have undergone multiple phases of architectural enhancement. Early floors were constructed from compacted earth, later replaced by lime-based concrete, and ultimately adorned with decorative mosaic elements—reflecting a clear evolution in taste, status, and technology.

One of the most ingenious features of the site is its ancient water management system. Excavators revealed a drainage conduit composed of interlocking fragments of amphorae, carefully laid to direct rainwater away from the building’s foundation—a practical and elegant solution to a timeless architectural challenge.

Sophisticated Roman Engineering

Elsewhere on the site, four dwellings partially carved into the limestone bedrock further demonstrate the advanced engineering techniques employed by Roman builders. Their walls were sealed with clay to prevent water infiltration, and terracotta pipe systems helped drain excess moisture—hallmarks of Roman ingenuity and attention to comfort.

A Glimpse into Late Antiquity

To the south of the site, archaeologists uncovered a small burial ground dating from the mid-5th to late 6th century AD. Ten west-oriented graves, likely used for wooden coffins, were found with few or no accompanying grave goods—a sign of changing funerary customs. Two additional isolated burials nearby suggest that the area continued to serve as a burial site well into Late Antiquity.

Preserving a Piece of Roman Legacy

This remarkable discovery offers invaluable insight into domestic life, architecture, and social evolution during a transformative period in Roman Gaul. As excavation and analysis continue, the site promises to shed further light on how communities in the region adapted across centuries of imperial rule and transition.

The Richest People Who Ever Lived: Global Empires and Business Giants

From ancient emperors to modern billionaires, this exploration uncovers the lives and sources of wealth behind the nine richest individuals in human history.

Throughout history, wealth hasn’t always been measured in coins or stocks—it was often defined by land, resources, influence, and dominion over millions. The accumulation of vast fortunes was closely tied to political power, military control, or groundbreaking economic strategies of the time.

Across continents and centuries, individuals with immense influence managed entire economies as if they were personal assets. Some dominated the world’s earliest markets. These stories not only highlight how much wealth has been concentrated in the hands of a few but also reflect how the concept of power has evolved over time.

The Richest Individuals in History

9. Mir Osman Ali Khan – $230 billion

• Lived: 1886–1967, India (Hyderabad)

• Empire/State: Last Nizam of Hyderabad (1911–1948)

• Wealth Source: Control of the Golconda diamond mines, along with a massive private treasure trove of gold, silver, and jewels

• Region: British India (now India)

8. John D. Rockefeller – $340 billion

• Lived: 1839–1937, United States

• Wealth Source: Founder of Standard Oil; at one point controlled 3% of U.S. GDP through oil monopolization

7. Elon Musk – $366 billion

• Born: 1971, U.S./South Africa

• Wealth Source: Major stakes in Tesla (~58%), SpaceX (~27%), X.AI, and more. He also acquired Twitter and rebranded it as X

6. Mansa Musa – $400 billion

• Lived: 1280–1332/37, West Africa

• Empire/State: Mali Empire (1312–1332)

• Wealth Source: Control of half the Mediterranean’s gold supply and vast salt trade routes across the Sahara

5. Augustus Caesar – $5 trillion

• Lived: 63 BC – 14 AD

• Empire/State: Roman Empire

• Wealth Source: Complete control over state treasury, tax revenues, mines, conquered lands, and Egyptian wealth after annexation

4. Empress Wu Zetian – $16 trillion

• Lived: 624–705

• Empire/State: Tang/Zhou Dynasty

• Wealth Source: State control over taxes, land, and mineral resources; access to some of China's richest provinces

• Country: China

3. Akbar the Great – $25 trillion

• Lived: 1542–1605

• Empire/State: Mughal Empire

• Wealth Source: Dominated trade in silk, spices, and cotton; implemented structured taxation with secure trade routes

• Country: India

2. Emperor Shenzong of Song – $30 trillion

• Lived: 1048–1085

• Empire/State: Northern/Southern Song Dynasty

• Wealth Source: Monetary reforms, centralized taxation, and tight control over the economy—ruled over roughly 30% of the world’s GDP

• Country: China

1. Genghis Khan – $100 trillion

• Lived: 1162–1227

• Empire/State: Mongol Empire (largest contiguous empire in history)

• Wealth Source: Vast conquests across Asia, the Middle East, and Europe; control over land, trade, taxation, and war spoils