The Enigmatic Origins of the Dravidian Languages: New Study Traces a 4,400-year-old Ancestral Component

The genetic and linguistic tapestry of the Indian subcontinent is remarkably complex, consisting of a rich mosaic of ancestries and languages that have evolved over thousands of years. Among these, the Dravidian languages, spoken by millions in the southern and central parts of India, present a fascinating case of linguistic and genetic continuity that spans several millennia.

Origins of Dravidian Speakers

Recent research has unveiled a novel ancestral component in tribes speaking Dravidian languages, particularly identified in the Koraga tribe. This component, distinct from the well-documented Ancestral North Indian (ANI) and Ancestral South Indian (ASI) ancestries, suggests a basal Middle Eastern origin. The Koraga, an indigenous tribe from the southwestern coast of India, demonstrate a unique genetic signature that aligns with the Dravidian languages they speak.

Connection to the Indus Valley Civilization

The discovery of this ancestral component has significant implications for our understanding of the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world's earliest urban cultures that flourished along the basins of the Indus River. The genetic lineage underpinning Dravidian speakers appears to have diverged around the dawn of the Indus Valley Civilization, which suggests a deep-rooted connection between this ancient civilization and modern Dravidian languages.

Fig. 1 Population structure in the Indian cline. (a) PCA plot show a clustering pattern along the ANI- ASI cline. Red ellipses represent clusters which also include North Dravidian language communities sensu lato: Brahui, Koraga, Gauḍa, Tānti, Bāgdi, Oraon, Kota, Birhor and Mahar. Kota and Mahar are found in the ANI-ASI cline as well. Grey ellipses represent clusters that have drifted away from the ANI-ASI cline, which includes both Dravidian and other groups: Burusho, Kannaḍa and coastal populations of Karnāṭaka and Kerala, Paniya, Koṇḍa Reddy, Kamar and one Birhor sample. (b)

The study indicates that this Proto-Dravidian ancestry emerged around 4,400 years ago, possibly originating from the region between the Iranian plateau and the Indus Valley. This timeline and location suggest that the Dravidian languages may have originated in the Indus Valley itself before spreading southwards across the Indian subcontinent.

Genetic Evidence and Linguistic Correlations

The genetic makeup of the Koraga tribe and its correlation with their linguistic characteristics offer compelling evidence of a continuous cultural and genetic lineage. Advanced genomic analyses, including SNP genotyping and admixture modeling, have shown that the Koraga people not only retain a significant portion of this ancient Dravidian ancestry but also exhibit clear genetic distinctions from neighboring populations.

These findings are supported by linguistic studies, which trace the Dravidian languages back to a common ancestral language that might have been spoken by the early inhabitants of the Indus Valley. This ancestral language, Proto-Dravidian, appears to have diversified into various regional languages that are still spoken today across southern India.

Fig. 4 Maximum Likelihood (ML) tree showing the genetic relatedness between the Koraga and selected South Asian populations present in Dataset 3, using TreeMix v1.13.

Implications for Historical Linguistics and Archaeogenetics

The convergence of genetic and linguistic evidence points to the Indus Valley region as a significant cultural and linguistic hub in ancient South Asia. This research not only helps in understanding the genetic origins of the Dravidian languages but also provides insights into the migration patterns and social structures of one of the world's earliest civilizations.

The elucidation of a 4,400-year-old ancestral component specific to Dravidian-speaking tribes enhances our understanding of the prehistoric demography of South Asia and the intricate web of human migrations that shaped the subcontinent's history. Moreover, it emphasizes the need for integrated studies that combine genetics, archaeology, and linguistics to reconstruct the complex puzzle of human history.

Exploring the Architectural Genius of the Harappan Civilization

The Harappan civilization, flourishing from 2600 to 1900 BC, remains a hallmark of ancient urban planning and architectural brilliance. Nestled within the fertile plains of the Indus River Valley, this civilization's remnants, such as the ancient city of Moenjodaro, provide a fascinating glimpse into a society that prioritized functionality, innovation, and sustainability in its construction techniques. Unlike its contemporaries, the Harappan architecture was devoid of foreign influences, drawing instead on a deep understanding of local needs and environmental conditions.

Unique Architectural Features

Harappan architecture is distinguished by its utilitarian approach. This civilization was among the pioneers in creating separate quarters for workers, reflecting a sophisticated understanding of urban space and social organization. Unlike other ancient cities that might have been designed as a reflection of contemporary aesthetic values or religious beliefs, Harappan cities were laid out with a clear focus on practicality and efficiency.

The city of Moenjodaro, along with other Harappan sites, showcases a remarkable uniformity in urban planning. The cities were protected by defensive walls, encompassing a citadel that housed administrative or religious buildings and a lower town where the populace resided. This separation underscores a well-thought-out social hierarchy and administrative control.

Innovations in Urban Planning

A striking feature of Harappan architecture is its geometric precision. The use of geometric tools to plan the city's layout demonstrates an advanced understanding of mathematics and engineering. Streets and roadways, often made of baked bricks known for their durability, were laid out in a grid pattern, intersecting at right angles. This not only facilitated the efficient movement of people and goods but also contributed to the effective management of water and waste, a testament to civilization's foresight in urban sanitation.

The emphasis on cardinal directions in the layout of rural villages and the alignment of residences along streets further illustrates the Harappans' meticulous planning. The presence of rectangular blocks divided by streets and the introduction of trash cans reveal a society that valued order, cleanliness, and communal living.

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Challenges to Preservation

The archaeological significance of Harappa has faced numerous threats over the years. During British and French colonial rule, bricks from ancient ruins were repurposed for building railway tracks, causing irreversible damage to the site. Moreover, the modern village of Harappa, located less than a kilometer from the ancient site, has been a center of controversy, especially with the aborted amusement park project in 2005 that unearthed numerous artifacts, highlighting the ongoing tension between development and preservation.

Legacy and Influence

The architectural legacy of the Harappan civilization extends far beyond its immediate geographical and temporal confines. The principles of urban planning, water management, and community living embodied in Harappan cities have left an indelible mark on subsequent civilizations within the Indian subcontinent. The utilitarian focus, coupled with an absence of ostentation in architectural designs, sets the Harappan civilization apart from its peers, making it a subject of enduring fascination and study.

In conclusion, the Harappan civilization's approach to architecture and urban planning underscores a profound understanding of the interplay between humans and their environment. The ruins of Moenjodaro and other sites offer invaluable insights into a society that, despite the absence of grand monuments, achieved remarkable sophistication in creating sustainable and functional urban spaces. As we continue to explore and interpret these ancient ruins, the Harappan civilization serves as a powerful reminder of the complexities of ancient societies and the enduring legacy of their architectural innovations.

Indus Valley Civilization: Hindu or Dravidian?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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1. THE LANGUAGE OF THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORDS AND THE RIGVEDA

3. THE JALLIKATTU SEAL FOUND AT MOHENJODARO AND THE PROTO-SHIVA SEAL

4. THE ARYAN INVASION THEORY

5. THE ROLE OF NATIONALISM AND COLONIALISM

6. THE RACIAL NATIVISM OF HINDUTVA IDEOLOGY

7. GENETICS AND THE ROOTS OF ANCIENT INDIAN CIVILIZATIONS

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The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, was one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, existing approximately from 3300–1300 BCE in what is now Pakistan and northwest India. This civilization is renowned for its planned cities, sophisticated drainage systems, and striking craftwork. However, many aspects of the IVC, including its language, religion, and the ethnicity of its people, remain enigmatic, largely due to the undeciphered script associated with it. This has led to various theories, debates, and interpretations about whether the IVC was Hindu or Dravidian, with implications extending to contemporary politics and historiography.

The Language of the Indus Valley Civilization

The undeciphered script of the IVC is one of the main reasons why the civilization's linguistic affiliations remain unclear. These symbols, typically found on seals, pottery, and other artifacts, are yet to be conclusively deciphered. Some scholars, like Asko Parpola, propose that the script represents a form of the Dravidian language, still spoken today in South India and parts of Pakistan. This theory draws on similarities between the IVC and later Dravidian cultures, such as the worship of certain animals and symbols. However, this remains a hypothesis due to the lack of decisive evidence.

In contrast, others suggest that the language of the IVC was of the Indo-European family, which includes Sanskrit, the liturgical language of Hinduism, and several modern languages of Northern India. This theory often relies on the proposed links between the IVC and the Vedic culture, which is the foundation of Hinduism.

Yuri Knorozov and Asko Parpola are two scholars who have made significant contributions to the study of the Indus Valley script, with both suggesting possible links to the Dravidian language family.

Yuri Knorozov was a Soviet linguist renowned for his work on deciphering the Mayan script. He turned his attention to the Indus script in the 1960s, applying similar principles of decipherment as he did to the Mayan glyphs. His preliminary work suggested that the Indus script might represent a form of the Dravidian language. However, due to the inherent challenges of deciphering an ancient script without a 'Rosetta Stone' (a bilingual inscription that could provide a key to decipherment), his proposed readings of the Indus script have not been universally accepted.

Asko Parpola, a Finnish scholar, has built upon Knorozov's work and has been one of the most prominent advocates of the Dravidian hypothesis for the Indus script. Parpola's approach combines linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological evidence to support his argument. His interpretation of the Indus script relies heavily on the rebus principle, where a symbol represents a word that sounds like another word. However, like Knorozov's work, Parpola's theories have been subject to debate and have not gained universal acceptance among scholars.

Both Knorozov and Parpola's theories underscore the potential link between the Indus Valley Civilization and the Dravidian-speaking cultures of South India. However, these theories remain hypothetical due to the lack of definitive evidence. The Indus script remains undeciphered, and its relationship to any known language or language family, including Dravidian, is still uncertain. The decipherment of the Indus script would undoubtedly provide invaluable insights into the Indus Valley Civilization, but until then, it remains one of the most tantalizing mysteries of ancient history.

Archaeological Records and the Rig Veda

Archaeological findings from the IVC have shown evidence of ritualistic practices, fertility cults, and the worship of certain animals, suggesting a complex religious system. However, connecting this system to Hinduism or Dravidian religions is contentious due to the lack of explicit iconographic or textual evidence. There's also an ongoing debate about whether certain symbols and figures, like the so-called "proto-Shiva" seal, represent early forms of Hindu deities or whether these interpretations reflect a biased projection of later religious ideas onto the IVC.

On the other hand, the Rig Veda, the oldest of the Hindu scriptures, offers a different perspective. Some verses in the Rig Veda hint at an eastward migration of the Vedic people, possibly indicating an interaction with the IVC. However, there is no direct reference to the IVC in the Rig Veda, leading some to argue that the Vedic culture was distinct and possibly subsequent to the IVC.

The Rig Veda is the oldest among the four Vedas, which are the most ancient Hindu scriptures. Composed in an early form of Sanskrit, the Rig Veda is a collection of over a thousand hymns dedicated to various deities. These hymns are believed to have been composed by different seers (rishis) and passed down orally for centuries before being committed to writing.

Interpretation of the Rig Veda has been a subject of significant scholarly discourse, both within and outside the tradition. The text contains intricate and often ambiguous hymns that are rich in symbolism and metaphor, which have led to multiple and sometimes contrasting interpretations.

1. The Ritualistic Interpretation: This is one of the earliest and most traditional interpretations of the Rig Veda. The hymns are understood as invocations and praises to various deities, to be recited during rituals. Deities like Agni (Fire), Indra (Warrior God and King of Gods), Varuna (God of Cosmic Order), and others are propitiated for blessings, protection, and the maintenance of cosmic order (Rta).

2. The Historical Interpretation: Some scholars, particularly during the colonial period, interpreted the Rig Veda as a historical record of the Aryan people who composed it. They used the text to propose theories about the Aryan homeland, their migration routes, and their conflicts with other groups. These interpretations often led to controversial theories like the Aryan Invasion Theory.

3. The Metaphysical or Philosophical Interpretation: This approach, most famously associated with Sri Aurobindo, a philosopher, yogi, and nationalist, interprets the hymns of the Rig Veda as symbolic and psychological representations of spiritual truths. For instance, the battles depicted are seen as the struggles within the human mind, and the deities represent various cosmic powers or aspects of consciousness.

4. The Linguistic Interpretation: This approach focuses on the linguistic aspects of the Rig Veda, such as grammar, etymology, and phonetics, to understand the evolution of the Sanskrit language and the meaning of the hymns.

5. The Socio-cultural Interpretation: Some scholars interpret the Rig Veda to understand the social, cultural, and economic life of the Vedic people. This includes aspects like the role of women, the caste system, the significance of the horse and cattle, and the use of soma, a ritual drink.

As the oldest extant text in any Indo-European language, the Rig Veda remains a critical resource for understanding early Indian history, religious thought, and linguistic development. However, its dense and poetic language often poses challenges to interpretation. It's essential to approach the text with a nuanced understanding of its historical and cultural context and to be aware of the limitations and potential biases inherent in any interpretation.

The jallikattu seal found at Mohenjodaro and the proto-shiva seal

The "Jallikattu seal" is a term applied to a seal discovered at Mohenjo-Daro, one of the most prominent sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. This seal depicts a figure in a position that seems to suggest he is controlling or taming a bull. The term "Jallikattu" is derived from a traditional bull-taming sport practiced in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The name has been ascribed to this seal due to the seeming similarity between the scene depicted on the seal and the sport of Jallikattu.

The depiction of the human figure and the bull on the seal has been a source of various interpretations and speculations. Some see it as an indication of the sport or a similar practice in the Indus Valley Civilization, suggesting potential cultural continuity or interaction with later Dravidian cultures where similar bull-taming practices are found. Others interpret the seal as a depiction of a myth or a ritual, which might indicate a more symbolic or religious significance to the scene.

The "Proto-Shiva" seal is another significant and intriguing artifact from the Indus Valley Civilization. Also known as the "Pashupati" seal, it was discovered in Mohenjo-Daro and dates back to around 2000–1900 BCE. The seal shows a horned figure sitting in what appears to be a yogic position and surrounded by animals.

Some people have interpreted the figure as an early representation of a deity who would later transform into the Hindu god Shiva in his Pashupati (Lord of Animals) form. This interpretation is based on several features: the seated, possibly meditative posture, which resembles the yogic position known as Mulabandhasana; the presence of animals, which aligns with Shiva's role as Pashupati; and the horned headgear, which could be seen as an early representation of Shiva's crescent moon or his matted locks.

However, it's important to note that these interpretations are largely speculative. The Indus script associated with such seals remains undeciphered, and therefore the intended meaning or context of the seal's imagery is unknown. Moreover, one must be cautious when drawing direct parallels between artifacts separated by thousands of years and significant geographical distances, as this might lead to an oversimplification of the complex cultural processes involved.

Archaeologists and historians continue to study the Indus Valley seals in the hope that they might yield more information about the enigmatic Indus Valley Civilization. Despite the challenges, these tiny artifacts provide fascinating glimpses into a civilization that was remarkably advanced for its time and played a crucial role in the cultural history of the Indian subcontinent.

The Aryan Invasion Theory

The Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) has been a significant part of this discussion. The AIT postulates that the Indo-European-speaking Aryans invaded India around 1500 BCE, which caused the IVC to collapse and signaled the start of the Vedic Age. This theory was based on linguistic similarities between Sanskrit and European languages and the assumed cultural differences between the Vedic and the Harappan cultures.

However, the AIT has faced substantial criticism and reevaluation in recent decades. Many archaeologists argue that there is no substantial evidence of violent conflict or sudden cultural change in the IVC around 1500 BCE, as the AIT would imply. Instead, they propose a gradual, internal development from the IVC to the Vedic culture, which might suggest a continuity that could include the preservation of certain religious practices.

The Role of Nationalism and Colonialism

Nationalistic and colonial narratives have had a significant influence on the interpretation of the IVC. During the British colonial period, the Aryan Invasion Theory was often used to legitimize colonial rule, suggesting that the Indian subcontinent had been repeatedly "invaded" by "superior" cultures. This narrative resonated with the colonial ideology of the civilizing mission.

In response to this, Indian nationalism, both during the anti-colonial struggle and in the post-independence period, often sought to emphasize the indigenous origins of Indian civilization and culture. Bal Gangadhar Tilak proposed the idea of an indigenous Aryan culture, and other academics later developed it, refuting the AIT by claiming that the Vedic civilization was the source of the IVC.

Supporters of the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), a Hindu nationalist organization, attend a religious congregation organized by the group in New Delhi on Dec. 9, 2018. Organizations like the VHP are on the upswing as Hindu nationalism grows in India.

(NASIR KACHROO/NurPhoto via Getty Images)

In contemporary Indian politics, the interpretation of the IVC often aligns with different nationalistic narratives. Some political parties, particularly those associated with Hindu nationalism, tend to highlight the continuity from the IVC to present-day Hindu culture, emphasizing the antiquity and indigenous origins of Hinduism.

On the other hand, Dravidian political movements in South India, particularly in Tamil Nadu, often emphasize the Dravidian hypothesis of the IVC to underline their distinct identity. According to this interpretation, the Indo-Aryans' arrival disrupted the IVC, which resulted in the relocation of Dravidian cultures to southern India.

the racial nativism of Hindutva ideology

Hindutva, or "Hinduness," is an ideology that seeks to define Indian culture in terms of Hindu values and promotes the idea of a Hindu nation. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar first articulated it in 1923. Hindutva is associated with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), among other organizations, and has been a significant force in Indian politics.

One aspect of Hindutva ideology is a form of racial or ethnic nativism, which posits that the Indian subcontinent is the ancestral homeland of Hindus. This is rooted in the notion of "Bharatvarsha" (the land of Bharata, an ancient king) as a sacred geography that is inherently Hindu.

The Hindutva ideology often emphasizes the Aryan indigenous theory, which argues that the Indo-European-speaking Aryans, traditionally believed to have migrated to India from Central Asia, were actually indigenous to India. This contrasts with the Aryan Invasion Theory, which suggests that the Aryans were foreign invaders. The indigenous theory supports the Hindutva narrative of India as the primordial homeland of Hindus, undermining the idea of Hinduism as a foreign or imported tradition.

Hindutva nativism is often associated with the ideal of a "Hindu Rashtra" (Hindu Nation), where Indian national identity is closely tied to Hindu religious and cultural practices. This has been critiqued for potentially marginalizing religious and cultural minorities in India, such as Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs, among others. Critics argue that this view neglects the diverse, pluralistic nature of Indian society.

It's important to note that the Hindutva view of history and ethnicity is not universally accepted and is a matter of ongoing debate in India. The interpretation of archaeological, linguistic, and historical evidence is complex and often contentious, reflecting the diverse and multifaceted nature of India's past.

Genetics and the Roots of Ancient Indian Civilizations

Genetics, specifically the field of population genetics, has increasingly become a significant source of information about human history. It can provide insights into ancient migrations, population interactions, and demographic changes that are often not accessible through archaeological or linguistic evidence alone.

In the context of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) and the debate about its relationship to the Dravidian and Indo-Aryan linguistic groups, genetic studies have begun to shed some light, although the findings are often complex and open to various interpretations.

A significant breakthrough in this area came with the study of ancient DNA from the Rakhigarhi site, one of the largest cities in the IVC. In a study published in 2019 in the journal "Cell," researchers analyzed genomic data from an individual who lived approximately 4,600 years ago. This individual, a woman, showed no genetic evidence of steppe ancestry, which is associated with Indo-European-speaking people. Instead, her genetic profile was similar to contemporary South Asian populations, particularly those in the Dravidian-speaking regions of India.

This finding supports the theory that the IVC was primarily Dravidian-speaking and that the Indo-European languages were introduced to the Indian subcontinent later, possibly through migrations or cultural influence from the steppe regions. However, it's important to note that this is based on the DNA of just one individual, and more genetic data from the IVC is needed to confirm these findings.

On the other hand, other genetic studies have shown that many South Asians have a mixture of both steppe and IVC-related ancestry, suggesting complex interactions and migrations over thousands of years.

While these genetic studies provide valuable insights, they also highlight the complexity of the peopling of the Indian subcontinent. Human history is a tapestry woven from countless individual threads, and while genetics can help trace some of these threads, it is just one piece of the puzzle. The interpretation of genetic data must be integrated with archaeological, linguistic, and historical evidence to build a comprehensive picture of our past. As such, the question of whether the IVC was Dravidian or Indo-Aryan is unlikely to be resolved through genetics alone.

The question of whether the Indus Valley civilization was Hindu or Dravidian is complex and multifaceted. It involves not just archaeological and linguistic evidence but also the interpretations of religious texts, the implications of colonialism, and the nationalistic narratives of modern India. While it is unlikely that a definitive answer will be found until the Indus script is deciphered, the debate continues to shed light on the rich and diverse history of the Indian subcontinent. It also serves as a poignant reminder of how our current context and interests shape how we perceive the past.

Indus Valley Civilization: A Glimpse into Its People, Governance, and Cultural Tapestry

The Indus Valley Civilization, flourishing around the areas of modern-day Pakistan and northwest India, has long intrigued historians and archaeologists with its advanced urban planning, sophisticated craftsmanship, and enigmatic script. In this article, we shed light on civilization's social fabric, governance, and cultural practices, offering a window into the life, attire, and societal organization of this ancient civilization.

The Fabric of Society: Attire and Appearance

The Harappan people exhibited a keen sense of fashion, distinguished by gender-specific attire and hairstyles that possibly denoted societal status or occupations. Men's clothing comprised dhoti-like garments, while women donned woven cotton or wool dresses, as inferred from the examination of various stone and terracotta figurines. These figurines not only reveal the fashion sensibilities of the Harappans but also hint at a society where personal adornment played a significant role in expressing identity and status.

Leisure and Cultural Practices

Leisure activities within the Harappan society, as depicted by terracotta figurines, included dancing, music, and games, indicating a community that valued joy and entertainment. Particularly noteworthy is the elevated social status of women, inferred from their elaborate hairstyles and participation in cultural activities. This aspect of Harappan life underscores a society where women held significant roles, both in the domestic and public spheres.

Religious Beliefs and Health

The worship of a mother goddess and a fertility cult, as evidenced by numerous sculptures and figurines, highlights the spiritual dimensions of the Harappan people, emphasizing fertility and the feminine divine. Furthermore, the analysis of Harappan health and diet through biological remains reveals a population that consumed a varied diet of grains, fruits, dairy, and fish, despite challenges such as malaria and biological heterogeneity.

The Enigmatic Pashupati Seal: The First Depiction Of Yoga?

Social Structure and Occupations

The diverse occupations and complex social structure of the Indus Valley Civilization reflect a highly organized society. From farmers to sculptors and priests, the array of professions and evidence of urban planning indicate a civilization with specialized roles and an intricate social hierarchy. This diversity challenges the notion of a homogeneously stratified society, suggesting instead a multifaceted community with rich cultural and occupational diversity.

Governance and Symbols of Power

The lack of military fortifications and records suggests the Indus Valley Civilization was predominantly peace-loving, with minimal emphasis on warfare. However, the existence of trading outposts and a common system of writing points towards a sophisticated level of administrative control and economic complexity. Symbols of power, such as the unicorn motif, indicate a ruling elite possibly comprising aristocrats or influential merchants, hinting at a decentralized but disciplined governance structure.

List Of Inventions And Discoveries Of The Indus Valley Civilisation

A Complex Society

The Indus Valley Civilization was marked by a complex social and political landscape, characterized by diverse occupations, rich cultural life, and a decentralized political structure. The evidence of social equality, leisure activities, and religious practices suggests a society that was advanced not only in terms of its urban planning and craftsmanship but also in its social organization and cultural expression.

The exploration of the Indus Valley Civilization's people, governance, and cultural practices offers invaluable insights into one of the world's oldest urban cultures. Through detailed analyses such as Merlin's, we continue to peel back the layers of mystery surrounding this enigmatic civilization, revealing a society that was remarkably sophisticated in its organization, cultural expression, and worldview. As we delve deeper into the Harappan way of life, we not only uncover the past but also gain perspectives that enrich our understanding of human history and the diverse paths civilizations can take.

Greco-Buddhist Art: A Fusion of Eastern and Hellenistic Traditions

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Greco-Buddhist art stands as a remarkable testament to the intermingling of classical Greek culture with Buddhism, marking a significant chapter in the annals of art history. This unique artistic tradition, known as Greco-Buddhism, emerged from a fascinating blend of Eastern and Western cultural elements, flourishing over a span of nearly a millennium. From the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC to the Islamic conquests of the 7th century AD, Greco-Buddhist art developed across Central Asia, showcasing the depth and breadth of cultural syncretism.

The inception of Greco-Buddhist art can be traced back to the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom, established in what is now Afghanistan between 250 BC and 130 BC. The establishment of the Indo-Greek kingdom from 180 BC to 10 BC further accelerated the spread of Hellenistic culture into the Indian subcontinent during this time period. It was in the Gandhara region of today's northern Pakistan that the melding of Greek and Buddhist cultures reached its zenith, under the auspices of the Indo-Greeks and later the Kushans. Gandhara became the cradle of Greco-Buddhist art, from which its influence radiated into India, impacting the art of Mathura and subsequently the Hindu art of the Gupta empire. This latter influence extended throughout Southeast Asia, while Greco-Buddhist art also made its way northward, leaving its mark on the Tarim Basin and ultimately influencing the arts of China, Korea, and Japan.

Characterized by the strong idealistic realism and sensuous depiction inherent to Hellenistic art, Greco-Buddhist art is renowned for introducing the first human representations of the Buddha. This pivotal development not only helped define the artistic and sculptural canon of Buddhist art across Asia but also served as a bridge between the aesthetic ideals of the East and the West. The portrayal of the Buddha in human form, imbued with the grace and precision of Greek sculpture, lent a new dimension to Buddhist iconography, enriching its symbolic and emotional depth.

The synthesis of Greek and Buddhist elements in art manifested in various forms, including sculpture, architecture, and relief art. The sculptures from this period are particularly notable for their elaborate drapery, reminiscent of Greek god statues, combined with the serene, contemplative facial expressions characteristic of Buddhist art. This blend of Greek artistic techniques with Buddhist iconography and themes resulted in a distinctly new style that had a lasting impact on the development of Buddhist art throughout Asia.

Greco-Buddhist art serves as a powerful example of cultural syncretism, illustrating how artistic expressions can transcend geographical and cultural boundaries to create new, hybrid forms. This artistic tradition not only highlights the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations but also underscores the role of art as a universal language capable of bridging diverse cultures. As such, Greco-Buddhist art remains a fascinating area of study for historians, archaeologists, and art enthusiasts alike, offering insights into the dynamic exchanges between the civilizations of the ancient world.

In conclusion, Greco-Buddhist art represents a significant cultural and artistic phenomenon, embodying the fusion of Eastern and Western traditions. Its legacy continues to influence and inspire the artistic landscape of Asia, serving as a testament to the enduring power of cultural exchange and the universal language of art.

An Indian Game of Thrones: How One Prince Saved the Chola Empire from Destruction

In the annals of history, tales of valor, cunning, and dynastic intrigue have always held a special place. While "Game of Thrones" may be a popular television series set in the fictional land of Westeros, there exists a real-life saga of power struggles, treachery, and a young prince's determination to save his empire. This is the story of how one prince, Rajendra Chola II, rose to the occasion and rescued the Chola Empire from the brink of destruction in ancient India.

The Chola Empire, renowned for its maritime prowess and grandeur, flourished in South India during the 10th century. However, by the early 13th century, the Chola Dynasty was in dire straits, facing threats from multiple fronts. Rival dynasties sought to seize Chola territories, and internal strife further weakened the once-mighty empire.

In the midst of this turmoil, Rajendra Chola II ascended to the Chola throne at the tender age of 16. It was a time when the Chola Empire teetered on the precipice of collapse, and the young prince faced the Herculean task of restoring his dynasty's former glory.

One of the most pressing challenges Rajendra Chola II faced was the rebellion led by the Pandya dynasty. The Pandya uprising threatened to dismantle the Chola Empire piece by piece. Yet, the young prince proved his mettle by quelling the rebellion and reasserting Chola dominance in the southern regions.

Recognizing the need for allies, Rajendra Chola II entered into strategic partnerships with neighboring powers. His diplomacy and military acumen secured the support of the Hoysala Empire and the Kakatiya Dynasty, further strengthening the Chola position against external threats.

The Chola Empire had a long history of maritime dominance, and Rajendra Chola II understood the importance of maintaining a formidable navy. Under his leadership, the Chola navy was revitalized, safeguarding the empire's coastal territories and ensuring the security of vital trade routes.

While military prowess played a crucial role in the survival of the Chola Empire, Rajendra Chola II was not merely a warrior. He was also a patron of the arts and culture. His reign witnessed a revival of Chola art and architecture, contributing to the enduring legacy of the dynasty.

Rajendra Chola II's reign marked a remarkable turnaround for the Chola Empire. Through a combination of military victories, strategic alliances, and a commitment to culture, he not only saved his dynasty from destruction but also paved the way for a period of Chola resurgence.

Conclusion

The story of Rajendra Chola II is a testament to the resilience of a young prince faced with overwhelming challenges. His ability to navigate the intricate web of politics, defeat formidable adversaries, and foster a cultural renaissance underscores his significance in Indian history. Rajendra Chola II's legacy serves as a reminder of the indomitable spirit that can resurrect empires from the brink of oblivion, making his reign an Indian "Game of Thrones" in its own right.

The Enigmatic Pashupati Seal: The First depiction of Yoga?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Unraveling the Mystery Behind the Pashupati Seal: A Glimpse into Ancient Yoga and Indus Valley Religion

The Pashupati Seal, excavated from the ancient ruins of Mohenjo-daro, remains one of the most enigmatic and intriguing artifacts of the Indus Valley Civilization. Discovered during the Archaeological Survey of India's 1928–29 exploration, this steatite seal, dating back to the Intermediate I Period (circa 2350–2000 BCE), offers a rare glimpse into the religious and cultural milieu of one of the world's earliest urban societies.

At the heart of the Pashupati Seal is a depiction that has sparked considerable debate among historians and archaeologists: a seated, possibly tricephalic figure, surrounded by animals. This figure, adorned with a horned headdress, has led to various interpretations, one of the most significant being its potential representation as an early form of the Hindu deity Shiva, known as "Pashupati," or Lord of Animals.

The depiction of the figure, potentially ithyphallic—a characteristic attributed to fertility or cosmic potency—was supported by the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) specialist Jonathan Mark Kenoyer in 2003. However, this interpretation has not been universally accepted, with some scholars questioning the hyperbolic nature of the figure.

What makes the Pashupati Seal particularly fascinating is its complexity and the prominence of a human figure, which is atypical in the context of the thousands of seals unearthed from the Indus Valley, where animals usually dominate the imagery. This uniqueness has fueled the theory that the seal may represent one of the earliest known depictions of Yoga, pointing to a possible ancient origin of this spiritual and ascetic discipline.

DescriptionThe Pashupati Seal is a steatite seal that was discovered at the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site of the Indus Valley Civilization. The seal depicts a seated figure that is possibly tricephalic. It was once thought to be ithyphallic, an interpretation that is now mostly discarded. Indiashastra

However, contemporary scholars lean towards viewing the Pashupati Seal through a broader lens. Rather than seeing it as a direct precursor to later Hindu deities or yogic practices, it is increasingly considered part of a larger tradition of "Lord of the Beasts" or "Master of Animals" motifs, prevalent in Eurasian Neolithic mythology and ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean art. This interpretation aligns the figure with a wider array of horned deities prevalent in various ancient cultures.

Important from a religious point of view are also the representations of fish, both on seals and on the ceramics of the specific era. The Sumerian god of waters, Enki, had the fish as his sacred symbol, while in Indian mythology, Varunas is the god of all water creatures. The connection between alligator fish and the deity Shiva, as known in this particular seal, also exists in later Hinduism.

This perspective broadens our understanding of the Indus Valley Civilization's religious beliefs, suggesting that they might have shared cultural and mythological elements with contemporary civilizations. It underscores the interconnectedness of ancient societies and the diffusion of religious and symbolic motifs across regions.

In conclusion, while the Pashupati Seal continues to be a subject of academic debate and intrigue, its value in providing insights into the religious life and artistic expression of the Indus Valley Civilization is indisputable. Whether it represents an early form of Shiva, a precursor to yogic practices, or a more universal archetype of a horned deity, it stands as a testament to the complexity and sophistication of one of humanity's earliest urban cultures. The seal not only invites us to delve deeper into the enigmatic world of the Indus Valley but also to appreciate the rich tapestry of ancient mythologies and religious practices that have shaped human civilization across millennia.

Aryan - A Term Lost in Translation: From Sanskrit to Modern Misconceptions

The Historical Complexity of the Term "Aryan"

In today's world, the term "Aryan" is often synonymous with notions of racial superiority and white supremacy, primarily due to its unfortunate association with Nazi ideology. This misunderstanding has led to a myriad of baseless concepts related to an alleged Aryan race, which have been hijacked and misused by racist ideologies. However, the true origins and historical context of the term "Aryan" reveal a far more complex and nuanced story.

The Pre-Nazi Origins of "Aryan"

To understand the term "Aryan" in its true historical context, we must look back to its origins, long before it became entangled with Nazi propaganda. The word "Aryan" initially referred to an ancient language whose speakers are believed to have influenced languages across the Indian subcontinent. It wasn't until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that it was erroneously equated with Germanic or Nordic peoples.

Who are the real Aryans?

Contrary to the misconceptions propagated by Nazi ideology, the earliest known Aryans dwelled in prehistoric Iran. These people migrated to northern India around 1,500 B.C. The term "Aryan" itself originates from the Sanskrit word "ārya," which also has a cognate in the Persian language, "ērān," giving rise to the modern-day name "Iran."

The Indus Valley Civilization

Before the arrival of the Aryans, the Indus Valley civilization had already reached a remarkable level of development. By 5500 BC, it had witnessed the emergence of religions, followed by the establishment of farming communities around 4000 BC and urban living around 2500 BC. The civilization reached its peak around 2000 B.C.

Arrival of the Aryans?

The Hindu Kush Mountains acted as a gateway for nomadic cattle herders from Central Asia, who were the Aryans, to settle in the fertile Indus Valley around 1500 BC. It's important to note that the Aryans were not unstoppable invaders but rather a group that gradually migrated to the region. Evidence suggests that the decline of the Indus Valley civilization was due to various factors, including environmental changes and social factors, rather than an Aryan invasion.

Diorama of everyday life in Indus Valley Civilization at the National Science Centre in Delhi, India. (Biswarup Ganguly / CC BY 3.0)

The Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

Archaeological findings indicate that the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization began around 1800 BC, possibly due to changes in river patterns, such as the drying up of the Saraswati River or catastrophic flooding. Natural disasters disrupted the agricultural practices that sustained civilization, leading to economic and societal collapse. The Aryans arrived in the region during this period, and their language and practices gradually integrated into the existing society.

the Kingdom of Aryan

The historical records related to the Kingdom of Aryan are scarce and often vague. Ancient sources make passing references to the Aryans, but their accuracy remains uncertain. For example, the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned that the people of Media were once called Aryans, but scholars debate the credibility of this account.

Aryan in Ancient Religions

In Zoroastrianism, the term "Airyana Vaejah" refers to the mythical homeland of the Iranian people but does not carry racial or hierarchical connotations. Persian kings like Darius the Great were also described as Aryans, likely indicating their Central Asian origins. In this context, Aryan denoted adherence to one's dharma, a concept related to proper behavior rather than racial superiority.

German anthropologist, Bruno Beger, conducting anthropometric studies as part of his work with the Nazis in their “scientific” studies to prove the superiority of the “Aryan” German race, as opposed to that of the “racially inferior” Jewish race. (Krause, Ernst / CC-BY-SA 3.0)

Distorted by Nazi Ideology

The term "Aryan" went through a transformation from describing an Indo-Iranian language to being associated with Indo-European peoples. This transition gave rise to the false idea that these ancient European peoples originated from the north and conquered Eurasia. While modern scholarship has debunked this theory, the concept of the Aryan race was distorted and misused for political purposes, particularly by the Nazis.

The history of the term "Aryan" is a tale of complexity and misunderstanding. Its true origins lie in an ancient language and migration to the Indian subcontinent, far removed from the racial hierarchies perpetuated by Nazi ideology. By unraveling the historical complexities surrounding "Aryan," we can promote a more inclusive and equitable society that values diversity and rejects racist ideologies, learning from the mistakes of the past.

Vimanas: The Mystical Flying Machines of Ancient Indian Lore

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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In the annals of ancient civilizations, many have tales of mysterious flying objects and advanced technologies far beyond their time. For ancient India, these stories are intricately woven into the fabric of its rich mythological tapestry, particularly in the form of "vimanas." Often depicted as flying chariots or celestial aircraft, vimanas have ignited imaginations and spurred debates about ancient technological advancements for centuries.

The Etymology and Descriptions

The Sanskrit term "vimana" can be loosely translated as "having been measured out" or "traversing." In early Vedic literature, the term predominantly referred to a temple's central structure or the palace of a deity. However, over time, its usage expanded to describe a more intriguing concept: aerial vehicles that traversed the sky and even space.

In ancient Indian texts, vimanas are depicted in various forms, ranging from bird-like structures to palatial flying chariots adorned with wings. Some accounts even describe them as vast cities floating in the sky, complete with gardens and courtyards.

Literary Mentions

Several ancient Indian scriptures, epics, and other texts reference vimanas:

Rigveda: One of the oldest ancient Indian scriptures, the Rigveda, mentions mechanical birds and flying chariots.

Ramayana: This epic chronicles the hero Rama's adventures and references vimanas, most notably the "Pushpaka Vimana," a magnificent flying chariot that could change its form.

Mahabharata: Another seminal epic, the Mahabharata, contains multiple references to aerial battles and sophisticated vimanas.

Vaimnika Shstra: Often cited by enthusiasts and researchers, this early 20th-century Sanskrit text provides detailed schematics and descriptions of vimanas. While it claims to be based on older texts, its authenticity and origins are topics of debate among scholars.

Technological Marvels or Mythological Symbols?

Vimanas, given their detailed descriptions and recurring presence in ancient texts, have sparked intense debates among historians, researchers, and enthusiasts. Three primary interpretations prevail:

1. Symbolic Representations: Some scholars argue that vimanas are purely symbolic, representing spiritual mastery, enlightenment, or the prowess of deities and celestial beings.

2. Historical Records: A contrasting view suggests that these accounts might be distorted records of advanced technological innovations lost over time or interactions with advanced civilizations.

3. Extraterrestrial Contact: Riding the wave of ancient astronaut theories, some propose that vimanas are evidence of ancient India's contact with extraterrestrial beings.

Influence on Popular Culture

The concept of vimanas has not remained confined to ancient texts. They have permeated modern pop culture, inspiring books, films, and TV shows. The allure of advanced ancient civilizations with flying machines fits seamlessly into science fiction and fantasy narratives.

Vimanas, whether viewed as mythological wonders or potential evidence of advanced ancient technologies, undeniably captivate the imagination. As with many ancient tales, they remind us of humanity's enduring fascination with flight, the skies, and the boundless possibilities of the universe. They stand as a testament to ancient India's rich storytelling tradition, where the lines between mythology, spirituality, and history often beautifully blur.

The Symbolism and Metaphors of the Vedas: Hidden Meanings and Profound Significance

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Some of the oldest and holiest texts in Hinduism can be found in a collection of Sanskrit texts known as the Vedas. Scholars and spiritual seekers have studied these texts for centuries, but we still don't know everything there is to know about them. 

Hymns, prayers, and rituals made up the Vedas, and they were passed down orally for centuries before being written down in Sanskrit. The Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda are the four primary Vedas. Even though each Veda is organized and contains different information, they are all revered as holy scripture by Hindus.

The Vedas' origins are a mystery. Scholars generally agree that the Vedas were written between 1500 BCE and 500 CE, but the exact date is unclear. Sages and seers in Hinduism were said to have received the Vedas as a divine revelation, and this has led to the belief that the Vedas are eternal. The Vedas have another name, ruti, which means "that which is heard," because they were originally transmitted through a system of recitation and memorization.

Yet another enigma is the Vedic language. Sanskrit, the language in which the Vedas were originally composed, is no longer spoken. Sanskrit is revered for its lyrical beauty and linguistic precision, but its complexity and high structure make it difficult to learn. The Vedas were composed in a form of Sanskrit called Vedic Sanskrit, which is distinct from the classical Sanskrit used in later Hindu texts. Scholars have been fascinated by the Vedas and their study of their language and structure for centuries.

Yet another unsolved puzzle is what exactly is in the Vedas. The Vedas are a treasure trove of knowledge about ancient Hinduism's cosmology, metaphysics, and even the mythology of the Hindu pantheon and the rituals and ceremonies performed in their honor. Hymns and prayers found in the Vedas are still regularly recited in Hindu homes and worship centers today. Scholars often disagree on how to make sense of certain Vedic passages and the extent to which they should be taken literally.

The Vedas' mysterious allure stems in no small part from the allegory and metaphor that permeate their texts. The Vedas are full of allegory and metaphor, which are used to explain abstract ideas in philosophy and religion. The Rigveda, for instance, has hymns that portray the cosmos as a sacrifice, with the gods and goddesses performing the ritual and the elements of space and time serving as the offering. The Samaveda details how to play the music used in Vedic rituals, while the Yajurveda details how to conduct sacrifices.

Due to their esoteric nature, the Vedas are also shrouded in mystery. It was the Brahmin caste's responsibility to perform the Vedic rituals and ceremonies, so only members of the Brahmin caste were allowed to read and understand the Vedas. It was only through a system of oral transmission from teacher to student that the Vedas could be preserved and spread from generation to generation, as they were regarded as sacred texts containing sacred knowledge.

The Vedas, for all their obscurity and difficulty, remain a cornerstone of Hinduism. When it comes to Indian religion and culture, the Vedas serve as the cornerstone. Buddhism and Jainism are just two examples of religions and philosophies that owe something to the Vedas. In conclusion, the Vedas' enigmas never cease to enthral and perplex academics and spiritual explorers. Many mysteries surround the Vedas, including their origin and language, as well as their symbolism and esoteric nature. The Vedas have been an integral part of human spirituality and culture for thousands of years, but their depth and mystery may be their most enduring qualities. And what other mysteries and insights might the Vedas still hold? Time, along with continued research and thought, may be the only thing that can shed light on the situation.

The Unwavering Legacy of the Iron Pillar: India's Timeless Monument

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

The Iron Pillar of Delhi is among India's most famous historical relics, and for good reason. This massive iron column has stood tall in the city center for over 1,600 years, and it still looks as good as new. The Iron Pillar has been the subject of countless investigations, but its true nature and purpose remain a mystery, casting doubt on our knowledge of ancient metalworking and engineering and giving rise to much speculation.

The Iron Pillar's materials and methods of construction remain a mystery. The wrought iron used to construct the pillar is of the highest quality, making it highly resistant to rust and corrosion. There is a great deal of mystery surrounding the pillar's construction due to the fact that it has withstood the test of time in essentially pristine condition despite the severe climate and air pollution of Delhi.

The Iron Pillar's history and age remain mysteries. The pillar was probably built sometime around the fourth century A.D., but the specific date and the reasons for its construction are unknown. It has been speculated that the Gupta Empire commissioned the pillar, while others argue that it was built by the Tomara dynasty. This mystery is made more complicated by the fact that the pillar is covered in illegible Sanskrit inscriptions.

Beyond these unexplained scientific conundrums, the Iron Pillar is also linked to a deep cultural history and religious practice. Both the Hindu and Muslim communities have held the pillar in high regard over the years, and it has become the focus of many myths and legends. It is believed that the Hindu gods invested the pillar with their magical powers, giving it the ability to grant wishes and ward off evil spirits. The presence of these myths and legends has prompted conjecture regarding the religious practices and beliefs of ancient India.

The Iron Pillar is surrounded by a plethora of myths and legends, but one thing is certain: this ancient artifact never ceases to amaze us with its mystery and beauty. The Iron Pillar of Delhi is a symbol of India's cultural and spiritual heritage as well as a testament to the ingenuity and resilience of the human spirit, whether viewed through the lens of engineering and metallurgy or as a symbol of India's rich cultural and spiritual heritage.

The mystery of the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization has now been solved

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THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Although it is considered one of the world's most ancient civilizations and the subject of extensive research, much about this ancient society remains unknown.

The growing Indus Valley Civilisation presided over the region that is now Pakistan and India four thousand years ago. From 2600 BC to 1500 BC, the Indus Valley Civilisation flourished in the Indian subcontinent near the Indus River. It probably had a profound impact on Hindu culture, according to archeological evidence. This civilization was lost to history until it was rediscovered in 1920. Taking into account the evidence of the appearance of cities, agriculture, architecture, and writing, it is ranked alongside its contemporaries, the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, as one of the three most ancient civilizations on Earth.Although it is considered one of the oldest civilizations in the world and the subject of extensive research, much about this ancient society remains unknown.

Himalayan cave stalagmite offers most detailed explanation yet of what led to ancient Indus civilization's decline, new study says.

The "social and political structures" of the Indus civilization, for example, are unknown, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. Archaeologists and historians know almost nothing about the language, the weight system, or the artifacts of the time. Yet one mystery remains the greatest of all: how, when, and why did the Indus Valley Civilization disappear?

Experts generally agree that a drought hit the Indus Valley about 4,200 years ago, but the "exact timing and magnitude" of that drought remain unknown, researchers said in a study published April 4 in the journal Communications Earth & Environment.

The Dharamjali cave in the Himalayas held the solutions to these vexing issues. Researchers discovered a stalagmite with a revealing mix of traits close to the far end of the tiny cave. Although the cave creation occurred in a weather-sensitive environment, it was protected enough to have formed during this prehistoric epoch. According to the study, the researchers were able to reconstruct historical rainfall patterns that started 4,200 years ago based on the stratified strata of minerals in the stalagmite.

Their findings provided a more thorough and slightly different picture of ancient life than what was previously known. The researchers discovered "three big drought periods" between 4,200 and 3,900 years ago, with each one "lasting 25-90 years," as opposed to "a single severe drought spanning roughly 100-200 years." In a press statement on April 24, research co-author Cameron Petrie of the University of Cambridge noted, "We find convincing evidence that this time was not a short-term crisis but a continuous transformation of the natural conditions under which Indus people lived." According to the study, rainfall dropped during these dry spells in both the summer and the winter. The drought had a negative impact on Indian towns' access to water as well as predictions of rainfall and river flooding for crucial crops.

"The archaeological findings show that over a period of 200 years, the ancient inhabitants took various measures to adapt and remain resilient in the face of this new environment," study lead author Alena Gise said in the release. The great megacities of the Indus, such as Harappa, began to decline as people moved to "smaller and more flexible agricultural settlements," as the researchers point out in the study. "Craftsmanship and innovation in Indian urban centers... and long-distance exchange and trade" also declined. About 300 years after the final dry period, about 3,600 years ago, the Indus Valley Civilization disappeared completely, a study suggests.

In order to better comprehend this final stage of decline, the researchers underlined the need of examining various cave formations, according to the report. The Indian Himalayan area of Uttaranchal is home to Dharamjali Cave, which is around 290 miles northeast of New Delhi and close to the borders with Nepal and China.

Ancient India's Mythic Concepts: Harappans, Aryans, and Proto-Shiva Seals

Ancient India has a rich and diverse cultural tapestry that is home to enigmatic civilizations and enduring mythological ideas. The Harappan or Indus Valley civilization, for instance, stands as one of the oldest and most extensive urban cultures of the ancient world. The sophistication of their cities, advanced amenities, and cultural diversity are indicative of a highly evolved society.

Recent discoveries have added intriguing layers to our understanding of this ancient civilization. Notably, the presence of pipal trees on Harappan seals has drawn attention to the possible existence of a meditating proto-Shiva. This proposes the belief that the roots of yogic meditation and the iconic figure of Shiva can be traced back to the ancient Harappans, shedding light on the profound spiritual practices of that era.

Furthermore, the appearance of Shiva on Harappan seals suggests a continuity of mythic concepts and cultural symbols across millennia. Seals possibly depicting Shiva and yogic meditation not only connect ancient and modern spiritual practices but also prompt a reevaluation of the origins of such iconic symbols, challenging established narratives.

The term 'Aryan' has also been scrutinized for its problematic implications and factual incoherence in modern usage. It has become essential to reject racist narratives and embrace scholarly and scientific approaches that steer away from outdated and harmful ideologies to foster a more inclusive and accurate understanding of ancient history.

Moreover, the assimilation of nomadic peoples with indigenous cultures in India and Central Asia demonstrates the intricate interplay of various ethnic and cultural groups, contributing to the complex fabric of ancient Indian society.

The cultural diversity within the Indus civilization is particularly captivating, evident in their burial customs and language. This highlights the complexities of society and the interactions between different groups of people, offering valuable insights into the dynamics of ancient social structures.

It is pertinent to note that the legacy of the Harappan civilization has not vanished into the mists of time but rather transitioned, leaving a genetic influence that persists in modern-day India. This enduring legacy serves as a testament to the depth of their impact on the cultural landscape of the region.

The migration of the Indo-Aryans and Indo-Iranians in different directions, along with the amalgamation of cultures from the Hindu Kush and India, led to the coalescence of the Vedas into a canonical form around 1000 BCE. This process of cultural fusion and evolution is reflected in the Rigveda, which embodies a blend of cultural influences from various regions.

However, scholarly research into ancient cultures, particularly concerning the Indo-European migration theory, is riddled with challenges, emphasizing the need for a nuanced and cautious approach to interpreting historical narratives, avoiding oversimplifications, and embracing the complexities inherent in the study of ancient civilizations.

In conclusion, the ancient cultures of India possess a profound and enduring richness that continues to influence the modern world. The revelations surrounding the Harappans, the scrutinization of Aryan narratives, and the confluence of diverse cultures exemplify the depth of India's historical and mythic legacy, urging us to delve deeper into the enigmatic tapestry of its past to unravel the intricacies of its cultural and spiritual heritage.

List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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This list of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation lists the technological and civilisational achievements of the Indus Valley Civilisation, an ancient civilisation which flourished in the Bronze Age around the general region of the Indus River and Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is today Pakistan, and parts of India.

The extent of the Indus Valley Civilisation

Inventions

Button, ornamental: Buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilisation for ornamental purposes by 2000 BC. Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread. Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."

Shipyard: The world's oldest shipyard has been found in Lothal. It is situated 80 km south of Ahmedabad in Gujarat.

Cockfighting: Cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilisation in what today is Pakistan by 2000 BC and one of the uses of the fighting cock. The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008)—on the origins of cockfighting—holds: "The game fowl is probably the nearest to the Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), from which all domestic chickens are believed to be descended...The sport was popular in ancient times in the Indian subcontinent, China, the Persian Empire, and other Eastern countries and was introduced into Greece in the time of Themistocles (c. 524–460 BC). The sport spread throughout Asia Minor and Sicily. For a long time the Romans affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but they ended up adopting it so enthusiastically that the agricultural writer Columella (1st century CE) complained that its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in betting at the side of the pit."

An ancient well, and the city drainage canals, in Lothal, Gujarat, India

Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilisation's archaeological site at Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan and Dholavira, India. The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BC, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure. The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture. Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism. Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200-400 CE. Subsequently, the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.

Bow Drill: Bow drills were used in Mehrgarh between the 4th and 5th millennium BC. This bow drill—used to drill holes into lapis lazuli and carnelian—was made of green jasper. Similar drills were found in other parts of the Indus Valley Civilisation and Iran one millennium later.

Public Baths: The earliest public baths are found in the ruins in of the Indus Valley Civilisation. According to John Keay, the "Great Bath" of Mohenjo Daro in present-day Pakistan was the size of 'a modest municipal swimming pool', complete with stairs leading down to the water at each one of its ends.

Grid Plan: Rehman Dheri contains the earliest evidence of a grid-planned city in south Asia dated c. 3300 BC. By 2600 BC, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and other major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, were built with blocks divided by a grid of straight streets, running north–south and east–west. Each block was subdivided by small lanes.

Flush Toilet: Mohenjo-Daro circa 2800 BC is cited as having some of the most advanced, with toilets built into outer walls of homes. These toilets were Western-style, albeit a primitive form, with vertical chutes, via which waste was disposed of into cesspits or street drains.

Drainage System: The Indus Valley Civilisation had advanced sewerage and drainage systems. All houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to covered gravity sewers, which lined the major streets.

Distillation: A terracota distillation apparatus in the Indus Valley in West Pakistan dates from around 3000 BC.

Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement in Pakistan on the westernmost outreaches of the civilisation

Cotton industry: The Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India.

Public Litter bins: Archaeologists have found several brick containers that were strategically located along the street junctions of Mohenjo-Daro specifically for garbage disposal.

Dentistry: The evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC. An IVC site in Mehrgarh indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead crafters. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.

Touchstone: Found in excavations from Banawali, Haryana.

Signboard: One of the most significant discoveries at Dholavira was made in one of the side rooms of the northern gateway of the city, and is generally known as the Dholavira Signboard. The Harappans had arranged and set pieces of the mineral gypsum to form ten large symbols or letters on a big wooden board. At some point, the board fell flat on its face. The wood decayed, but the arrangement of the letters survived. The letters of the signboard are comparable to large bricks that were used in nearby walls. Each sign is about 37 cm (15 in) high and the board on which the letters were inscribed was about 3 m (9.8 ft) long. The inscription is one of the longest in the Indus script, with one symbol appearing four times, and this and its large size and public nature make it a key piece of evidence cited by scholars arguing that the Indus script represents full literacy. A four-sign inscription with large letters on a sand stone is also found at this site, considered the first of such inscriptions on sand stone at any of the Harappan sites.

One of the water reservoirs, with steps, at Dholavira

Hydraulic Engineering: "The kind of efficient system of Harappans of Dholavira, developed for conservation, harvesting and storage of water speaks eloquently about their advanced hydraulic engineering, given the state of technology in the third millennium BC" says R.S.Bist, Joint Director General (Rtd.), Archaeological Survey of India. One of the unique features of Dholavira is the sophisticated water conservation system of channels and reservoirs, the earliest found anywhere in the world, built completely of stone. The city had massive reservoirs, three of which are exposed. They were used for storing fresh water brought by rains or to store water diverted from two nearby rivulets. This clearly came in response to the desert climate and conditions of Kutch, where several years may pass without rainfall. A seasonal stream which runs in a north–south direction near the site was dammed at several points to collect water.

Dams: In Neolithic Mehrgarh pre-Harappan phase (7000-3200 BC) people had developed a water storage system called Bund to trap rain and torrential waters in the semi-arid region of Kach in-between the Indus river and Balochistan mountains where the seasonal Bolan river flows. Stone walls were built along the slope of torrential river beds to serve as reservoir dams, restrict flow of water and for diverting water into canals for irrigation.

Stadium: the world's earliest stadium with terraced stands was constructed at Dholavira and Juni Kuran. Two stadiums have been identified at the ancient site, one is considered a ceremonial ground, another, a small stadium. At Juni Kuran, two separate stadiums for commoners and the elite have been discovered.

Bronze sculpture: Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro belonging to the Harappan civilisation dating back to 2500 BC is said to be the first bronze statue.

Lost wax casting: a detailed, full-field photoluminescence study of a 6,000 year old copper "wheel" amulet from Mehrgarh in Balochistan has opened the door to many new facts about this period of history. This study by Ipanema, the European center for the study of ancient materials, believes that this is the oldest known example of the "lost wax" casting technique, one of the most important innovations in the history of metallurgy.

Shampoo: Pre-Harappan level of Banawali (2750-2500 BC), Haryana have revealed traces of a mixture of shikakai with soap nuts and Amla (Indian Gooseberry) of what would constitute herbal shampoo, exhibiting ancient roots of South Asian hygiene.

Mordant (Dye Fixing): Mordants for fixing dyes were used since the Indus Valley Civilisation, it exhibited Indian mastery over clothes dyeing which was unrivalled until the invention of western chemical dyes.

Stoneware: Earliest stonewares, predecessors of porcelain have been recorded at the Indus Valley Civilisation sites of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, they were used for making stoneware bangles.

Seven Stones: An Indian subcontinent game also called Pitthu is played in rural areas and has its origins in the Indus Valley Civilisation.

English Bond: This bond has alternating stretching and heading courses, with the headers centred over the midpoint of the stretchers, and perpends in each alternate course aligned. Harappan architecture in South Asia was the first use, anywhere in the world, of so-called English bond in building with bricks.

Saw, modern: True saws with modern teeth were a Harappan invention.

Needle's eye: The eye of the needle was another Harappan contribution.

Etched Carnelian beads: are a type of ancient decorative beads made from carnelian with an etched design in white. They were made according to a technique of alkaline-etching developed by the Harappans during the 3rd millennium BC and were widely disperced from China in the east to Greece in the west.

Finished Ivory Goods: Finished Ivory products like kohl sticks, pins, awls, hooks, toggles, combs, gamesmen, dice, inlay and other personal ornaments are considered to have its origin form Harappan sites.

Discoveries

Gemstones and Lapis Lazuli: Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at Bhirrana, which is the oldest site of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Sesame oil: Sesame seeds were one of the first crops processed for oil as well as one of the earliest condiments. Sesame was cultivated during the Indus Valley Civilisation and was the main oil crop. It was probably exported to Mesopotamia around 2500 BC.

Pashmina: Samples of wool fibres discovered from corroded copper artifacts from Harappa dating back to the Indus Valley Civilisation are extremely fine and resemble Pashmina and Shatoosh.

Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation

The ancient Indus Valley Civilization in South Asia, including current day's Pakistan and north India, was prominent in infrastructure, hydraulic engineering, and had many water supply and sanitation devices that are the first known examples of their kind.

Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro

Most houses of Indus Valley were made from mud, dried mud bricks, or clay bricks. The urban areas of the Indus Valley civilization included public and private baths. Sewage was disposed of through underground drains built with precisely laid bricks, and a sophisticated water management system with numerous reservoirs was established. In the drainage systems, drains from houses were connected to wider public drains. Many of the buildings at Mohenjo-Daro had two or more stories. Water from bathrooms on the roofs and upper stories was carried through enclosed terracotta pipes or open chutes that emptied onto the street drains.

A water well in Lothal

The earliest evidence of urban sanitation was seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and the recently discovered Rakhigarhi. This urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, wastewater was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.

Devices such as shadoofs and sakias were used to lift water to ground level. Ruins like Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan and Dholavira in Gujarat in India had settlements with some of the ancient world's most sophisticated sewage systems. They included drainage channels, rainwater harvesting, and street ducts.

Water reservoir, with steps, at Dholavira, Gujarat, India

Stepwells have mainly been used in the Indian subcontinent.

Several courtyard houses had both a washing platform and a dedicated toilet/waste disposal hole. The toilet holes would be flushed by emptying a jar of water, drawn from the house's central well, through a clay brick pipe, and into a shared brick drain, that would feed into an adjacent soak pit (cesspit). The soak pits would be periodically emptied of their solid matter, possibly to be used as fertilizer. Most houses also had private wells. City walls functioned as a barrier against floods.

Mohenjo-daro

The Great Bath

Mohenjo-daro, located in Sindh, Pakistan, is one of the best excavated and studied settlements from this civilization. The Great Bath might be the first of its kind in the pre-historic period. This ancient town had more than 700 wells, and most houses in Mohenjo-Daro had at least one private well.

Dholavira

Dholavira, located in Gujarat, India (c. 3000-1500 BC),[3] had a series of water storage tanks and step wells, and its water management system has been called "unique". Dholavira had at least five baths and the size of one is comparable with the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro.

Lothal

The bathroom-toilet structure of a house in Lothal

Lothal, Gujarat (c. 2350–1900 BC), excavation of the site has identified two wells in the city, one in the acropolis and the other by the dock. In addition, more than a dozen houses of the acropolis possessed their own internal bathing platform which drained into a covered communal sewer constructed of brickwork held together with a gypsum-based mortar and which emptied into a cesspit outside the town's wall. A relatively large house in the acropolis had a bathing platform with an attached latrine, that fed into a separate open drain, and discharged into the town's dock. The Lower town hosts a number of soak pots, large sunken jars with a hole in the bottom, to permit liquids to drain, which were regularly emptied and cleaned.

Pakistan's Monsoon Rains Threaten 4,500-Year-Old UNESCO World Heritage Site

Mystery still surrounds the disappearance of the civilisation in this 4,500 year old city, which coincided with those of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia

In this photograph taken on Feb. 9, 2017, visitors walk through the UNESCO World Heritage archeological site of Mohenjo Daro. Once the centre of a powerful civilization, Mohenjo Daro was one of the world's earliest cities — a Bronze Age metropolis boasting flush toilets, as well as a water and waste system to rival modern standards. (Asif Hassan/AFP/Getty Images

Pakistan’s catastrophic floods are threatening one of the world’s oldest known cities after the large-scale devastation already led to the death of over 1,300 people and destroyed billions of dollar worth of property.

The authorities in the southern Sindh province have said the flooding poses an imminent risk to the ruins of Mohenjo Daro — a 4,500-year-old city of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation and a UNESCO world heritage site.

The flooding has not directly hit Mohenjo Daro, but the record-breaking rains have inflicted damage on the ruins of the ancient city, said Ahsan Abbasi, the site’s curator.

“Several big walls, which were built nearly 5,000 years ago, have collapsed because of the monsoon rains,” Abbasi told The Associated Press on Tuesday.

This aerial photograph taken on Aug. 31 shows the flooded Indus River along the Sukkur Barrage after heavy rains in flood-hit Sukkur, Sindh province. (AFP/Getty Images)

He said dozens of construction workers under the supervision of archaeologists have started the repair work. Mr Abbasi did not give an estimated cost of the damages at Mohenjo Daro but Pakistan’s government has said the overall damages from the flood may be over $13bn now.

The History of Writing; Tracing the Development of expressing Language by Systems of Markings

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by dimosthenis vasiloudis

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Protowriting, ideographic systems, or early mnemonic symbols came before more advanced writing systems in the evolution of writing in human societies (symbols or letters that make remembering them easier).

A subsequent development is true writing, in which the content of a spoken language is encoded so that another reader may reasonably reconstruct the identical utterance written down. It differs from proto-writing, which frequently forgoes recording grammatical words and affixes, making it harder or even impossible to reassemble the precise meaning intended by the writer unless a substantial amount of context is already known in advance.

Writing innovations

The idea that writing originated in a single civilization and was called "monogenesis" persisted for a long time. According to academics, all writing originated in Mesopotamia's ancient Sumer and spread around the world as a result of cultural diffusion. This argument holds that traders or merchants traveling between geographical locations passed on the idea of representing language by written signs, though perhaps not necessarily the specifics of how such a system operated.

The finding of ancient Mesoamerican scripts, far from Middle Eastern sources, demonstrated, however, that writing had been created more than once. In at least four ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia (between 3400 and 3100 BCE), Egypt (about 3250 BCE), China (1200 BCE), and lowland portions of southern Mexico and Guatemala, writing may have independently originated (by 500 BCE).

Some academics have suggested that ancient Egypt "The earliest authentic examples of Egyptian writing differ from Mesopotamian writing in both structure and style, indicating that they must have emerged independently. Although there is still a chance that Mesopotamian "stimulus dispersion" occurred, the influence could not have extended beyond the dissemination of an idea."

Because there is no evidence of communication between ancient China and the Near Eastern literate civilizations, as well as because Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches to phonetic representation differ, it is thought that ancient Chinese characters are independent creations.

The Vinča symbols.

The Rongorongo script of Easter Island, the Vina symbols from about 5500 BCE, and the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization are all controversial. Since none have been translated, it is unclear if they all represent real writing, protowriting, or something entirely different.

The earliest coherent texts date from around 2600 BCE, and Sumerian archaic (pre-cuneiform) writing and Egyptian hieroglyphs are usually regarded as the earliest authentic writing systems. Both developed out of their ancestors' proto-literate symbol systems between 3400 and 3100 BCE. The Proto-Elamite script belongs to roughly the same time frame.

writing methods

Writing systems are distinct from symbolic communication systems. For most writing systems, reading a text requires some knowledge of the spoken language that goes along with it. In contrast, it's not always necessary to have a prior understanding of a spoken language to use symbolic systems like information signs, paintings, maps, and mathematics. Every human group has its own language, which is thought by many to be a natural and essential aspect of mankind.

Writing system development has been intermittent, uneven, and delayed, and old oral communication systems have only been partially replaced. Writing systems generally develop more slowly after they are formed than their spoken counterparts and frequently preserve traits and idioms that have been lost to the spoken language.

Three writing standards are thought to apply to all writing systems. First, writing must be comprehensive; it must have a meaning or purpose, and it must make a point or be able to convey that message. Second, whether they are physical or digital, all writing systems must include some kind of symbol that can be created on a surface. In order to facilitate communication, the writing system's symbols must resemble spoken words or speech.

The greatest advantage of writing is that it gives society a way to regularly and thoroughly preserve information—something that the spoken word could not previously do as successfully. Writing enables communities to communicate knowledge, transmit information, and

stages of development

Sumer

An ancient civilization of southern Mesopotamia, is believed to be the place where written language was first invented around 3200 BCE.

Beginning with the Neolithic pottery phase, when clay tokens were used to keep track of particular quantities of animals or other goods, writing first appeared. These tokens were initially imprinted on the exterior of spherical clay envelopes, which were later used to keep them. Afterwards, flat tablets were gradually introduced in place of the tokens, and signs were recorded using a stylus. Towards the end of the fourth millennium BCE, Uruk was where actual writing was first discovered. Other areas of the Near East quickly followed.

The earliest recorded account of the development of writing is found in a poem from ancient Mesopotamia:

The Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and wrote on it like a tablet because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat the message. It has never been possible to write on clay before.

Enmerkar and the King of Aratta, a Sumerian epic written around 1800 BCE

Although there is agreement among scholars as to the difference between prehistory and the history of early writing, there is disagreement as to when proto-writing became "real writing." The criteria are somewhat arbitrary. In the broadest sense, writing is a way of keeping track of information. It is made up of graphemes, which in turn can be made up of glyphs.

Many centuries of shattered inscriptions typically follow the advent of writing in a particular region. The presence of coherent texts in a culture's writing system is how historians determine a culture's "historicity".

Standard reconstruction of the development of writing. There is a possibility that the Egyptian script was invented independently from the Mesopotamian script.

A conventional "proto-writing to true writing" system follows a general series of developmental stages:

Picture writing system: glyphs (simplified pictures) directly represent objects and concepts. In connection with this, the following substages may be distinguished:

• Mnemonic: glyphs primarily as a reminder.

• Pictographic: glyphs directly represent an object or a concept such as (A) chronological, (B) notices, (C) communications, (D) totems, titles, and names, (E) religious, (F) customs, (G) historical, and (H) biographical.

• Ideographic: graphemes are abstract symbols that directly represent an idea or concept.

Pre-cuneiform tags, with drawing of goat or sheep and number (probably "10"): "Ten goats", Al-Hasakah, 3300–3100 BCE, Uruk culture.

Transitional system: graphemes refer not only to the object or idea that it represents but to its name as well.

• Phonetic system: graphemes refer to sounds or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme is not related to its meanings. This resolves itself into the following substages:

• Verbal: grapheme (logogram) represents a whole word.

• Syllabic: grapheme represents a syllable.

• Alphabetic: grapheme represents an elementary sound.

Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC and among the earliest form of writing in Egypt. They are remarkably similar to contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.

The best known picture writing system of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols are:

• Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, c. 6600 BCE

• Vinča symbols (Tărtăria tablets), c. 5300 BCE[24]

• Early Indus script, c. 3100 BCE

In the Old World, true writing systems developed from neolithic writing in the Early Bronze Age (4th millennium BC).

Locations and timeframes

Comparative evolution

from pictograms to abstract shapes, in Mesopotamian cuneiforms, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters

Proto-writing

The first writing systems of the Early Bronze Age were not a sudden invention. Rather, they were a development based on earlier traditions of symbol systems that cannot be classified as proper writing, but have many of the characteristics of writing. These systems may be described as "proto-writing". They used ideographic or early mnemonic symbols to convey information, but it probably directly contained no natural language. These systems emerged in the early Neolithic period, as early as the 7th millennium BC, and include:

• The Jiahu symbols found carved in tortoise shells in 24 Neolithic graves excavated at Jiahu, Henan province, northern China, with radiocarbon dates from the 7th millennium BCE. Most archaeologists consider these not directly linked to the earliest true writing.

• Vinča symbols, sometimes called the "Danube script", are a set of symbols found on Neolithic era (6th to 5th millennia BCE) artifacts from the Vinča culture of Central Europe and Southeast Europe.

• The Dispilio Tablet of the late 6th millennium may also be an example of proto-writing.

• The Indus script, which from 3500 BCE to 1900 BCE was used for extremely short inscriptions.

The Dispilio Tablet

The Dispilio tablet is a wooden tablet bearing inscribed markings, unearthed during George Hourmouziadis's excavations of Dispilio in Greece, and carbon 14-dated to 5202 (± 123) BC.

It was discovered in 1993 in a Neolithic lakeshore settlement that occupied an artificial island near the modern village of Dispilio on Lake Kastoria in Kastoria, Western Macedonia, Greece.

Even after the Neolithic, a number of societies used proto-writing as a transitional form before adopting formal writing. Such a mechanism might have existed in the quipu of the Incas (15th century CE), often known as "talking knots". Another example is the pictographs created by Uyaquk before the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language developed the Yugtun syllabary around 1900.

Ancient writing

The Bronze Age saw the development of writing in a wide range of cultures. Indus script, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Cretan hieroglyphs, Chinese logographs, Sumerian cuneiform writing, and the Olmec script of Mesoamerica are a few examples. Around 1600 BCE, the Chinese script most likely evolved apart from the Middle Eastern scripts. It is also generally accepted that the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems, which include the Olmec and Maya scripts, had separate origins. In 2000 BCE, it is believed that the first real alphabetic writing was created for Hebrew laborers in the Sinai by assigning Semitic values to mostly Egyptian hieratic characters (see History of the alphabet and Proto-Sinaitic alphabet).

Ethiopia's Geez writing system is regarded as Semitic. With roots in the Meroitic Sudanese ideogram system, it is most likely of semi-independent origin. The majority of alphabets used today are either direct descendants of this one invention, many through the Phoenician alphabet, or were designed in direct response to it. The early Old Italic alphabet and Plautus (c. 750–250 BCE) were separated by around 500 years in Italy, while the Elder Futhark inscriptions and early works like the Abrogans (c. 200–750 CE) are separated by a similar amount of time in the case of the Germanic peoples.

Cuneiform writing

The first Sumerian script was derived from a system of clay tokens used to denote different types of goods. This had developed into a system of keeping accounts by the end of the fourth millennium BC, utilizing a stylus with a circular form that was impressed into soft clay at various angles to record numbers. A pointed stylus was used to gradually add pictographic lettering on this to show what was being counted. Writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the name "cuneiform") began to include phonetic features by the 29th century BCE and gradually replaced writing with a round stylus and a sharp stylus by about 2700–2500 BCE.

Cuneiform first started to represent Sumerian syllables around 2600 BCE. Ultimately, cuneiform writing evolved into a general-purpose system for writing numerals, syllables, and logograms. This alphabet was adapted to the Akkadian language starting in the 26th century BCE, and from there to others like Hurrian and Hittite. This writing system resembles Old Persian and Ugaritic scripts in appearance.

Hieroglyphics from Egypt

Literacy was concentrated among a well-educated elite of scribes, who played a crucial role in upholding the Egyptian empire through writing. To become scribes in the employ of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authority, one had to come from a certain background.

According to Geoffrey Sampson, the general concept of expressing words from a language in writing was likely transmitted to Egypt via Sumerian Mesopotamia. Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into being a little after Sumerian script, and, possibly [were], invented under the influence of the latter." Despite the significance of early Egypt-Mesopotamia links, "no definitive judgment has been established as to the genesis of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt" due to the lack of direct evidence. However, it is stated and agreed upon that "a very compelling argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt" and that "the evidence for such direct influence remains fragile."

Egyptian writing does suddenly appear at that time, but Mesopotamia has an evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to around 8000 BCE. Since the 1990s, discoveries of glyphs at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the conventional idea that the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one. These glyphs were discovered in tomb U-J at Abydos; they were written on ivory and most likely served as labels for other items discovered there.

Even though he acknowledged that Egypt's geographic location made it a receptacle for many influences, Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar maintained that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols originated from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and that in regards to writing, "we have seen that a purely Nilotic, therefore African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality."

Elamite writing

The unintelligible Proto-Elamite writing first appears around 3100 BCE. Around the latter third millennium, it is thought to have evolved into Linear Elamite, which was later supplanted by Elamite Cuneiform, which was adapted from Akkadian.

Indus script

Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a writing system used to record the as yet unidentified language(s) of the Indus Valley civilisation.

The Indus script has been assigned to markings and symbols discovered at numerous Indus Valley civilization sites due to the hypothesis that they were used to transcribe the Harappan language. It is disputed whether the script, which was in use from roughly 3500 to 1900 BCE, is a Bronze Age writing script (logographic-syllabic) or merely proto-writing symbols. According to analysis, it was written in boustrophedon or from right to left.

early SEMITIC ALPHABETS

Around 1800 BCE in Ancient Egypt, the first "abjads," which mapped individual symbols to individual phonemes but not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol, appeared as a representation of the language created there by Semitic workers. However, by that time, alphabetic principles had only a remote chance of being ingrained into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium.

Did the Proto-Canaanite alphabet take its symbols independently of the hieroglyphs?

It is only until the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script separates into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BCE), Byblos syllabary, and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BCE). These early abjads remained of minor significance for several decades. The untranslated Byblos syllabary most likely had some influence on the Proto-Canaanite, which in turn provided inspiration for the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BCE).

Anatolian hieroglyphs

The Hieroglyphic Luwian language was written down using Anatolian hieroglyphs, a native hieroglyphic script found in western Anatolia. Around the fourteenth century BCE, it initially appeared on royal seals of the Luwians.

Chinese characters

The corpus of inscriptions on oracle bones and brass from the late Shang dynasty is the earliest authenticated example of the Chinese script that has been found so far. The oldest of these is believed to date from about 1200 BCE.

There have been recent finds of tortoise-shell carvings from around 6000 BCE, such as Jiahu Script and Banpo Script, but it is debatable whether or not the carvings are complex enough to be considered writing. 3,172 cliff carvings from the period between 6000 and 5000 BCE have been found near Damaidi in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. They contain 8,453 different characters, including images of the sun, moon, stars, gods, and scenes of grazing or hunting.

Replica

of ancient Chinese script on an oracle turtle shell

These pictographs are thought to resemble the first Chinese characters that have been confirmed to be written. Writing in China would predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, traditionally recognized as the first manifestation of writing, by about 2,000 years if it were to be considered a written language. However, it is more likely that the inscriptions represent a type of proto-writing, comparable to the modern European Vinca script.

Early Greek and Cretan scripts

Cretan relics include hieroglyphic writing (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BCE, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). The Mycenaean Greek writing system, Linear B, has been decoded, but Linear A has not yet been. The three overlapping, but distinct, writing systems can be categorized according to their chronological order and geographic distribution as follows:

• Cretan Hieroglyphic / Crete (eastward from the Knossos-Phaistos axis) / c. 2100−1700 BCE

• Linear A / Crete (except extreme southwest), Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), Greek mainland (Laconia) and west Minor Asia (Miletus and maybe Troy) / c. 1800−1450 BCE

• Linear B / Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) / c. 1450−1200 BCE

The archaeological finds with signs of pre-alphabetic scripts in the Aegean

(Up) The finds with signs of Linear B script reach about 6,000 and constitute the majority of the pre-alphabetic written monuments of the Aegean.

(Middle) About 1,400 are the finds which imprint Linear A and make up a 11% of all pre-alphabetic inscriptions.

(Down) Cretan hieroglyphics occupies 2% of the available finds with only 400 finds.

Illustration: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Mesoamerica

The Cascajal Block, a stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing that predates the first Zapotec writing from around 500 BCE, was found in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere.

Stela 12 and 13

from the southern end of Building L, in the Zapotec city of Monte Albán, Outside of Oaxaca, Mexico.

The Maya script is one of numerous pre-Columbian scripts found in Mesoamerica, and it appears to have been the most well-developed and extensively deciphered. The earliest clearly identifiable Maya inscriptions date to the third century BCE, and writing continued to be used until just before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century BCE. A combination of logograms and syllabic symbols, utilized in Maya writing, is somewhat reminiscent of current Japanese writing.

IRON AGE WRITING

The Proto-Canaanite alphabet, which was used into the Iron Age, is all that the Phoenician alphabet is (conventionally taken from a cut-off date of 1050 BCE). The Greek and Aramaic alphabets were derived from this alphabet. They eventually gave rise to the writing systems that are currently used everywhere from Western Asia to Africa and Europe. The Greek alphabet, on the other hand, was the first to use specific symbols to represent vowel sounds.

By Matt Baker

In the first centuries of the Common Era, the Greek and Latin alphabets gave rise to a number of European scripts, including the Runes, Gothic, and Cyrillic alphabets, while the Aramaic alphabet developed into the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac abjads, the latter of which spread as far as Mongolian script. The Ge'ez abugida originated from the South Arabian alphabet. According to some academics, the Indian Brahmic family also descended from the Aramaic alphabet.

GRAKLIANI HILL WRITING

At Georgia's Grakliani Hill, behind a fallen altar from a temple dedicated to a fertility goddess from the seventh century BCE, an obscure script was uncovered in 2015. Grakliani's other temples' inscriptions, which depict animals, people, or decorative features, are different from these ones. Although its letters are rumored to be connected to ancient Greek and Aramaic, the script has no similarities to any known alphabet. In contrast, the earliest Armenian and Georgian letters come from the fifth century CE, right after the respective nations converted to Christianity. The inscription looks to be the oldest local alphabet ever uncovered in the entire Caucasus region. An portion of the inscription measuring 31 by 3 inches had been unearthed by September 2015.

Grakliani script on the basement of altar of goddess of fertility (XI-X c. BC)

Vakhtang Licheli, director of the State University's Institute of Archaeology, claims that "The writings on the temple's two altars have been kept in remarkably good condition. While the pedestal of the second altar is entirely covered with writings, the first altar has few clay letters carved into it." Unpaid students made the discovery. Inscriptions from Grakliani Hill were sent to Miami Laboratory in 2016 for beta analytic radiocarbon dating, which revealed that they were created between c. 1005 and c. 950 BCE.

WRITING IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician script for use with their own language in the early eighth century BCE, the history of the Greek alphabet officially began. The Greek and Phoenician alphabets share a lot of similarities in terms of their characters, and both alphabets nowadays are written in the same order. The Phoenician system's adapter(s) added three letters to the conclusion of the series, known as the "supplementals." The Greek alphabet evolved into a number of different forms.

Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens

One was utilized in southern Italy and west of Athens and is known as Western Greek or Chalcidian. The other variant, known as Eastern Greek, was spoken by the Athenians and in modern-day Turkey before spreading over the rest of the Greek-speaking world. The Greeks initially elected to write like the Phoenicians, from right to left, but subsequently switched to left to right. The lines would then alternately read from left to right, then from right to left, and so on. On occasion, though, the writer would begin the next line where the preceding one ended. Up until the sixth century, this style of writing, called "boustrophedon," mirrored the course of an ox-drawn plough.

Italic scripts and Latin

Cippus Perusinus

Etruscan writing near Perugia, Italy, the precursor of the Latin alphabet

All of the contemporary European scripts have their roots in Greek. The Latin alphabet, named after the Latins, a central Italian people who came to rule Europe with the emergence of Rome, is the most widely used descendant of the Greek script. Around the fifth century BCE, the Etruscan civilization, which employed a multitude of Italic scripts descended from the western Greeks, taught the Romans how to write. The other Old Italic scripts have not survived in very large quantities due to the cultural hegemony of the Roman state, and the Etruscan language is largely extinct.

WRITING DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Roman rule in Western Europe fell apart, and the Persian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire became the main centers of literary development. Latin, which was never a major literary language, lost prominence quickly (except within the Roman Catholic Church). Greek and Persian were the two main literary languages, but Syriac and Coptic were also significant.

Arabic quickly became a significant literary language in the area as a result of the development of Islam in the 7th century. Greek's status as a scholarly language soon lost ground to Arabic and Persian. The Turkish and Persian languages now use Arabic script as their principal writing system. The development of the cursive scripts for Greek, the Slavic languages, Latin, and other languages was also greatly inspired by this script.

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system was also extended throughout Europe thanks to the Arabic language. The modern Spanish city of Cordoba had emerged as one of the world's leading intellectual hubs by the start of the second millennium and was home to the largest library at the time. Its location at the meeting point of the Islamic and Western Christian worlds encouraged intellectual growth and written exchange between the two cultures.

THE MODERN ERA AND THE RENAISSANCE

By the 14th century, Western Europe had experienced a renaissance, which had temporarily increased the significance of Greek while slowly restoring Latin's status as an important literary language. In Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, a comparable but smaller emergence took place. As the Islamic Golden Era came to an end, Arabic and Persian also started to slowly lose ground. In order to codify the phonologies of the various languages, the Latin alphabet underwent several alterations as a result of the rebirth of literary development in Western Europe.

Writing has undergone steady change throughout history, in large part because of the emergence of new technologies. Technology advancements such as the printing press, computer, mobile phone, and pen have all changed how and what is written as well as the medium in which it is generated. Characters can now be generated with a button press rather than a hand motion, especially with the development of digital technology like the computer and the smartphone.

Why we still can't Crack the Indus Valley Script?

The Indus script (also known as the Harappan script) is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus Valley Civilization. Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a script used to record a language, or even symbolize a writing system. In spite of many attempts, the 'script' has not yet been deciphered, but efforts are ongoing.

There is no known bilingual inscription to help decipher the script, and the script shows no significant changes over time.

But why has no serious researcher deciphered the script?

There is a strong disagreement among linguists and Indologists about the very nature of the script. Indologists claim that the Indus script may not have been linguistic at all, while Asko Parpola, professor emeritus University of Helsinki, Finland, who has been trying to decipher the script since 1968, and others say it was pretty much linguistic and may have belonged to the Dravidian family of languages.

We also don't know which language(s) was spoken in the Indus civilization. Extreme brevity of the Indus texts (average text length is about five signs), absence of bilingual or multilingual texts, and apparent discontinuity in traditions at the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization are also the other problems.

How did People of The Indus Valley Civilization Look Like?

We go back in time and look at the faces of the people coming from the Indus valley civilization, that was a Bronze Age civilization, in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BC to 1300 BC. Its sites are spanning an area stretching from today's northeast Afghanistan, through much of Pakistan, and into western and northwestern India. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, which flows through the length of Pakistan. Some experts believe that it predates the ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations.