The world of Greek clay figurines

For centuries in ancient Greece, figurines were made of baked clay, as it was one of the most malleable and cheapest materials. But for a long time they were considered insignificant mass products. The special exhibition "Perfection and mass - The world of Greek clay figurines" ("Klasse und Masse. Die Welt griechischer Tonfiguren") at the internationally renowned "Altes Museum" in Berlin puts the spotlight on the often underrated clay and an equally undervalued art form. The focus is on the richness of colorful figural representation as well as the production, use and reception of ancient clay figurines. It ties them back into the historical context of their use, opening up a new perspective in scholarly research for the organizers.

The 56 selected figurines, which will be shown together with other individual objects that have rarely or never been exhibited before, such as ceramic and marble statuettes, come from the famous "Collection of Antiquities" (Antikensammlung) of the National Museums in Berlin. It is a collection of ancient Greek, Roman and Etruscan works comparable to those of the Louvre and the British Museum, surpassed only by their counterparts in Italy and Greece, according to the newspaper "Die Welt". The entire "Collection" was exhibited for the first time in 72 years in 2011 in the "Old Museum" which was renovated after the reunification of Germany, as it preceded the Second World War, the transfer to the Soviet Union and the return to what was then East Berlin. The exhibits provide an overall picture of the diverse world of ancient clay figurines and illuminate many aspects of everyday life in ancient Greece.

Clay was used in antiquity not only for the mass production of figurines accessible to the common people, but also for individual, colorful figurines that were very elaborately crafted. These benches were also popular among the ancient social elite. Among them are unique pieces of great value, as evidenced by the impressive "Venus of Haile" (140 BC) found in Myrina in Ionia. The famous clay statuette was acquired in 1930 by the Maican Maximilian von Heil and is considered the masterpiece of the "Old Museum". It depicts the goddess in a garment that glides over her body with incomparable elegance. The former "Queen of Prussia", as the "Süddeutsche" newspaper described her in its first report twelve years ago, is missing the ends of her arms and one leg.

From the 7th century BC, the potters increasingly used hollow molds of fired clay with which they could produce an entire series of similar figures. Their partial use for the head or the body led to numerous combinations and variations. Each finished mold could in turn serve as a die for another generation of figurines. With the help of molds, they could be easily copied or distinguished from each other. However, this technique was used not only to produce mass figures, but also unique figures of very high quality.

In 1870, ancient clay figurines called "Tanagraia", were found near Tanagra, elegant and colorful figurines of young women with artfully folded clothing, mostly tunic and robe, which made this genre famous and established a real fashion. The depictions of mostly young women and their clothing corresponded to the taste of the European bourgeoisie of the time and quickly replaced the then popular - also small - porcelain figurines as decorative elements in living and dining rooms, as the bourgeoisie saw in the figures an equivalent to them. On the art market, the Tanagraia reached top prices, but they eventually ended up in museums. Among them were many fakes, and it was not until the end of the 20th century that scientific research was able to clarify which ones were genuine. In the 19th century, clay figurines were downgraded to mere decorative elements, but artistically some of them could definitely compete with small sculptures. Some from the Hellenistic period, according to experts, even reach the perfection of large sculpture. The masterful figures of Tanagra and Myrin date from this period.

Today, they also impress with their intense colors, some of which are amazingly well preserved and give an impression of the color spectrum that also dominated sculpture. In the 4th century BC, the color palette was expanded, and expensive colors such as blue and gold were used, as well as pastel shades such as pink and light green. From the 3rd century BC, pastel colors predominated, while some particularly important ones were additionally gilded. Their color spectrum changed over the centuries: before the 5th century BC, they preferred clear and bright colors such as red and yellow, but then potters also experimented with shades and light reflections. In painting, garments were highlighted and details or features of the figures were emphasized. Observing such details also makes it possible to reconstruct the lost colors of the marble sculptures, since the ancient colorings in them are rarely preserved as well as in the clay statuettes.

We now know that many of them also played an important role in the daily life of people in ancient Greece, providing us with important information, from social norms to religious beliefs. The scenes and motifs depicted seem almost taken from real life and had important functions in many aspects of life. From myths to bread baking, a variety of subjects were recorded in clay. Findings in tombs, shrines, and houses indicate that the figures were used for very different reasons. Many of them played an important role in religious worship, being consecrated to shrines on certain occasions in life: in the case of women, for example, on the occasion of their marriage and motherhood. In private houses they were placed as part of a domestic cult for the protection of the family. In necropolises, they were found mainly in the tombs of young people as substitutes for objects that would have been consecrated to the gods during ceremonies marking important milestones on the way to adulthood. The function and meaning of the figurines in this context is still being intensively researched.

What did orator Demosthenes say about ancient Macedonians?

By Sarantos I. Kargakos

Had it not been for Demosthenes' slanderous characterizations against Philip - especially against Alexander - the question of the Greekness of the Macedonians would not have been raised. Every supporter of this opinion relies on Demosthenes. The other data they put forward are merely supplementary elements, which have no historical weight.

We could consider Demosthenes' insults as an outburst of political passion that drives him into the madness of insults and that's all. When someone insults, he does not mince words. That is why Demosthenes often calls Philip the barbarian, knowing that he is insulting and humiliating him. But if Philip was a barbarian (foreigner), why should this characterization bother him? Even with this designation, Demosthenes wants to portray Philip as a foreigner who usurps the freedom of Greece in order to unite all Greeks against him. In politics, the end justifies the means.

But the extent to which Demosthenes' characterizations are accurate can be seen in the insults of his great rival, Aeschines, who also calls Demosthenes a barbarian!

In particular, in the famous "On the False Embassy" oration,the insulting phrase is heard twice: "And you say this, Demosthenes, although your lineage on your mother's side is descended from Scythian nomads". And again: "On his mother's side, Demosthenes is a Scythian. A barbarian who uses the Greek language!"

His mother Demosthenes Kleoboulis was the daughter of Gylonos, who had settled in the Taurian peninsula (Crimea). But I ask: Are insults a solid basis for the scientific foundation of historical theories? With this I do not want to bypass the only "document" that Mr. J.B. quotes. Rather I will present all insults of Demosthenes chronologically in order to be able to draw the necessary conclusions. Before doing so, however, I will avoid mistaking the great orator for a common insulter and examine the meaning of the Demosthenes-Philip dichotomy, which reflects the dichotomy of the democratized southern Greek cities versus the monarchical Greek north. One element is that the Greeks had a politics of city-states. They had a city-centric view. The city was the center of all political action. In other words, Athens, Sparta, Thebes were important cities.

Statue of Demosthenes

Macedonia, on the other hand, was a state with many cities, but they were not so important that they determined political life. Thus, the state-centered monarchical system of the northern Greeks contrasted with the city-centered democratic system of the southern Greeks. Demosthenes' opposition to Philip was thus not racial, as many propagate. It was politics. If Philip had in mind the Great State, Demosthenes, who had grown up with other political ideals, had in mind the Great Man, "the free in justice". The Citizen, not the servant of the state. The personality and character and not faceless political being. Therefore, he remained faithful to the idea of "Athenism". Only Athens gave him some guarantees for the State of Free Citizens.

Demosthenes did not reject the idea of Panhellenism. But he gave it cultural meaning. Philip made a realistic policy. Demosthenes from the 4th century BC imagines a federation of cities with a democratic form of government. Philip, on the other hand, sought a unity of Greeks by all means. He was a Machiavelli who did not write, but acted. Therefore, the conflict between Demosthenes and Philip was not a conflict of races, but a conflict of visions.

Yet despite noble visions, neither shied away from mean means. After all, they were engaged in politics, not religious preaching. Macedonia and Philip were what Prussia and Bismarck were to Germany. If Bismarck expected to unite Germany with Kant's wonderful vision of perpetual peace, he should have eternal life as well. But the politicians who create eternal work are those who know that life is short and time is running out.

Let us now turn to the "shocking" document that J.B. quotes:

"Not only a non-Greek and not related to the other Greeks, but not even a barbarian from any place that could be called with any honor, but like a pestilent knave from Macedonia, where one cannot even buy a decent slave" (The Third Philippic, Demosthenes' political orations ). But let us see what Demosthenes himself says: "Not only is he not a Greek, nor has he anything in common with the Greeks, but he is not even a barbarian of good stock, but a pernicious Macedonian, from whose country one cannot even buy a slave."

The reader should note that Mr. J.B. commits a scientific indecency. He translates "pernicious Macedonian," which is indeed a heavy epithet, with the phrase "pestilent knave from Macedonia," which has no correspondence with the original. No Greek researcher denied that this text, because of its verbal severity, raises the suspicion of an ethnic division between Greeks and Macedonians. It is also not absent from any Greek historiography, ancient or translated. However, what Mr. J.B. seems to ignore the psychology of language, i. e. a word that means something specific, is used with a different meaning in a specific case. We all know, for example, what history means.

Statue of Philipp of Macedon in Thessaloniki, Greece

But you have to know the psychology of the Greek language to understand the phrase "we will have histories", which means entanglements, struggles, and so on. We all know what politics means, but few know that politics in the medieval Greek language meant also whore! So, in order to understand Demosthenes' phrase, we need to know the psychology of language, which means that in relation to Philip, we need to trace the psychological transitions or upheavals that Philip's politics triggers in him. We begin with an observation: of the nine orations Demosthenes made against Philip, Philip is called a barbarian in only three (the relevant part in the "Against Stephanos" oration is a later addition). But let us start with the orations from the beginning:

1. In the "First Philippic" oration against Philip, written when the Macedonian king had reached Thermopylae and was also threatening to cut Athens off from the allied cities of Thrace and Euxinus, Demosthenes uses harsh language but never calls him a barbarian. Neither in the First nor in the Second Olynthiac oration.

2. Philip is first called a barbarian in the Third Olynthiac oration: "He is not an enemy, he does not possess what is ours, he is not a barbarian, whatever else one may say". The last sentence ("whatever else one may say") shows that the previous word "barbarian" is also used as an insult and not as a national designation. Demosthenes here stigmatizes Philip's behavior and not his origin.

3. In 346 BC, Demosthenes delivered his "On the Peace" oration. Philip has already conquered Olynthos, crushed the Phocaeans, and become a member of the Delphic Amphictyony. But now that the threat is more immediate, Demosthenes says nothing in his speech about Philip being a barbarian. Yet it would have been a wonderful opportunity for him to denounce before all Greeks that a barbarian had become a member of the amphictyony in which only Greeks participated. The reason why he did not do this is simple: he knew that all Greeks knew that Philip was not a barbarian.

4. In 341 BC, Demosthenes delivered the "On the Chersonese" oration,which is a war cry against Philip, who is not called a "barbarian" here either. And yet Demosthenes had just returned from Macedonia, where he had gone as an ambassador and stayed for three months. Therefore, he had the opportunity to learn the language, customs and traditions of the Macedonians. If he thought they were barbarians, why would he miss such a wonderful opportunity to comment on them? 

5. A year later, he delivers the "On the False Embassy" oration and while he sharply characterizes Philip, he still says nothing about barbarism. This oration is of a legal nature and is directed against Aeschines, the leader of the "Macedonian party" in Athens. His aim is to show the opportunism and political immorality of Aeschines and to point out his contradictions. Specifically, he says of Aeschines, "Formerly he preached before the people and called Philip barbarian and destructive. But now Aeschines calls him the most Greek of men and the greatest friend of Athens!". With this rhetorical trick Demosthenes tries to expose Aeschines in the eyes of the Athenians as well as in the eyes of Philip.

6. Finally, in "third against Philip" is found the sentence to which J.B. refers and modifies in the translation. In this oration from 341 (three years before the battle of Chaeronea) Demosthenes, desperate to see Philip's omnipresence, has lost control of his words, treats Philip like a gladiator, and uses the worst insults against him. This verbal frenzy and verbal jibes are aimed at insulting Philip personally and his country in general. This is also evident in the sentence of the ancient commentator of Demosthenes, who examines the characterization of "barbarian" in the third Olynthiac:

"Because Demosthenes wants to insult Philip, he calls him a barbarian. But if he really wanted to investigate, he would find that he is a Greek from Argos, descended from the lineage of Hercules, as all historians confirm."

Statue of Alexander the Great in Thessaloniki, Greece

Personally, I do not like simple interpretations. Demosthenes has a political goal in the sense that he wants to destroy Philip by any means. He sees the Macedonian monarch as an enemy of Greek freedom, i.e. the autonomy of the Greek cities. Therefore, with the last sentence, he actually wants to portray him as a foreigner in the eyes of the other Greeks and the Macedonians as foreigners seeking Greek independence in order to achieve a panhellenic alliance against them. So passionate is he that he does not hesitate to recommend to the Athenians an alliance with the Persians against Philip (Fourth Philippic):

"I think you should send a legation (to the Persians) to converse with the Persian king, leaving aside the silly phrase "the barbarians are the common enemy of everything and everyone".

Thus Demosthenes frees the Persian king from the status of barbarian and assigns it to Philip, whom he also calls "the robber of the Greeks" and implores the gods to destroy him.

How could the Parthenon remain standing for 2,500 years without a foundation?

The mystery is revealed after studies showed that the Parthenon Temple on the Acropolis is triple seismically shielded despite the fact that it has no foundation.

According to civil engineer Niki Timotheu, studies of the temple's architectural and structural form have shown that the ancient world had already discovered what we now call "seismic isolation". According to Niki Timotheu, the temple successfully contradicts the theory of modern construction because, without having a foundation at all, it is triple seismically insulated.

This triple insulation is located, as she explained, in different parts of the building. The first point is in the layers of huge horizontal and extremely smooth marble stones on which the Parthenon stands.

The second point is found in the elastic metal joints that connect the slabs of each layer, made up of small iron piles in the middle, around which lead has been poured (lead has the property of protecting iron from rust and weakening the elasticity of each wave, since part of its kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy).

And the third point is found in the columns of the building, which were not set in one piece, because the ancient Greeks knew that in order to withstand the vibrations of the earth, they had to be set in slices that were perfectly superimposed.

The result of this triple insulating formula, as Mrs Timotheu noted, was that the seismic waves on the surface moved one layer of the marble slabs over the other, while the joints dissipated the kinetic energy developed by the earthquake! The columns, as they were arranged, made the whole building sway, but not collapse.

Haloa: The "obscene" feast of ancient Greece

Haloa was one of the festivals that the ancient Greeks systematically celebrated every year in honor of the goddess Demeter, known as Haloea (goddess of the fruits of the earth), Dionysus (god of the vine and wine) and Poseidon Fytalmios (god of coastal vegetation).

Haloa was a three-shaped peasant feast of antiquity, and the customs of worshiping the gods in this context cause us to call this celebration "obscene". A second opinion is that they were also celebrated in honor of Persephone, the daughter of Demeter.

The Haloa were held around Attica and extended to Eleusis, where they ended, then followed the Poseidonian procession and finally the initiation into the mysteries of Demeter and Persephone.

There are two versions about the period of this celebration: the first one says that Haloa was celebrated in the month of June (Ekatombeonas) with the harvest of the Spartans and the second one in the month of December (Poseidon) with the harvest and the opening of the new wine. In Haloa, no hierophant participated, but a priestess who initiated the women, and all exchanged free speeches and conversations, and at the end there was a common dinner. The dinner included all foods except those forbidden in the ceremonies (eggs, pomegranates, etc.). But why was it called "obscene"?

In this celebration, the women had with them figurines in the shape of sexual organs and food in the corresponding shapes of phallus and vulva. At the end of the meal, they buried the phalluses in the ground, believing that in this way vegetation and fertility would be strengthened.

In Haloa, among other things, obscenities were exchanged between all the women, even the priestess urged the married women to commit adultery and they danced orgiastically with each other. From the 4th century BC, hetairas participated and women flocked to the streets and danced to provocative songs.

Hetairai at Haloa festival dancing around a giant phallus (Oedipus Painter, 480 BC) By Wikipedia

In general, Haloa was a festival of women in ancient times and was celebrated at night, although the preserved information is insufficient compared to other customs of the ancient Greeks. Moreover, there are two versions of the conceptual origin: the first states that Haloa means the threshing floor according to Philochorus, the second that it means the vines according to the commentator Lucian.

The Haloa festival lasted several days, at the end of which athletic competitions like the Olympics took place, in which not all citizens of ancient Athens were allowed to participate, as was customary in other celebrations. However, in this celebration the young people had the right to speak publicly.

From the above it is clear why Haloa is characterized as an obscene celebration of antiquity, because in modern times the use of strange effigies and provocative dances with obscene vocabulary is not common, although in antiquity it was a habit and considered normal.

Palatiano (Ioron) of Kilkis city, Greece: The ancient city that worshiped Dionysus and idolized Patraοs

The story of a city founded in the 10th century BC, glorified the family of Patraos, who is unknown until today, and when it was mysteriously destroyed, it was never inhabited again.

In a magical place at the foot of the Krousia massif, which is as green today as it was thousands of years ago, the ruins of an ancient city are preserved on a hill. From this peak the inhabitants saw their life, the land that fed them, the water, the plants that sprouted, they saw the sun dancing on the leaves of the olive groves, the vines that promised delicious wine, the figs that filled their daily table with sweetness. They saw the land where their herds grazed, next to the river Echedoros, meaning "the one that has gifts" and gave everything that its name promised, its raw materials, its precious metals, gifts of wealth, the most important of which was gold!

The ancient city of Palatiano, 20 kilometers north of Kilkis, was in a naturally fortified position and controlled the important passage from the ancient region of Christonia to the regions of Parorvilia and Sintica, that is, to Lake Kerkini and Serres, and even further west.

It is even very likely that it is identified with the ancient city of Ioron, which means guardian, and the name is fully justified by its location.

Palatiano was founded in the 10th century BC and developed in the classical and Hellenistic years from the 4th to the 1st century BC, centuries in which it became an urban center.

It reached its peak in the Roman years, from the 1st to the 3rd century AD, when it was destroyed by an unknown cause. This era is called the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) and Palatiano flourishes and benefits from the goods of peace.

The city was protected by fortifications and its development was adapted to the morphology of the terrain. In the excavated eastern part of the hill, which developed amphitheatrically, a high retaining wall contributed to its division into two districts.

Today's ruins, set in a beautiful natural landscape, seem to exude the splendor of antiquity. The visitor can walk through the authentic ancient streets of the city and climb to the top of the hill where the sanctuaries of the gods, the center of public life, were probably located. He can cross the narrow streets between buildings, houses and workshops, follow the natural slopes of the hill and wander through the neighborhoods that were once bustling with life.

The Palatiano was destroyed - for unknown reasons - but never rebuilt and never inhabited again, but the houses of the ancient inhabitants have survived the centuries unscathed. The modern passerby can imagine the people who once filled these buildings with life. In the rooms of the houses were found the personal belongings of the former inhabitants: mirrors and jewelry, tools for the house and field, lamps to drive away the darkness of the night, storage and drinking vessels, even toys, small clay carts with wheels for children, so many thousands of years ago, just like today.

The head of the Department of Antiquities of Kilkis, Georgia Stratouli says that "among the most important monuments that testify to the wealth of the city are the two honorary Heroa found in one of its neighborhoods. One of them, the family Heroon(a shrine dedicated to an ancient Greek or Roman hero and used for the commemoration or cult worship of the hero) of Patraos, Ammia and their three sons, is preserved in very good condition, with four of the five statues of the family members almost intact."

Patraos wears a tunic in a classical statue type that exudes prestige and respect, while the wife and mother, Ammia, is a respected mistress. Two of the three sons, one of whom is depicted as an athlete in heroic nudity while the other holds scrolls. Perhaps he was educated, perhaps he had distinguished himself in the political or intellectual life of his place.

The archeologists studying the material are now called upon to answer the question: Who was this famous Patraos really? Was he a metal trader who became rich? The archeological excavation brought him and his whole family to light, and the discovery is perhaps another myth in the labyrinth of human imagination.

According to Ms. Stratoulis, "the inhabitants of Palatiano believed in Olympian gods: Zeus, Hermes, Athena, but it seems that their favorite was the god Dionysus. In fact, a full-figure statue of the god with a panther skin was found in the area, while an inscription gives him the epithet GONGYLOS (= round). However, they also worshiped other deities such as the eastern Kybele, the Greek mother of the gods and the Egyptian god Bissa".

The finds from Palatiano indicate a robust, developed and diverse urban society, associated with agriculture and animal husbandry, but also with crafts and trade, while the large number of coins suggests trade relations with other Macedonian cities.

It is very likely that the source of their great wealth was some kind of metalworking craft, which was apparently very important for the inhabitants of the ancient city. Perhaps Patraos became rich through it, who raised an honorary Heroon for his family.

"The important thing about this archaeological site is that we can empathize with the people of the past. How did the people who lived in these houses, who walked through the alleys to get to their sanctuaries, or to their properties at dawn? What stories can we tell? Let us think about them when we look at their personal belongings," says Ms Stratoulis.

Palatiano is a vibrant city. A city that still exudes the aura, the joys, the sorrows, the failures and the successes, the loves and the sorrows of a complex but also simple society. And by its simplicity it fascinates the visitor.

The Ephorate of Antiquities of Kilkis has created a very interesting film to introduce the Palatiano to the general public. The general coordination and the overall editing of the film is the responsibility of the head of the Ephorate, Georgia Stratoulis, the scientific editing is done by the archaeologists Nektarios Poulakakis and Maria Farmaki, while the "tour guide" in the area is also the archaeologist Theodoros Papakostas and the direction was led by Thanos Kartsoglou.

What is the Epimenides' Sleep? - The incredible story of the famous sage Epimenides

One of the most amazing, but also paradoxical stories from the time of ancient Greece is undoubtedly the story of Epimenides.

Both the concept of the cave and the concept of descending into it is not a simple matter, but hides a very serious initiation, connected with the revelation of secrets about life and death. Epimenides, one of the most famous sages who ever lived in Crete, slept in a cave for 57 whole years!

Epimenides is considered one of the most famous sages who ever lived in Crete. He was not only a religious teacher, but also known for his divination and prophetic abilities.

However, perhaps the knowledge of the most important event of his life has been preserved, thanks to which he has remained known until today.

Thus, his father once lost one of his sheep and sent his son Epimenides to the field where the sheep was lost, to look for it and bring it back.

Epimenides actually set out to find the sheep, but it seems that he got confused along the way and instead of reaching the field his father had shown him, he got lost and accidentally entered a cave. Being tired from the search for the sheep, he fell asleep.

What is particularly impressive, however, is that Epimenides slept in this cave for a whole 57 years! The memory of this paradoxical event has been preserved until our days by the proverbial phrase "Epimenides’ sleep".

But our story does not end here.

When Epimenides woke up, he went in search of the sheep again, believing that he had slept only a few hours.

But soon, in the effort of his new searching, he realized to his surprise that during his sleep everything around him had changed, since he could no longer recognize anything of what he knew before falling asleep.

The field had changed hands, even his village was undergoing very large and inexplicable changes, but even as he tried to find his own people, he found that he was no longer where he was before falling asleep.

Very soon Epimenides found that most of the people he knew had already died. Nevertheless, at some point he managed to find his brother, who by now was an old man and explained to him exactly what had actually happened.

Perhaps this event of Epimenides' sleep would not be so important if we did not have an important testimony from Diogenes Laertius.

In his book on Pythagoras, Diogenes Laertius mentions that Pythagoras traveled almost the entire world known at that time in order to come into possession of all the important initiations. On his way of searching the truth Pythagoras also visited Crete to meet Epimenides.

The esoteric knowledge that Epimenides possessed was thus so important that even Pythagoras aspired to be initiated by him and to complete his initiation, when together they descended into the famous "Idaeon andron", the cave where Zeus, the highest of the gods,  was born.

The revealing ancient text reads as follows:

...when he was in Crete with Epimenides, he came down to Idaeon andron

...Then (Pythagoras) visited Crete and descended to Idaion Andron accompanied by Epimenides, but also in Egypt to the depths;

but he also visited the shelters of the temples of Egypt.

and learned about the gods in secret.

Thus he learned the secret mysteries about the nature of the gods.

As we can see, Pythagoras shows a special predilection for visiting hidden mystical places in different parts of the planet, which are completely heterogeneous among themselves in terms of their religious beliefs.

With his attitude he proves that the inner initiation is in any case a valuable empirical knowledge necessary for our personal development.

We should add that "Idaion Andron" is a cave on a plateau on Mount Idi (Psiloritis) in Crete, where, according to Greek mythology, Zeus was brought up.

Today it is an important archeological site where excavations have been carried out since 1884 and various objects (archaic statuettes, vials, bronze shields) even from the Minoan period have been discovered.

It is therefore very likely that inside the “Idaion Andron” initiations took place on how to receive a divine education, similar to that of Zeus.

So, one of the results of this "Epimenides sleep" is the revelation of very important hidden secrets related to the understanding of the nature of God.

Undoubtedly, this is the highest knowledge that one can acquire and it can reveal to one the deepest meaning and the ultimate purpose of life, because both the concept of the cave and the concept of descending into it are not one and the same. It hides a very serious initiation, connected with the revelation of secrets about life and death.

Epimenides also became the occasion of a well-known paradox. In one of his poems he had written: "Cretans are always liars".

In the 19th century, on the basis of this sentence, the following logical paradox was formulated, also known as the Epimenides paradox: Epimenides says that all Cretans are liars, Epimenides is a Cretan, therefore Epimenides lies, therefore Cretans tell the truth, therefore Epimenides tells the truth, therefore Cretans are liars, and so on.

Epimenides' phrase was used by the Apostle Paul in his letter to the Bishop of Crete, Titus, to rebuke the Cretans for their errors in the words of one of their own: "A prophet of their own said them; Cretans, you are liars, evil beasts, lazy gluttons." (1:12).

This Egyptian Relief is the earliest portrait of a Greek woman!

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Breaking Ground: Discovering the Earliest Portrait of a Greek Woman in Egyptian Relief Art

For centuries, historians and archaeologists have tirelessly worked to unravel the mysteries of ancient civilizations. Egyptian art, in particular, serves as an invaluable source of historical knowledge, providing insight into the society, culture, and everyday life of one of the world's most ancient and influential civilizations. One recent discovery has astounded the historical community: the earliest known portrait of a Greek woman beautifully etched into an Egyptian relief.

It is Egyptian and dates back to 1302 BC, about 100 years before the Trojan War! It is located on the Second Pylon of Pharaoh Horemheb at Karnak, the largest place of worship in ancient Egypt. The relief depicts a woman of obvious Greek origin. Her distinct Greek attire and the characteristic hairstyle clearly differentiate her from her Egyptian contemporaries, which makes this find particularly exciting.

In Horemheb's colossal relief group of prisoners of war, there is also a gang of captives (men and women) with their race-name "Haunebu" inscribed against them.

The heads of the men are distorted, but the profile of a woman is yet perfect, and this profile is the earliest portrait of a Greek woman in the world. Her eye is defaced, but the delicate outline of the features is yet unscathed. She is depicted with a thin long ringlet (probably one on each side), a characteristic feature of the female hair in archaic Greek art. Therefore, it can be assumed that this hairstyle was a "national fashion" quite earlier.

Statue showing the King Mentuhotep III as Osiris with a tall crown, long beard and an full-length cloak.

The ethnonym "Haunebu", as a general term for the inhabitants of the Aegean area, is mentioned for the first time as early as the time of Pharaoh Sankhara (Mentuhotep III), of the 11th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom (2010-1998 BC), as it appears on a carved slab of his time.

After this mention, we hear no more of early Greeks in Egypt until they reappear as Danai or Danaeans (Tanaju), about half a millennium later, in the reign of Thutmose III (1479-1425 BC). This pharaoh was the equivalent of "Alexander the Great" of ancient Egyptian history. He conquered most of the then known world, building Egypt's largest empire ever.

He carved the names of hundreds of defeated nations and conquered cities on the walls of Karnak and the Great Temple of Ammun. In these famous inscriptions, also known as the "Annals of Thutmose III", we find the Greeks mentioned for the second time in Egyptian history, as a diplomatic meeting between the Mycenaean delegation and the pharaoh in the area of Syria is recorded.

The ethnonym "Haunebu" nevertheless survived until the time of the Ptolemies, when the Greeks ruled Egypt. The native Egyptian scribes of the comparative Hellenistic Era used it to denote the ruling race (the Rosetta Stone), just as their distant ancestors had used it to denote "Greek barbarians," people of the sea who had been captured in battle 15 whole centuries ago!

The Hall of Annals of Thutmosis III, Temple of Karnak in Thebes. (mid 15th c. B.C.) Thutmosis (Menkheperre) offers foreign gifts to Amun.

This remarkable find not only represents the earliest known portrait of a Greek woman in Egyptian art but also stimulates a reevaluation of our understanding of ancient societal interactions, cultural exchanges, and the roles of Greek women in Ptolemaic Egypt. It serves as an invaluable link to the past, allowing us a peek into the nuanced relationships between one of the ancient world's most formidable powers and its influential Greek contemporaries.

Like many great historical discoveries, this one prompts as many questions as it answers, reminding us of the rich and layered tapestry that is human history. As scholars continue to study this fascinating artifact, it is certain that we will gain even more insight into the complex dynamics of cultural exchange in the ancient world, the status of Greek women in foreign societies, and the extent of their participation in public and religious life.

In conclusion, the Egyptian relief portraying the earliest Greek woman is not only an artistic marvel but also a testament to the complexities of ancient societies and the rich tapestry of cultural exchange that has shaped human history. As researchers continue to unveil the mysteries etched into this invaluable piece of art, we look forward to the new chapters this will open in our understanding of our shared past.

What does the Daedalic Kore of Thera have to do with the Lady of Auxerre in the Louvre?

A very interesting observation is made by the curator of the Greek National Gallery, Marilena Kassimati, about the “Kore of Thera”, which was found almost intact in the cemetery of the ancient city of Thera and is on display for the first time in the new Museum of Thera.

The Kore of Thera, a statue of the 7th century BC, came to light, in November 2000, during a rescue excavation in the cemetery of the ancient city of Thera, in southeastern Sellada, by Theraean archaeologist Charalambos Sigala.

She associates her with the "Lady of Auxerre" which has been on display at the Louvre since 1907 - indeed others associate her with the Kore of Eleutherna. It is no coincidence that the creator of the Eleftherna Museum, Dimitris Stampolidis, believes that the Dame d'Auxerre is from Eleftherna.

Kore of Eleutherna

Ms. Kassimati writes:

The resemblance of the "Daughter of Thera" (a work of early archaic sculpture, almost intact, of supernatural size, which came to light in November 2000 during excavations in the cemetery of the ancient city of Thera) with the "Lady of Auxerre", from 1907 in the Louvre (75 cm high), is obvious, at least for me.

It owes its conventional name to the local museum of Auxerre (Musée Saint-Germain), while to this day nobody knows exactly how it got there, broken into three parts. Its value was immediately recognised in the Louvre, it was welded and published by a French archaeologist that same year.

These and other statues represent a stylistic phase in early Archaic art referred to as "Daedalic", also commonly referred to as the Orientalist period. This type was particularly widespread in Crete and now we have a similar project in Thera.

The Lady of Auxerre (Dame d'Auxerre): The Daedalistic female statue from Crete that came back to life through the film footage of the movie "TROY"

The Lady of Auxerre graced the cinematic palaces in Wolfgang Petersen's film Troy, but unfortunately for only a few seconds. Arguably, the placement of a statue referring to the archaic period in a prehistoric Aegean palace is anachronistic, as are many other architectural details of the film's sets. Be that as it may, this unique find was "revived" by Hollywood and traveled around the world through film footage, giving an opportunity to lovers of ancient art to familiarize themselves with its symbolism and messages.

Pistyros: An important mining center in ancient Macedonia, Greece

Pistyros was founded in the 7th century BC by Thassius on the border between Kavala and Xanthi, and its craftsmen processed silver, copper, iron and gold.

The small ancient city at a crossroads in Macedonia had rich deposits of silver, copper, iron and gold from the neighboring mines of Lekani town located on the Paggaio mountain and was the center of ore supply for the ancient Greek world.

Pistyros had strong fortifications, an impressive sanctuary and the archeological excavations brought to light a number of finds that testify to its short but interesting history.

The archeological site of Pistyros is located next to the old road from Kavala to Xanthi, 18 km east of Kavala, outside the village of Pontolivados. The choice of the site for the foundation and development of the city was not accidental, because nearby there was a lake with brackish water and abundant fish.

It is attested by Herodotus, who mentions it twice as "a Hellenic city by the sea  on the mainland", indicating an urban center with Greek facilities.

The photos were provided by the archeologist and director of the excavations, the Honorary Director of the Ministry of Culture, Stratis Papadopoulos.

The first systematic excavations took place in the 1970s for the opening of a canal in Nestos, but for the last eight years the archeological site has been systematically excavated under the direction of the archeologist and honorary director of the Ministry of Culture, Stratis Papadopoulos.

Pistyros was a small city founded by the Thasians in the 7th century BC, and in the second half of the 6th century BC the Thasians developed a strong trading activity, as shown by the coins, the abundant imported Thasian pottery and the impressive wall of marble plinths of Thasian origin, but also the engraved Greek inscription "ΘΑCΙΩΝ" on the inside of the northern entrance.

Its function as a mining center is evidenced by the discovery of fragments of the inner wall of a mining furnace - a rare find for archeological data -by the large amount of ore, but also by the presence of strong fortifications. According to Mr. Papadopoulos, the large quantities of metallurgical remains inside and outside the walls, as well as the study of the slag, indicate the processing of metals for supply, especially copper, silver, iron and possibly gold.

The photos were provided by the archeologist and director of the excavations, the Honorary Director of the Ministry of Culture, Stratis Papadopoulos.

Although there is no evidence of the items produced, it is assumed that they were weapons, tools, jewelry, but also coins. However, it is not excluded that trade took place in raw materials, that is, processed ores.

Although it was a small town with only 10 hectares, Pistyros was an important mining and trading center of antiquity, and from today's point of view one would say that it was a "stock exchange center" of ancient Macedonia.

Its importance is testified by the monumental wall that protected the treasure that lay within it, namely the abundant and expensive ore.

The excavations, completed a few days ago this year with the participation of students from the Universities of Patras and Ioannina, revealed the entire wall with towers and a unique carriage gate at the southeastern end of the city, with double doors and parastrades (side beams) of great dimensions. A second gate was located at the northeastern end of the fortress and provided access to the main road of the city.

Numerous derivations of ore processing suggest a metallurgical laboratory. In addition, in one of the two rectangular tanks found ends a lead pipe that transported liquid in a vessel, probably an amphora, and it is considered possible that the site was a winery with rooms for the transport and washing of fruit, wine cellars and wine cellars.

The photos were provided by the archeologist and director of the excavations, the Honorary Director of the Ministry of Culture, Stratis Papadopoulos.

A large complex of buildings has also been excavated, in the courtyard of which structures have been found that seem to be related to the metallurgical activities of its inhabitants, but also a one-room square building with built-in benches inside, which it cannot be excluded that it had a public character - perhaps a small parliament corresponding to the so-called seat of the politarchs in the market of Pella - but also houses.

The sanctuary of Pistyros was located to the west of a square. The investigations revealed a small temple with two rooms, in the tradition of the temples of the Cyclades and Thassos, whose wide axis was highlighted. Among the finds in the nave, a large grinder in the form of a "sacrificial bench", a libation vessel in the form of a "sacred cistern', female figures probably representing Aphrodite, and the clay hearth divided into four sections and decorated with spirals stand out.

At a distance of 5 meters north of the temple was found a square stone altar and between the temple and the altar grew a courtyard paved with stones for gatherings.

The photos were provided by the archeologist and director of the excavations, the Honorary Director of the Ministry of Culture, Stratis Papadopoulos.

In large spaces to the east and west of the altar, a considerable number of weaving weights were found, which was common in Macedonia at shrines of female deities such as Athena, Aphrodite, Artemis and the Mother of the Gods. Thus, it is assumed that in the sanctuary of Pistyros there was an intensive textile production in the service of the deity worshiped there.

In the east of the temple, a courtyard area with column bases and votive offerings was excavated. The most important find in this area is the inscription testifying to the worship of Zeus the Savior and King Philip. The inscription dates back to the middle of the 3rd century BC and probably refers to Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great. A pottery workshop from the 3rd century BC was found in the central part of the city, and a similar one was also excavated by Mr. Papadopoulos in Limenaria on Thassos.

The systematic excavations at ancient Pistyros have yielded important movable finds dating from the late 7th to the 1st century BC: abundant imported and local pottery, a large number of sealed pottery and amphorae, many weaving techniques, figurines, coins, tools and jewelry. . Many vases seem to have been imported from Thassos, the Cyclades, from the coasts of Asia Minor and Attica.

The photos were provided by the archeologist and director of the excavations, the Honorary Director of the Ministry of Culture, Stratis Papadopoulos.

Of great interest are the inscriptions engraved on the front of the Archaic buildings, in several cases in Parian alphabet: "ἐπὶ τὰ λαια" (to the left). The first three or four letters of the names are engraved, as in the fortress of Thassos, and it is assumed that they belong to quarry owners and workers. In Pistyros there are several dozen inscriptions, among which the names Epig(enes), Glau(kos) and Mim(os) are frequently repeated.

The city was in full development from the 7th century BC to the end of the 2nd century BC, and it is still unknown when, how, and why its inhabitants abandoned it. Although there is evidence of seismic activity in the area, it is considered very likely that it was abandoned for economic reasons. In other words, it is possible that another mining center emerged in the same area and took over the baton of production and trade.

The Idalion Bilingual: A Keystone in Deciphering the Cypriot Syllabary

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

In the realm of archaeology, some artifacts hold the key to unlocking hidden aspects of our past. The Idalion Bilingual, a small yet significant inscription discovered in Cyprus, is one such artifact. It played a pivotal role in deciphering the Cypriot syllabary, enabling researchers to unravel the linguistic threads of ancient Cypriot society.

Discovery of The Idalion Bilingual

The Cypriot syllabic script was deciphered in the 19th century (in 1870), by G. Smith. The reason was the Phoenician-Cypriot bilingual inscription found in Idalion. It was the key to the decipherment of the Cypriot syllabary, in the manner of the Rosetta Stone for hieroglyphs.

Egyptologist Samuel Birch (1872), numismatist Johannes Brandis (1873), philologist Moritz Schmidt, Wilhelm Deecke, Justus Siegismund (1874), and linguist H.L. Ahrens (1876) also contributed to the decipherment.

The Idalion Bilingual, found in the ancient city of Idalion, is an inscription that bears the same text in two different scripts. It was uncovered during excavations conducted in the 19th century, amidst the remains of the once prosperous city. The script on one side is in the well-known ancient Phoenician alphabet, while the other side is inscribed with the then-undeciphered Cypriot syllabary.

It was discovered by Robert Hamilton Lang in his excavations at the Temple of Idalium (modern Dali, Cyprus), whose work there had been inspired by the discovery of the Idalion Tablet in 1850. The stone was found in the centre of the temple, together with the five other Idalion Temple inscriptions. The stone is thought to have been a pedestal for a statue, as there is an apparent dowel hole in the top.

Lang wrote of his discovery:

The most valuable monument uncovered by my excavations is unquestionably the bilingual inscription in Cyprian and Phoenician, engraved on marble; an inscription which, I feel confident, will ultimately prove the means of enabling philologists to decipher the Cyprian alphabet ... The bilingual inscription proves also that, the two alphabets, Phoenician and Cyprian, had a contemporaneous existence.

It is currently in the archives of the British Museum, with identification number 125320.

 

Cracking the Code: Deciphering the Cypriot Syllabary

The Cypriot syllabary is an ancient script that was used in Cyprus from the 11th to the 4th centuries BC. Until the discovery of the Idalion Bilingual, the syllabary remained a mystery, its signs and symbols inscrutable to researchers.

The value of the Idalion Bilingual lies in its nature as a bilingual text. This meant that scholars could use the known Phoenician inscription to interpret the corresponding text in the unknown Cypriot syllabary, creating an invaluable linguistic bridge between the two scripts.

The decipherment process relied on recognizing that the same message was inscribed in both scripts, even though they appeared quite different. Researchers carefully matched up corresponding words and phrases from both inscriptions, leading to the identification of the phonetic values of the signs of the Cypriot syllabary. The decoding was a significant breakthrough, revealing the ancient script's structure and linguistic characteristics.

The Implications of Decipherment

The successful decipherment of the Cypriot syllabary, aided by the Idalion Bilingual, brought about profound implications for the study of ancient Cypriot history and culture. It opened a new window into the socio-political, economic, and cultural life of ancient Cyprus, as researchers could now read and interpret a multitude of inscriptions found across the island.

Through these texts, scholars have gained insights into the religious practices, administrative systems, and economic activities of ancient Cypriot society. Moreover, the knowledge of the Cypriot syllabary has shed light on the linguistic evolution of the region, tracing the roots and influences of the Greek language in Cyprus.

Description of the block; base, and votive offering that carries the bilingual inscription

The maximum width and depth of the stone are preserved, but the upper front surface of the stone is damaged on both the top left and especially at the top right and along the right side, where the beginning of both the Phoenician and the Greek texts are missing. The top of the base is also damaged, though the maximum preserved height in the middle appears to represent more or less the top of the base; however, the surface at the front looks like it has been hacked or chiseled, perhaps to remove the statue (if this had been made of metal), so there may have been some loss of the original height.

At the back left of the top surface is a deep oval trough, probably for securing the statue mentioned in the inscription; again, this is likely to have been mutilated in order to remove any metal. There are no corresponding holes on the right side or elsewhere on the top surface, though the top right is particularly damaged. The back of the pedestal is roughly chiseled but not broken in the way that the top has been mutilated, suggesting that this is the original surface; the rough finish suggests that it was not meant to be seen and was probably placed against a wall or another pedestal when originally erected.

The Phoenician text consists of three lines, written right to left (sinistrograde), but is incomplete on both sides. The Cypro-Syllabic text occupies four lines, also sinistrograde, of which the beginning of the first three lines are also incomplete, but are fully preserved on the left side.

Inscriptions

In Conclusion: The Power of the Idalion Bilingual

The decipherment of the Cypriot syllabary, facilitated by the Idalion Bilingual, underscores the power of archeology in understanding our past. This modest artifact became a pivotal key to unlocking a centuries-old script, providing valuable insights into a fascinating civilization that existed over two millennia ago.

The Idalion Bilingual stands as a potent symbol of the interconnectedness of human societies, highlighting how the decoding of a language can dramatically widen our understanding of the human experience. It is a testament to the rich tapestry of human civilization, inviting us to continually probe, explore, and appreciate our shared heritage.

The "Polycentric Museum of Aigai", the birthplace of Alexander the Great, has opened its doors to the public

A decades-long vision, the new, multi-faceted, central building of the Polycentric Museum of Aigai was inaugurated yesterday by Prime Minister of Greece Kyriakos Mitsotakis, in the presence of the Minister of Culture and Sports, Lina Mendoni.

The museum is a new, holistic, and dynamic approach to the relationship between archaeological site, museum, and visitor. It integrates and unites the new central building with the whole of the archaeological site of Aigai (Vergina), which includes the Palace of Philip, the burial cluster of the Temenids, as well as the Museum of the Royal Tombs.

The Palace of Aigai, known today as Vergina, is considered not only the largest but, together with the Parthenon, the most important building of classical Greece.

The central museum building was designed to become the symbolic entrance gate to the archaeological site and the history of the Aigai, the history and culture of the Macedonians, but also the Hellenistic World, since this will host the physical headquarters of the digital museum "Alexander the Great, from Aigai to the Ecumene (World)".

In the case of Aigai, the planning of the projects had from the beginning the aim of the systematic and universal restoration and highlighting of the particularly extensive archaeological site so that it could develop into a huge archaeological park with modern and high-level infrastructure and services that will offer visitors full, unified, and comprehensive knowledge and experience of the history of the city of Aigai, its kings, and wider Macedonia.

The royal tombs are presented within a grass covered mound, mimicking the original burial tumulus

The main phase of redevelopment and enhancement of the area of the Palace and the Necropolis, an area of almost 550 acres, has already been completed, which, in the summer of 2021, opened to the public as a visitable tree-planted area for archaeological and naturalistic tours.

The large atrium will host the exhibition of architectural members from the palace.

The Polycentric Museum of Aigai currently comprises the following sections:

1. The main museum building: The project was joined in 2010 and the construction of the shell was completed in 2016. Between the years 2014-2016 the demolition/restoration of the upper floor of the propylon and part of the side arcades of the palace presented in the large atrium of the museum was completed.

2. The Museum of the Royal Tombs with the tomb of Philip II.

3. The archaeological park of the necropolis with the royal burial cluster of the Temenids.

4. The palace and the theater.

5. The recorded church of Agios Dimitrios located at the eastern end of the archaeological site.

6. Any monuments, clusters of monuments or parts of the archaeological site that are maintained, organized and can receive visitors can be successively added to this set.

The main building of the museum, apart from the introductory exhibit "A Window into the World of Alexander the Great"” hosts five exhibitions:

1. The exhibition of architectural members with the restored part of the palace as a central exhibit: In the large atrium of the museum, in a protected area, a 30-meter-long section of the upper floor of the central part of the facade of the Palace of Aigai has been restored.

2. The exhibition of sculptures, which concerns findings from long-term excavations at the wider archaeological site of Aigai,.

3. The central exhibition "Memory of Aigai"” in which findings from the excavations of Aigai are exhibited, presents findings that reveal the identity of the city, traces of religious ceremonies, and the foundation of the palace.

4. The periodical exhibition "Antidoron of the World," held in collaboration with the Numismatic Museum and the collector Theodoros Aravanis: The periodical exhibition "Antidoron of the World" tries to approach the phenomenon of the Hellenistic World, the expansion of Greek civilization to the Far East, through the forms of the protagonists of developments, as depicted on coins, the official symbols of their power and authority.

5. The art exhibition "Material Memory" features works by the painter Christos Bokorou that were created especially for the presentation in the museum of Aigai.

How Alexander became a Jewish Name?

By Yehuda Shurpin, Chabad.org

Original title: Why Is Alexander a Jewish Name?

Throughout history, Jews have been careful to retain their distinctly Jewish names. In fact, our sages tell us that although more than two centuries of exile and slavery in Egypt had all but assimilated the Children of Israel into the idolatrous society of Egypt, one of the reasons why they merited their miraculous redemption was that they retained their Jewish names.1

Traditionally, Jewish names are Hebrew, Yiddish or Ladino. Some other names that have crept in over the years and have become accepted as Jewish names are actually translations of Jewish names in foreign languages.

The name Alexander, however, is unique. It originates from the Greek king Alexander the Great, ruler of Macedonia, who established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. In other words, its origin is definitely not Jewish.

Another difference: When names of non-Hebrew origin are written in Hebrew documents, such as a bill of divorce, there is a specific style of spelling used. Alexander, however, is spelled according to the Hebrew rules.2

How did Alexander gain such a special place in Jewish nomenclature?

Simeon the Just and Alexander the Great

The following is recorded in the Talmud3 and Megillat Ta’anit:4

On the 21st Kislev5 of the year 3448 from creation (313 BCE), after Alexander the Great brought an end to Persian rule and marched through the Land of Israel, the Kutheans, bitter enemies of the Jewish people, convinced Alexander that the Jews rebelled against his sovereignty and that their Holy Temple in Jerusalem should be destroyed.

Alexander marched on toward Jerusalem at the head of his army. Hearing of this, Shimon HaTzaddik (Simeon the Just), who was then the Kohen Gadol (High Priest) and one of the last remnants of the Men of the Great Assembly, donned the priestly vestments and went to greet Alexander, along with a delegation of Jewish dignitaries bearing torches.

The two groups walked toward each other all night. When dawn arrived, Alexander asked the Kutheans, “Who are these people coming to meet us?”

They said to him, “These are the Jews, who have rebelled against you!”

The two camps met each other at Antipatris. When Alexander saw Shimon HaTzaddik, he descended from his chariot and bowed before him.

“Should a great king such as yourself bow to this Jew?” asked the members of his entourage.

“I do this,” he replied, “because the image of this man’s face appears before me and leads me to victory when I am on the battlefields.”

Alexander then asked the representatives of the Jewish people why they had come to him.

“Is it possible,” they replied, “that gentiles will try to mislead you into destroying the Temple, in which we pray for you and that your kingdom not be destroyed, and we should remain silent and not tell you!?”

“Who are these people who want to destroy it?” asked Alexander.

“They are these very Kutheans who stand before you,” replied the Jews.

“If so,” said the king, “they are given into your hands to deal with as you please.”

The Jews destroyed the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim, plowing the area and sowing it with leeks (as a sign of complete destruction), just as they sought to do to the Holy Temple in Jerusalem.

The description of this encounter in traditional Jewish sources stops here. However, In the Sefer Yosippon,6 another crucial part of the story is added:

Shimon HaTzaddik then took Alexander the Great on a tour of the Holy Temple. Alexander, impressed, wished to donate gold to have an image of himself placed in the Holy Temple so that he would be immortalized. Shimon demurred, saying that it was forbidden for the Jews to have graven images, and certainly not in the Temple. He suggested that he instead give the gold to the poor. And as for memorializing the occasion, Shimon suggested an even better way: all male kohanim born that year would be named “Alexander.”

Alexander liked the idea, and the Jews, who were very thankful to Alexander for all that he did for them, including sparing the Holy Temple from destruction, gratefully named their children after him. Thus, the name Alexander forever became a Jewish name.

FOOTNOTES

1.See Midrash Vayikra Rabbah 32.

2.Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, vol. 4:66 & vol. 5:10.

3.Talmud, Yoma 69a.

4.Megillat Ta’anit, ch. 9.

5.This follows the date in Megillat Taanit. The Talmud records it as 25 Tevet.

6.Sefer Yosippon, ch. 10. (Not to be confused with Josephus. There is much discussion about the authorship of Yosippon and whether it is, in fact, Josephus. However, that is beyond the scope of our discussion.) In Antiquities of the Jews, book 11:8, Josephus mentions Alexander’s visit to the Temple, but does not mention the part about the priests being named after him.

By Yehuda Shurpin

Ancient Graffiti: How ancient Greek and Roman tourists left "bad reviews" in this Egyptian tomb

Text-photo: Ray Boone, PorcupineMerchant

“I visited and I did not like anything but the sarcophagus!”

That’s just one of many random scribblings left in the Tomb of Ramesses V & VI in the Valley of the Kings.

This tomb has been open since antiquity, and the evidence of that is everywhere. Ancient tourists left their marks — sometimes in Latin, most often in Greek. Usually they’re down low, but some are up near the ceiling, which obviously suggests there were spots where the sand rose quite high.

Some of the visitors were doctors. Others were philosophers or high-ranking officials. And for the most part, they weren’t only there as sightseers; they came as some sort of pilgrimage, as they believed the tomb to be that of Memnon, a hero in the Trojan War.

Which was obviously not true. Not even a little. But nearby, two giant statues were supposedly of Memnon — partially because of a singing sound they made in the morning. Don’t ask me how that story got started. I mean, I know why, but don’t ask. I’ll have to explain the whole thing, and neither one of us wants that.

Some of the graffiti is poetry, most is the equivalent of “I was here.” Someone would write their name and their occupation, and the most common phrase used was “I admired.” In one case, some dude’s secretary did the carving for him, and he just wrote “I admired” next to it. How lazy do you have to be, that you’re traveling around Egypt with your own personal graffiti artist?

Roman Holiday

It’s a little odd to think of Romans going on these elaborate vacations, but that’s exactly what happened. After all, they weren’t all that different from us. The wealthy ones would sail down to Alexandria, where they could see the famous lighthouse. Then they’d get a peek at the Pyramids, hop on a boat, and cruise down the Nile. Two of the Seven Wonders checked off the list.

Do you think they had some ancient equivalent of guide books? Probably — because all sorts of Romans were stopping at the Colossi of Memnon, which are absolutely covered in graffiti. Even the Emperor Hadrian visited. Then his boyfriend drowned in the Nile. But that’s a different story. Don’t ask. Why are you trying to get me off topic?

So you head down on this exotic Egyptian adventure, checking out all the sights, hanging around some awesome Egyptian festivals and drinking copious amounts of beer. And of course you’d go see those two huge statues and the tombs.

Like I said before, the Colossi of Memnon was a hot ticket item back then. Well, I don’t think there were actual tickets. It’s just an expression. Actually, there aren’t tickets now, either. They just sit by the side of the road.

These statues would “sing” in the morning, which we now think was the result of evaporating dew in the morning. The Romans thought these were of Memnon — they’re actually Amenhotep III — and due to him sharing one of his names with a name inside the tomb we’re talking about, the Romans decided it was the tomb of Memnon.

Now, despite the fact that we’re talking about a time over a thousand years after Ramesses V & VI, I’ve got to think some Egyptians knew the Romans were wrong. So why didn’t they correct them? That’s a good question, and I don’t have an answer. I guess if Romans are coming to your town and throwing money around, you just let them think what they want. Or maybe when an Emperor shows up, you don’t try to correct him. I probably wouldn’t. You just snicker at him behind his back.

Kind of like how I’d do if I met Jeff Bezos and he had some toilet paper stuck to his shoe. Am I going to tell him? No way.

The Entourage

“I, Ammonios, singularis of Italy, saw and admire it.”

With every super important official, there was surely an entourage. Like Bieber. Wait, is that an outdated reference now? Does Bieber still have an entourage?

So this guy named Ammonios wasn’t an official. He wasn’t a super important guy at all. Now, he was important in the military, as he was presumably a guard for an Emperor, but probably not the kind of dude who’d go on a really fancy vacation.

It gives you an idea of who was visiting these tombs. The rich folk, and everyone who came with them. And as I said, they were mostly respectful — well, as respectful as you can get when you’re scratching words into the walls. The bulk of the graffiti is placed in a way that it doesn’t obscure any of the hieroglyphs or other art.

A team from Poland did an extensive survey and found over a thousand instances of ancient graffiti in this tomb. But it’s not all just people writing their names and saying they had a nice time.

“I cannot read the hieroglyphs,” wrote one person.

“Why do you care that you cannot read the hieroglyphs? I do not understand your concern!” wrote someone else, right below it.

It seems that even back then, they had Twitter replies. I can just picture some Roman holding a torch, reading what someone else wrote, and thinking “Jesus Christ, what a moron. You’re looking at all of this awesome shit, and that’s what you’ve got to say?” So he hands his torch over to his buddy, pulls out a knife, and starts scratching a rebuttal.

Well…he probably didn’t say “Jesus Christ.”

Anyway, if you’re ever in Luxor I’d highly recommend visiting this tomb. It’s one of the biggest in the Valley of the Kings, and the colors are still extremely bright. It does require buying an extra ticket, but it’s worth it. You don’t really notice the graffiti unless you’re looking for it. And in case you’re wondering, Ramesses V built part of it, then he died and Ramesses VI finished it. They were both buried here. I guess old Number 6 figured it’d be easier to take over than starting fresh.

And like the spirits of those ancient kings who live on in the afterlife, my plugs for my Instagram @rayoboone will never die. I have some other tomb pictures on there, you’ll just have to scroll down past the Baby Yoda hand sanitizer.

Kos Island, Greece: Revival of the original Hippocratic Oath for eminent Doctors from around the world

Doctors from the distant Anhui region of China, and representatives of the medical associations and universities of China from Anhui and Shanghai, as well as Italian doctors of Reproductive Medicine, were invited on a special ceremony at the Asclepeion of Kos to take the authentic Hippocratic Oath, an event organized by the International Health Tourism Center.

The revival of the Hippocratic Oath is one of the recent initiatives of the International Health Tourism Center, in cooperation with the Hippocratic Foundation that is located in Kos, within the framework of the Center's strategy for the dissemination of the ancient medical knowledge of Greece to today's and tomorrow's doctors of the international community, students from international medical universities, medical associations around the world and health tourism travelers.

The President of the International Health Tourism Center, President of Athens Medical Association and President of the Global Institute of Greek Doctors, and New Governor of Attica Mr. George Patoulis stressed that hosting the Chinese and Italian doctors in Kos by their participation in the Hippocratic Oath revival contributes to the realization of the vision of the Health Tourism Center "to make  Hippocrates the emblem and reference point to transfuse the values and deep medical knowledge of Greece to international science." 

The President of the International Health Tourism Center and President of Athens Medical Association thanked fellow Chinese doctors from the distant country, who came to Greece on the occasion of the 1st Fertility Festival, organized by the International Health Tourism Center, where they participated in a special session "Fertility from the East to West". Mr. Patoulis stressed that "the marriage of ancient and modern knowledge of the West and East, of traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine, with the collaboration of Chinese and Greek doctors of top scientific level might be among the most important challenges for medical science in the service of the patient and human health in the modern era." 

Chinese and Italian physicians expressed their enthusiasm for the official ceremony at the Asclepeion of Kos  .

"After what we lived, after what we felt, I will return to our University in Anhui and announce that from now on all our students will take the authentic Hippocrates Oath at Kos. And I am sure it will quickly be adopted by all the universities of China", said Peng Daiyin, President of China Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, and President of the China Education and Research Association of Chunese Medicine of High Education 

“The statement of the President of the University of Anhui shows that the International Health Tourism Center has managed in a very short time to bring great successes to our country," commented the Vice President of the Global Institute of Greek Doctors, an obstetrician and Reproductive Medicine specialist, Mr. Constantinos Pantos 

Mr. Filippo Maria Ubaldi, Clinical Director of the General Center of Reproductive Medicine of Italy, added that "Every doctor must once in his life come into this place to feel the energy, connect with the past, and understand that everything about Medicine really started here" 

The President of the International Health Tourism Center and President of the Global  Institute of Greek Doctors praised the importance of the Hippocratic Oath, which is nowadays, 2,500 years after its writing, adopted from multiple medical schools around the world, as he said and stressed that "the Oath of Hippocrates teaches more classically than any other medical oath the duty and the moral value of the physician's function, as international scholars of international medicine admit."

The Pythagorean "Greedy" Cup Explained: When Fluid Dynamics Meet Practical Jokes

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Laughing with Pythagoras: The History and Science Behind the Pythagorean 'Greedy' Cup, The Ingenious Prank of Ancient Greece, A Lesson in Physics and Moderation

It's no secret that human beings have always enjoyed a good laugh, and this trait extends far back into our history. Take the Pythagorean "Greedy" Cup, for example. It's a prime instance of the fact that even the ancients appreciated a practical joke. Named after the Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras, who was known for his work in geometry, the Pythagorean Cup is a fascinating blend of humor, creativity, and physics.

Pythagoras: More Than Just a Cup's Inventor

Although most famously known for the Pythagorean Theorem in geometry, Pythagoras of Samos (circa 570–495 B.C.) was far more than just a mathematician. He was also a philosopher and a mystic, whose influence stretched across various fields of study. Founding a philosophical and religious school in Croton (now Crotone, in southern Italy), Pythagoras and his followers, known as Pythagoreans, followed a way of life committed to studying mathematics, music, and the natural sciences as paths to spiritual refinement. His teachings and philosophies formed the cornerstone of the group's beliefs and practices, including a belief in the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation. The school made significant contributions to science, mathematics, and politics. In fact, the Pythagorean theorem, which states that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse's length is the sum of the squares of the other two sides' lengths, is a cornerstone of modern geometry. Despite the many centuries since his lifetime, Pythagoras' influence still resonates in many areas of contemporary academic discourse and everyday life.

The Pythagorean Cup: An Overview

Also known as a Pythagorean Greedy Cup or a Tantalus Cup, the Pythagorean Cup is a device ingeniously designed to enforce moderation. It is a drinking cup that allows the user to fill it up to a certain level. However, if one gets too greedy and fills the cup beyond this point, all of the liquid inside drains out through the bottom. The principle behind it A simple yet effective implementation of fluid dynamics

The Design

At first glance, the Pythagorean Cup looks like any ordinary drinking vessel. The secret lies in its central column, which is an open-ended pipe running from the bottom of the cup to its rim. This column, a siphon tube, is hidden in the middle of the cup and is the key component that controls the flow of liquid.

If the liquid level remains below the top of the central column, the cup functions like any other; you can drink from it without any issue. However, if the liquid level rises above the top of the column, a siphon effect is created. Gravity pulls the liquid down the siphon tube, and due to the cohesive forces of the liquid, all of it is emptied out through the bottom of the cup, resulting in an unexpected surprise for the user.

The Science Behind It

The physics underlying the operation of the Pythagorean Cup is straightforward and elegant. It's based on the principle of communicating vessels, a theory in fluid dynamics that states that fluid in interconnected containers (vessels) will equalize to the same level. The Pythagorean Cup is essentially a set of communicating vessels.

Once the liquid fills the siphon tube, the weight of the liquid in the tube will be enough to overcome the liquid's surface tension. This creates a negative pressure at the top of the siphon tube, pulling the liquid from the cup into the tube and then out the bottom, emptying the cup completely.

The Humor and the Lesson

Historically, Pythagoras is said to have invented this cup to demonstrate the virtues of moderation to his students. The moral of the story is clear: one must exercise restraint and not be greedy, or else they risk losing everything.

Interestingly, despite its origins in ancient Greece, the Pythagorean Cup has managed to maintain its relevance over millennia, surviving as a novel curiosity and an educational tool. It serves not only as a tangible demonstration of basic principles in fluid dynamics but also as an amusing way to prank unsuspecting friends and family.

In conclusion, the Pythagorean "Greedy" Cup is an ingenious invention from ancient times that beautifully combines science, philosophy, and humor. It provides a tactile reminder of the importance of moderation while also serving as an unforgettable practical joke. Whether you're a student of physics, a history buff, or just someone with a penchant for pranks, the Pythagorean Cup has something to offer. In a world where technology often distances us from the physical world and its principles, this ancient device provides a refreshing and entertaining connection to our scientific roots.

A Greek Ode to Water: The New Permanent Archaeological Exhibition at the Piraeus' Metro

Blue is the dominant color at the "Municipal Theater" station in Piraeus Metro, with the choice not at all accidental. Inside the station, the history of water unfolds and its significant importance is highlighted.

Source: Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The permanent exhibition highlighting the water supply system of the ancient city of Piraeus at the "Municipal Theater" station was presented to the citizens of the city today with the three stations of the Piraeus Metro, which were inaugurated by the Prime Minister of Greece. The Minister of Culture and Sports, Lina Mendoni, spoke about the doctrine of the harmonious coexistence of archeology and the Metro, which has as its principle respect for archaeological finds without them being a brake on the implementation of large-scale infrastructure projects.

Source: Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

During the excavation research, the largest ever carried out in the city of Piraeus, 150 structures related to ancient water systems, characteristic of the ancient city of Piraeus, were uncovered. These come in addition to the more than 345 wells and 388 tanks already found in earlier excavations in the city.

The total area archaeologically controlled by the Ephorate of Antiquities of Piraeus and Islands in 5 Stations and 7 Ventilation Shafts, approaches 30,000 sq.m., while the rescue excavations were carried out on a total surface of 7,500 sq.m. All the excavation work was carried out under permanent archaeological monitoring, as well as the opening of the 7.6 km of the train passage tunnel.

Source: Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The long historical duration of the Greek civilization - in time and space - has as a consequence, the activities of the modern era intersecting with the material testimonies of the past preserved underground.

The term "archaeological palimpsest" is used to denote the overlapping layers of material remains of human activity, which continues for centuries in the same areas, especially in the urban fabric of modern Greek cities. Especially in the case of a large area or the wide geographical distribution of public utility infrastructures, this meeting, between the works of today and the tangible evidence of history, becomes almost unavoidable.

Source: Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The total area, which was archaeologically controlled by the Ephorate of Antiquities of Piraeus and Islands in 5 Stations and 7 Ventilation Shafts, approaches 30,000 sq.m., while rescue excavations were carried out on a total surface of 7,500 sq.m. All were carried out under permanent archaeological monitoring the excavation works, but also the opening of the 7.6 km of the train passage tunnel.

During these excavations, 150 structures related to ancient water systems, characteristic of the ancient city of Piraeus, were uncovered. These come to be added to the more than 345 wells and 388 tanks, which have been found in earlier excavations in the city.

Source: Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

In accordance with the provisions of the archaeological law, the Ministry of Culture asked the Attica Metro to implement a permanent exhibition on the Water Supply System of the ancient city of Piraeus at the "Municipal Theater" station. The challenge was particular for the Ephorate of Antiquities, as the museum exhibition had to be integrated into a crowded and bustling space.

The central idea was also the starting point for the composition of the museological concept: "The connection of water management with the historical and social development of the city of Piraeus from the Classical period to Late Antiquity".

Source: Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The station, but also the center of the city of Piraeus, are decorated with an archaeological exhibition, which can act as a starting point for the interconnection - through cultural routes - of the residential and fortified remains, visible in the open archaeological sites of the modern city, of the Neosoicon and the Theater of Zea with the Archaeological Museum, creating a dynamic nexus of culture.

Source: Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The 5 thematic sections are supported by four main exhibition types:

• The exhibition of copies of the water pumping, collection and transport systems, as they evolved from the founding of the city in the 5th century. e.g. to the Roman period (units 1 and 2)

• The exhibition of original exhibits related to the way a Piraeus house was designed and operated in relation to the management of the city's water resources. The central exhibit was placed under a glass floor of the underpass. It is about the reconstruction of a male classical house that was revealed in the rescue excavation during the construction of the Deligianni Well and which was detached and preserved for this purpose.

Source: Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

• The presentation of the use of water in the daily life of the ancient inhabitants of Piraeus with digital exhibits. On a video wall, figures from ancient iconography are projected on a human scale and in interaction with scenery that changes referring to the activity at hand. (section 4)

• The narrative concludes with the surveillance material that frames the country-by-country promotion of the preserved reservoir 27, at the level of the square of Ag. Konstantinou, near the central entrance of the station (section 5).

Source: Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

Greek Archaeologists Unearthed Stunning Roman-Era Statue of Hercules at Philippi, Eastern Macedonia

A larger than life-sized statue of Hercules, unearthed by archaeologists from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, may have adorned a public fountain.

The statue, depicting a youthful Hercules, dates to the 2nd century AD. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The latest season of archaeological fieldwork at Philippi in northeast Greece, carried out by members of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, came to an end last week with a startling new discovery.

This year’s excavations, led by Professor Natalia Poulou, focused on the east side of one of the main streets of the ancient Macedonian city, which meets another main axis passing further north. The point of convergence between the two streets is marked by a large square dominated by a richly decorated edifice, most likely a public fountain.

A lion's pelt hangs from the statue's left arm, attesting to its identity as the ancient hero Hercules.

© Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The edifice bore a special architectural decoration, fragments of which were discovered during the excavation. Its decoration was complemented by an impressive larger than life-sized statue from the Roman period, dating to the 2nd century AD.

The statue depicts a youthful Hercules, the Roman equivalent of the Greek Heracles, holding a club – fragments of which were found during the excavation – and a lion’s pelt hanging from his outstretched left hand, attesting to the identity of the hero. He is also depicted wearing a wreath of vine leaves with a tape at the back, the ends of which drape across his broad shoulders.

The archaeologists believe the statue adorned a public fountain.

© Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

According to the research team, and based on the findings from the excavation, the statue adorned a much later building from the 8th or 9th century. It is known form contemporary sources that Classical and Roman-era statues were used to decorate buildings and places of public use up until the Late Byzantine period.

The discovery at Philippi now confirms this to be the case – that pre-Christian statues were used to decorate public spaces in important cities of the Byzantine empire.

The excavations, attended by 24 students and funded by the Research Committee of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, will continue next year.

Goddess Athena's Statue Reveals Her True Colors (Video)

Did you know many of the white marble sculptures you see in the Greek and Roman galleries were originally painted?

For more than one hundred years, the MFA has been a leader in studying this ancient practice, today known as polychromy. In this three-minute video, learn about the latest technology the Museum is using to make new discoveries about the appearance of ancient sculptures, and see the MFA’s statue of Athena Parthenos in dazzling color!

Produced by Black Math.

Red-figure Technique in Ancient Vase Painting (Video)

In this five-minute animated video by the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, journey back to the 6th-century BCE workshop of the Athenian master Andokides and witness an ancient artist’s moment of creative ingenuity.

For generations Athenian vase painters had employed black-figure technique, in which the figure is painted in a mixture of clay and water called slip and details are incised with a sharp tool. At some point—we don't know precisely when or why—a vase painter had the idea to reverse the scheme, leaving the figures the color of the clay and painting details with a brush. We now call this red-figure technique.

Learn how ancient vase painters created vases in both styles and marvel at the technical virtuosity of the multi-step firing process that contributed to their distinctive, high-contrast look.

The City of Sparta in Ancient Greece (Full Cinematic Documentary)

Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (Λακεδαίμων), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement on the banks of the Eurotas River in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. Around 650 BC, it rose to become the dominant military land-power in ancient Greece.

Watch a documentary on the City of Sparta in Ancient Greece. Footage taken from Assassin's Creed Odyssey on PlayStation 4: