Reconstruction of the largest genetic family tree for Neolithic people in France using ancient DNA

Using ancient DNA, researchers generated two sizable Neolithic family trees.

An artist's interpretation of what each individual may have looked like, based on DNA. The dotted squares and circles represent male and female individuals, respectfully, who were not found at the site or whose remains lacked significant DNA. (Image credit: Drawing by Elena Plain; reproduced with the permission of the University of Bordeaux / PACEA)

The largest ancestral human record ever reconstructed, two elaborate Neolithic family trees that span several generations have been stitched together by French researchers using ancient DNA.

The Gurgy burial site in the Paris Basin region of northern France, which dates back 6,700 years, served as the foundation for the family trees. A study that was published on July 26 in the journal Nature describes how researchers began studying the genomes of 94 of the 128 people, including children and adults, whose remains were recovered from the site recently due to advancements in obtaining and analyzing ancient DNA data. The site was excavated in the middle of the 2000s.

Around 12,000 years ago, Neolithic societies initially appeared in the Near East, which includes West Asia, Southeastern Europe, and North Africa. Many human tribes switched from hunting and gathering to farming during this time. Due to the change in lifestyle, people were able to establish themselves and form long-lasting communities, which produced the expansive burial plot.

According to Maté Rivollat, a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Archaeology at Ghent University in Belgium and the study's lead author, "the size of a family tree that huge for that time period" was mind-boggling. We came to the conclusion that we could investigate the community's sociological features.

The graveyard at the location was the only one around, and many of the bones were "not well preserved and corroded," according to Rivollat.

Nevertheless, "the bones were good enough [to extract] DNA," she affirmed, "and we were able to get DNA from 94 of the individuals."

Researchers concluded that the family's lineage could be traced back to just one "founding father." According to a statement, his skeleton was special because it was first interred at an unidentified location before being relocated to Gurgy to be close to his relatives. The archaeologists also discovered a woman's remains next to him, but they were unable to recover any DNA.

The researchers created two family trees by looking at the Y-chromosome (paternal lineages) and mitochondrial DNA (maternal lineages) data, as well as each person's age at death and genetic sex. The study found that the first tree, which was the largest to date and connected 64 people across seven generations, and the second, which contained 12 people across five generations.

An adult man (top skeleton) buried some 6,000 years ago in what is now France was a son of the man from whom dozens of people also buried at the site are descended. (Image credit: Stéphane Rottier)

A "patrilineal pattern" soon developed, connecting successive generations via the male line of ancestors. According to the statement, researchers also discovered that while the women left the village where they were born, the men remained.

The women who were interred there, according to Rivollat, "were not related and came from somewhere else." Inbreeding wasn't happening, either, and we believe that this system of female movements prevented it.

The absence of half-siblings and the fact that sons and girls had the same parents was another intriguing feature of the community, suggesting that its members were monogamous rather than polygamous, according to the statement.

It was clear that the heirs were aware of who was interred there, Rivollat stated. "The more closely related they were, the closer they were buried together."

Workers constructing a new water infrastructure in Navenby discovered an ancient sacrifice offering that included the remains of two red deer

While setting up a new water grid in Navenby, workers discovered an ancient sacrifice offering.

The earliest remains found during archaeological excavations as part of a massive project to build a new drinking water grid, SPA, across the East of England, were two red deer skeletons discovered in an infilled pit, thought to have been killed possibly as sacrifices, more than 4,000 years ago.

Archaeologists must evaluate the potential harm that groundworks for the new pipes could do to buried archaeological sites before the pipes for SPA are laid.

The skeletons of two red deer have been found in an infilled pit in Navenby.

This work is completed using a straightforward procedure that includes geophysical surveying, digging trial trenches, and then performing targeted open area excavations in areas where earlier surveys have found significant archaeological relics.

The red deer skeletons were unearthed at Navenby alongside some bell-shaped pottery known as Beaker pottery, although there were no signs of butchery.

The Beaker People, a distinctive society whose members hail from the European continent, are responsible for creating this. A hundred years or so later, Britain started to notice the pots.

A small, rural hamlet made up of two roundhouses and five smaller post-built structures, possibly granary stores, arose on the site during the Iron Age, some thousand years later.

Maintenance and realignments indicate that this small village has been occupied for a long period and has undergone some redesign.

The Roman era appears to have taken center stage, with the only Roman activity at the site consisting of three cremations and a human burial, possibly indicating ancillary funerary activity on the outskirts of a settlement.

"These fascinating and significant finds are helping to shape our understanding of what life was like in Lincolnshire many thousands of years ago," said Jonathan Hutchings of the archaeology team assisting in the delivery of the new water system.

"People from the Early Bronze Age may have sacrificed or left an offering with the red deer.

As an alternative, it might have served as a form of "funeral" for the deer or a means of deterring or attracting ghosts. While it's important to have water pipes and pumps, our work also provides communities with a window into the past, allowing them to learn about their history, legacy, and origins. This helps us better comprehend the nature of our country.

One of the UK's largest infrastructure projects is the SPA water grid. Once finished, hundreds of kilometers of underground, interconnected pipelines would transport millions of liters of water every day from wetter to drier regions, from Elsham in North Lincolnshire to Essex and Suffolk.

However, the accountable water provider, Anglian Water, is dedicated to leave a lasting social and environmental legacy along the route.

In addition, fresh trees were planted, dozens of boxes for bats, owls, and dormice were built, and a life-saving defibrillator was given to 11 primary schools.

First-ever Welsh trove of Iron Age gold coins to be designated a treasure

The first cache of gold coins from the Iron Age found in Wales has been designated as treasure. In Llangoed on Anglesey in 2021, three metal detectorists discovered 15 coins that contained both gold and silver.

The coins, known as staters, were found scattered across the corner of a field (Image: © Amgueddfa Cymru National Museum Wales)

Peter Cockton, Lloyd Roberts, and Tim Watson discovered the stater coins in a field's corner and reported their discovery to the Portable Antiquities Scheme. On August 9 2023, Kate Robertson, the senior coroner for North West Wales, pronounced the stash to be treasure.

Since I've been looking for history for more than 14 years, discovering a gold stater has always been at the top of my dream list, according to Lloyd Roberts, who discovered the first two coins. Can you picture my amazement, joy, and surprise when I called out to my friend Peter, having dug up a gorgeous complete gold stater in pristine condition, having never anticipated to really find one, let alone in Anglesey?

"That one coin alone would have made my year," Mr. Roberts continued, "but I continued to find another on my next signal, and then Peter found a total of three." We both just sat down, had coffee, and imagined what our surroundings and people's lives were like more than 2000 years ago after getting in touch with the Portable Antiquities Scheme.

"I'm relatively new to metal detecting and was encouraged to give it a try by my dad during lockdown," said Tim Watson, who discovered the remaining 10. I had already explored this topic a few times without discovering much of interest then, one evening, I essentially hit gold.

"I ran home to show my wife, and we both gasped at the beauty of this coin, which was unlike anything else I had ever seen, flawlessly maintained with such unique stylized motifs. In the weeks that followed, I made the decision to upgrade my metal detector, which was money well spent because I went on to discover an additional nine coins in the same location.

In September 2021, Gwynedd Archaeological Trust paid a visit to the area where the coins were discovered alongside Mr. Watson and the landowner Gwyn Jones after additional coins were discovered. They searched for any archaeological artifacts that would have provided information on why the coins were buried.

The field had been under pasture and last plowed 15 years prior to the initial finding. Before being transported to Amgueddfa Cymru - Museum Wales in October 2021 so a report could be given to the coroner, the coins were given to the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS Cymru).

The coins were struck between 60BC and 20BC at three different mints across what is now Lincolnshire. They are attributed to the Corieltauvi tribe, who inhabited the geographical area of the modern East Midlands during the late Iron Age. (Image: © Amgueddfa Cymru National Museum Wales)

The hoard is a magnificent illustration of the rich archaeological landscape that exists in north west Wales, according to Sean Derby, historic environment record archaeologist and Portable Antiquities Scheme finds recording officer at Gwynedd Archaeological Trust.

The findspot is located in a known prehistoric and early Roman activity area and contributes to our understanding of this region, despite the fact that the immediate proximity of the find did not provide any hints as to the find's provenance.

Between 60 BC and 20 BC, three distinct mints in what is now Lincolnshire produced the coins. They are credited to the Corieltauvi tribe, which resided in the present-day East Midlands region during the late Iron Age.

Each piece features a highly stylized design that was inspired by Phillip II's Macedonian gold coins, which have an Apollo bust on the obverse (heads side) and a two-horse chariot and charioteer on the reverse (tails side).

The staters' reverse depicts a stylized triangular-headed horse with different symbols surrounding it, while the obverse depicts Apollo's wreath and hair. The symbols serve as the primary identifying characteristics that categorize coins into their many varieties.

Coin discoveries from the Iron Age are uncommon in Wales since the tribes that now call modern Wales home did not produce their own coins and hardly ever used those of other tribes. Rarely do pre-Roman habitation sites in Britain turn up Iron Age coinage.

The way we use coins today was probably not how the coins were utilized back then. Instead, it is believed that they were given as alliance- or loyalty-building presents amongst elites or as sacrifices to the gods, while in rare circumstances, it is possible that they were used for expensive expenditures.

The coin cache is sought after by Oriel Môn in Anglesey. The local find is exciting news for Oriel Môn, according to Ian Jones, building and collections manager at Oriel Môn. We are thrilled to acquire the coins, which are significant nationally, for the Anglesey Museum collection and to put them on exhibit for the general audience.

Decoding of an Ancient Mysterious Script

Using the same method that helped interpret the Rosetta Stone, archaeologists have partially decrypted the 'unknown' writing system of the Kushan Empire.

KUSHAN INSCRIPTION DISCOVERED ON A ROCK FACE IN TAJIKISTAN. CREDIT: BOBOMULLO BOBOMULLOEV

Between the first and third centuries, the ancient Kushan Empire, which spanned from what is now Uzbekistan into northern India, contributed to the introduction of Buddhism to East Asia. Archaeologists first noticed items in the area of the empire carrying a "unknown Kushan script" that they couldn't decipher in the 1950s. But in July 2023, scholars from Germany and Tajikistan declared that they had successfully partially decoded the ancient writing system.

The researchers did this by contrasting a trilingual text discovered in Afghanistan by French archaeologists in the 1960s with a bilingual text discovered in Tajikistan by Tajik archaeologists in 2022.

A "bilingual text" or a "trilingual text" is a parallel piece of writing that conveys about the same meaning in two or three languages. These multi-script writings served as the equivalent of the Rosetta Stone for scholars, enabling them to recognize words and symbols in the Kushan writing system from antiquity.

The discovery of the Kushan "Rosetta Stone(s)"

When characters from the unidentified Kushan script were discovered inked on a stairway at Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan in the 1950s, archaeologists were able to identify it for the first time. The script was discovered once more on a boulder at Dat-i Nwur, also in Afghanistan, in the 1960s by French archaeologists. Along with two additional scripts that represented the Bactrian language and the Gndhr language, the text on the boulder also included the Kushan script.

The trilingual text did not, however, instantly result in a breakthrough in the comprehension of the obscure Kushan script. According to Svenja Bonmann, a linguist at the University of Cologne in Germany and the lead author of the recent article about the unidentified Kushan script published in Transactions of the Philological Society in July 2023, this was at least partially because French archaeologists took shoddy photos of the trilingual text and used an inaccurate drawing of it to discuss the discovery.

Researchers were unable to translate the untranslated Kushan script in the absence of clear, exact photographs of the trilingual text. Archaeologists discovered numerous additional examples of the script over the following several decades, including an inscribed silver bowl in Kazakhstan, but they were unable to decipher its meaning. Then, in 2022, Tajik archaeologists discovered a bilingual document in Tajikistan's Almosi Gorge that had both the Bactrian language and an unidentified Kushan script.

According to Jakob Halfmann, a linguistics scholar at the University of Cologne and a co-author of the latest report, "[the archaeologists] were following information provided by a local man." He had noticed writings on the sides of nearby mountains, and he had tried to inform archaeologists about them for a while, but they just listened to him and believed him last year. They immediately launched an expedition, during which they discovered that there were in fact inscriptions.

The Tajik archaeologist Bobomullo Bobomulloev discovered the bilingual script, and together with Bonmann, Halfmann, and Natalie Korobzow, another linguist at the University of Cologne, they tried to interpret the text (Bobomulloev and Korobzow are also co-authors on the new article).

THE TITLE ‘KING OF KINGS’, ON THE LEFT ON A KUSHAN INSCRIPTION FOUND IN TAJIKISTAN, ON THE RIGHT ON THE INSCRIPTION FOUND IN AFGHANISTAN.

One of their most important discoveries was that they were able to identify the ruler Vema Takhtu's name in both the bilingual and trilingual manuscripts because it occurred in the Bactrian portions of both texts.

This approach is comparable to the method French philologist Jean-François Champollion used to translate the Rosetta Stone, which is famous for containing a section written in Greek, Egyptian Demotic script, and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Champollion began by recognizing royal names like Cleopatra in the Greek script and then locating them in the areas of the stone that were written in ancient Egypt.

Bringing the Kushan Empire to light

The majority of documented Kushan script artifacts were discovered in the contemporary nations of Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan between the second and third centuries B.C. Along with languages like Bactrian, Gandhr, and Sanskrit, the script corresponded to an unidentified Iranian language that was probably one of the Kushan Empire's official tongues.

Research by Bonmann and her coworker is important because it adds to the body of knowledge about Vema Takhtu, who ruled the Kushan Empire in the first century and extended its dominion into northwest India. Before, some academics argued over whether he actually existed. The discovery of his name in two distinct specimens of Kushan writing strengthens the historical proof that he was a significant Kushan Empire monarch.

The authors of the new piece not only named Vema Takhtu but also named the expressions "king of kings" and "great savior"—both of which describe Vema Takhtu. The writers think they have roughly half of the Kushan characters figured out, and they intend to figure out more in the future. The empire and the people who lived there about two millennia ago may be better understood with further study.

In a Polish "necropolis" cemetery, archaeologists found a 17th-century "vampire child" with a padlocked ankle

The head archaeologist on the excavation told Insider that they have discovered the remains of what they believe to be a 17th-century "vampire" infant who was buried face down and padlocked to the ground in an effort to allay the villagers' anxieties that the child wouldn't rise from the dead.

Archeologists discovered the skeletal remains of what they believe to be a 17th-century "vampire child" in an unmarked Polish cemetery. Łukasz Czyżewski

The child's bone remains, which experts estimate to be between 5 and 7 years old, were found in an unmarked mass grave in the Polish hamlet of Pień, close to Ostromecko.

The "necropolis," which is Greek for "city of the dead," is also where archaeologists found a "vampire" woman who had been buried with a sickle laying across her neck and a padlock fastened to her big toe in case she tried to rise from the dead.

The two graves were discovered just two meters apart in the cemetery, which his team believes to be a makeshift graveyard for "the excluded," or those who were not welcome in Christian cemeteries for various reasons, according to archaeology professor Dariusz Poliński of Nicolaus Copernicus University, who oversaw both digs.

Triangular padlocks were attached to people’s feet to keep them tethered to the ground once buried, Poliński said. Magdalena Zagrodzka

About 100 graves have been discovered in the cemetery, according to Poliński and his team of researchers. Many of these graves exhibit unusual burial practices, including "anti-vampiric" strategies to prevent people from "coming back from the grave," such as triangular padlocks fastened to people's feet to keep them tethered to the ground, as well as proof that grave sites were disturbed or dug into after the initial burial.

A individual could have been interred in such a cemetery for a number of reasons, according to Poliński. The person might have had an illness or an uncommon physical condition that altered their appearance, or they might have displayed bizarre conduct that made others dread them while they were alive.

Through a translator, Poliński added, "It might have also been that someone died violently and unexpectedly in peculiar circumstances." "Sudden death was frequently regarded as something that people ought to fear."

Villagers in the seventeenth century were also prone to worry about drowned victims and unbaptized or unchristened youngsters being buried.

Archeologists also found a collection of loose bones near the child's gravesite, as well as a pregnant woman. Magdalena Zagrodzka

Near the child's tomb, according to Poliński, archaeologists also discovered a group of loose bones and a pregnant woman carrying a fetus estimated to be around 6 months old.

According to Insider's Katherine Tangalakis-Lippert and Marianne Guenot, Matteo Borrini, lead lecturer of forensic anthropology at Liverpool John Moore University, "vampire burials" were a regular practice throughout Christian Europe as early as the 14th century.

People used to link "vampiric" epidemics with periods of huge mortality that, though at the time unexplained, are now thought to have been pandemics or widespread poisonings. According to Borrini, the prevailing belief was that these "vampires" would hunt down and murder their family members first before turning on their neighbors and other villagers. This belief corresponded to how we currently understand the spread of infectious diseases.

Ancient Greeks - Real Faces Recreation

In this video we will be bringing to life some ancient Greek faces especially from the golden age. Having some personal knowledge of ancient Greece, this could be the first part of an info, teach thingy about this subject or perhaps the Persian invasions of Greece.

12 Most Amazing Archaeological Finds Scientists Still Can't Explain

Archaeologists and scientists often work together to solve the mysteries of a discovery. An archaeologist might be able to say roughly where and when an artefact or an object was made, but they can’t always say why or how it was made. In those circumstances, they’ll turn to a scientist for assistance. There are times when the scientists can’t help, though - and those are the times that allow us to make videos like this one!

Why The Giraffe Got Its Neck

How and why the giraffe's neck emerged in the first place has been a mystery that generations of biologists have argued over – one that has made us reconsider our understanding of how evolution actually works over and over again. Watch the video to find out more!

Jesus' Tomb Explained--the evidence & the story!

Join us in today’s video as we travel from Israel to Rome to Turkey, to explain the evidence for and tell the story of the first and most important archaeological dig ever conducted...the excavation of the Tomb of Jesus. Enjoy!

Ancient Giants in America: The Mysterious Blonde Hair Blue-Eyed Giants of Catalina Island

A fascinating and highly controversial chapter of prehistoric America is said to have been found on the sun-drenched shores of Catalina Island, off the coast of Southern California. Hidden among the quiet beaches and rolling hills, there allegedly lies proof of an ancient race of fair-haired giants, taller and more robust than the modern human.

Identified through the discovery of giant skeletons, the giants are said to have possessed technology far advanced for the time. This assertion has sparked a vivid debate among scholars, archaeologists, and enthusiasts alike.

Meanwhile, a more widely accepted archaeological treasure resides just north on Santa Rosa Island — the Arlington Springs Man. Discovered in 1959, it is the oldest known human skeleton in North America. These remains, belonging to a man who roamed the Earth over 13,000 years ago, have significantly enriched our understanding of early human migration patterns and life in prehistoric North America.

What are the stories of these discoveries that have contributed to the compelling mystery of our human past and the eternal quest for our origins…?

Secret Nasty Kinky Sex Lives Of Roman Gladiators

Gladiators were the rock stars of ancient Rome, embodying the virtues of the society but also viewed as social outcasts. Despite their low status, they were lusted after by women who desired their sweaty bodies and even used their blood as an aphrodisiac.

However, gladiators were also akin to sex workers in Roman society, with little standing and often compared to actors and those in the sex industry.

This unique position allowed for sexual encounters, with some women hiring gladiators as bodyguards or engaging in sexual relations with them. The erotic fascination with gladiators was evident in Roman graffiti and even in the beauty of the gladiators themselves, who were chosen based on their attractiveness.

White Huns: Rise and Decline

In the following video we will be talking about the White Huns - the Hephthalites. Their origins, rise and decline, their attacks on India and the Sassanid empire and beyond. Enjoy!

Who is the Most Senior Heir of Charlemagne Today?

In the following video we will investigate who is the most senior heir of Charlemagne today. Watch the video to find out!

The Strange & Terrifying Creatures of Native American Folklore

In the video below we will analyze strange and terrifying creatures of Native American folklore. Watch the video for more!

The Mightiest Gods Of Chinese Mythology | The Gods Of China

In the video below we will analyze the mightiest gods of Chinese Mythology. Watch the video to find out more about the gods of China!

Between Legend and Geography: Alexander's Knowledge of the Aral Sea

---

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

---

Beyond the Caspian: Did Alexander Gaze Upon Aral's Waters?

The history of Alexander the Great and the ecological disaster of the Aral Sea are two distinct narratives that span different times and regions. While Alexander's conquests left an indelible mark on the ancient world, the tragic decline of the Aral Sea is a more recent environmental catastrophe. Let's delve into each of these stories and understand their significance.

In the intricate tapestry of ancient history, a multitude of questions loom large, the answers to which are shrouded in the mists of time. One such question pertains to the legendary Alexander the Great and his knowledge of the vast expanse known as the Aral Sea. This query, seemingly simple, finds its roots in the intricate writings of the renowned geographer, Strabo. As historians pore over these ancient texts, they embark on a journey to discern the truth, guided by J. R. Hamilton's seminal work, "Alexander and the Aral Sea."

Alexander the Great: A Conqueror of Empires

Alexander the Great, born in 356 BC, rose to prominence as a Greek Macedonian king and military genius. His ambition and strategic prowess led to the creation of an empire that stretched from Greece to Egypt, Persia, and parts of India. His military campaigns reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the ancient world, leaving behind a legacy that continues to be studied and admired today.

Alexander the Great, renowned for his vast conquests, reached unprecedented distances in his campaigns, expanding the Greco-Macedonian Empire to boundaries that few Europeans of the time could have imagined. While he did not venture into what is today known as East Asia (comprising regions like China, Japan, and Korea), Alexander's campaigns extended as far as the fringes of South and Central Asia. His most eastern achievements included the invasion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, where he famously defeated King Darius III. Pushing further eastward, he made his way into the territories of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the borders of India. These ventures brought him into contact with cultures, beliefs, and challenges hitherto unknown to the Greek world. Notably, his encounters in India, especially against the fierce resistance led by King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes, remain emblematic of his easternmost conquests. Although he aspired to push further, reaching the Ganges River and beyond, his exhausted troops' reluctance and homesickness compelled a return, marking the eastern limit of Alexander's remarkable journey.

Wikimedia Commons

The Aral Sea: A Tale of Environmental Decline

The Aral Sea, on the other hand, occupies a geographical space far removed from Alexander's conquests. Located in Central Asia between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, the Aral Sea was once one of the world's largest inland seas. However, in the 20th century, the sea began to shrink dramatically due to human interventions, primarily the diversion of rivers for irrigation purposes. This diversion caused a significant decrease in water inflow, leading to the sea's desiccation and severe ecological consequences.

Diminishing Aral Sea, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Historical Connection?

It's important to clarify that there is no historical connection between Alexander the Great and the Aral Sea. Alexander's empire never extended to the Central Asian region, where the Aral Sea is located. His conquests primarily took place in the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, Egypt, Persia, and parts of India. While his legacy is firmly established in the annals of ancient history, it has had no direct impact on the events surrounding the Aral Sea.

According to J. R. Hamilton's journal article "Alexander and the Aral," there is a debate over whether Alexander the Great was aware of the existence of the Aral Sea. Strabo, the ancient geographer and historian, provides a source that has led to differing interpretations about this topic. Strabo's writings suggest that Alexander had knowledge of a large body of water to the northeast of the Caspian, which some scholars believe to be the Aral Sea. However, the description and the geographical context given by Strabo are not definitive, leading to uncertainties. Some historians argue that Strabo's description could also refer to other water bodies or even exaggerated accounts of smaller lakes. In Hamilton's study, he tries to piece together the evidence to reach a conclusion, but the matter remains one of historical interpretation, and it is not definitively proven that Alexander knew of the Aral Sea's existence.

J. R. Hamilton's article delves deeply into the scant evidence available to decipher whether Alexander the Great had knowledge of the Aral Sea. Central to the debate are ancient geographic knowledge and the textual interpretations of various sources, including those of Strabo.

Strabo's works rely on earlier sources, some of which are lost to history, so interpreting his writings can be challenging. Strabo talks of a large water body near the Caspian, but the descriptions are ambiguous. The Aral Sea and the Caspian Sea are distinct water bodies, with the former lying to the northeast of the latter. The ancient geographers and explorers did not have the cartographic precision we possess today, leading to potential inaccuracies or generalized descriptions in their accounts.

Hamilton's exploration of the topic takes into account not just Strabo's work but also other accounts and the logistical and strategic actions of Alexander during his campaigns. If Alexander knew of the Aral Sea, it would likely have played a role in his military or exploration plans. The nature of Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia, particularly the movements and objectives of his forces, are thus analyzed to look for clues about his geographic knowledge.

However, despite Hamilton's thorough investigation, the article does not provide a definitive answer. Instead, it sheds light on the complexities of historical interpretation and the challenges of drawing conclusions from fragmentary and sometimes contradictory sources.

To truly grasp the nuances of the argument, one would need to dive into Hamilton's detailed analysis, considering the broader context of Alexander's campaigns, the geopolitical landscape of the time, and the limitations of ancient source material.

The U.S. National Archives

conclusion

The quest to determine whether Alexander the Great was privy to the existence of the Aral Sea is a testament to the challenges and ambiguities inherent in interpreting ancient narratives. Despite the exhaustive efforts of scholars like Hamilton, the shadows of uncertainty persist. Strabo's accounts, while illuminating, are also enigmatic, highlighting the limitations and enigmas of ancient source material. Though we may never arrive at a definitive answer, the journey through these historical landscapes reminds us of the complexities of the past and the perpetual allure of its unsolved mysteries.

---

References:

1. Cartledge, Paul, "Alexander the Great: The Hunt for a New Past," Vintage, 2004.

2. Micklin, Philip P., "The Aral Sea Disaster." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 34 (2006): 47–72.

3. J. R. Hamilton, “Alexander and the Aral”, The Classical Quarterly, Cambridge University Press, 1971.

The House of Tudor - Real Faces - English Monarchs - Henry VII - Elizabeth of York - Prince Arthur

We can now view the real faces of the first Tudor monarchs. The one who established the dynasty on the throne of England, Henry Tudor, a descendant of the Lancastrian branch of the House of Plantagenet, who was later known as king Henry VII his wife Elizabeth of York and two of their sons Prince Arthur and the face of a young, thin and athletic, Henry VIII.

How the Ancients Cut Stone with Sound - Lost High Technology Explained

How did the ancient civilisations cut and shape such intricate stonework like we see in AncientEgypt? How were holes seemingly drilled through solid granite? How did the Incas create walls with perfectly connecting blocks of stone? Did they use traditional tools? Did they harness the power of the sun? Or did they know the secrets of sound and this was a form of ancient high technology? Watch the video below to find out!

Emperor Nero's Theater Ruins Found Close to the Vatican

Archaeologists working on a property close to the Vatican discovered the remains of a private theater where the notoriously harsh Roman emperor Nero once practiced for his public appearances before the construction of a luxury hotel.

An aerial view of the ruins of Nero’s private theater near the Vatican. Credit: Soprintendenza Speciale di Roma

The location of the theater from the first century C.E. that is mentioned in Roman texts was unclear until recently. The discovery's experts believe Nero, who was notorious for persecuting Christians and thought of himself as a great performer, sung, acted, and read poetry on the theater's stage frequently.

Marzia Di Mento, the site's principal archaeologist, notes that even though there is no proof that this could have happened, Pliny the Elder and Tacitus mention how Nero performed in a theater, which we propose to associate with one of these structures.

Elegant Theater

The Special Superintendency for Archaeology in Rome, a division of the Italian Ministry of Culture, was in charge of the project. Work on the theater site started around two years ago, and the excavations have grown to the area of a city block. There, two sizable brick buildings were discovered next to a courtyard that may have been enclosed by a portico.

One of the buildings was a semicircular cavea with tiers of seats for the audience facing the ornate stage backdrop (known as the scaenae frons) of a Roman theater to the west. What's left shows that marble and gold leaf were used to overlay the background. The second structure, which lay parallel to the first, contained chambers that appeared to have served as servicing quarters for theatrical props including sets and costumes.

The obvious wealth of the ruins, according to Renato Sebastiani, one of the project's leaders, shows that they are from Nero's theater. "We are dealing with works created for the imperial family," he claims. "The richness of the materials used, the marbles, the stuccos decorated with gold leaf... testifies that." The theater and other artifacts at the site are from the early Roman Empire, which lasted from the first century (Nero's reign began in the middle of the first century) through the medieval era in Rome, which lasted from the 15th century.

Part of a metal badge worn by a medieval Christian pilgrim to the site, which was thought to be near the location where Saint Peter was buried (top). Such badges or insignia showed pilgrims had visited the shrine of a particular saint. The ornate decorations of Nero’s theater included a sculptured marble head, which may have once been part of a larger statue (bottom). Credit: Soprintendenza Speciale di Roma

Gardens of Nero

The location, which sits on the west bank of the Tiber River in an area that used to be the Gardens of Nero, is just a few hundred feet from the Vatican. The region was formerly owned by Julia Agrippina's grandmother, Agrippina the Elder, a descendant of Augustus.

Julia Agrippina, often known as Agrippina the Younger, was Nero's mother according to an obscure Roman statesman. She was the niece of Caligula's successor Claudius and the sister of the emperor Caligula, who was assassinated by his own Praetorian Guard in C.E. 41.

Agrippina became Claudius' fourth wife in C.E. 49, despite the fact that the union of an uncle and a niece was frowned upon. Agrippina convinced Claudius to adopt her 12-year-old son, who would also be his heir, just a few months after they wed. When Claudius passed away in C.E. 54, presumably as a result of Agrippina's poisoning, the boy adopted the name Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus and succeeded to the throne.

Agrippina attempted to dominate Rome through Nero again, but the ungrateful kid had her killed in C.E. 59, according to Tacitus, who lived nearly 60 years later.

The worst emperor of Rome?

Nero is one of the worst rulers Rome has ever seen, according to conventional history. He allegedly had a cruel and debauched personality. A few years after Tacitus, his biographer Suetonius stated that Nero had "practiced every sort of obscenity," from incest to murder.

Nero enjoyed theater performances as a singer, pianist, and actor as well as chariot racing. Nero's reputation was not helped by horrifying accounts of the way he persecuted Christians, who, after the fourth century, authored the majority of the history of the time that are still in existence. However, Romans at the time considered such acts to be exceedingly lower-class.

It's possible that the emperor's most infamous claim to fame is that he "fiddled while Rome burned." In actuality, Nero frequently strummed a cithara, a kind of lyre. However, there is no proof that he did so during the great fire that destroyed Rome in 64 CE, nor that he was even present in the city.

The Praetorian Guard eventually lost patience with Nero's excesses and swore allegiance to Galba, a rival Roman senator who succeeded Nero as emperor for a short time in C.E. 68.

Part of a frescoed wall of the theater’s cavea—a tiered semicircle where the audience sat to watch the performances on the stage (top). The structure’s sumptuous architecture included finely worked columns of precious colored marble (bottom). Credit: Soprintendenza Speciale di Roma

Nero retreated into hiding at a villa outside of Rome after being abandoned and nearly left alone. There, he attempted suicide but apparently was unable to complete it. Finally, he gave the order for a servant to murder him. "Qualis artifex pereo!" he screamed out, according to Suetonius. "What an artist dies within me!"

Problem solved?

The newly discovered theater, according to archaeologists, served primarily as a private location where Nero prepared for performances he would later give elsewhere in the city.

According to Paolo Carafa of the Sapienza University of Rome, Pliny the Elder mentions a theater in the Gardens of Nero where he performed before singing at the big theaters. This theater might have been the culprit.

Nero "claimed to be a great singer, which led him to perform in front of large audiences," said Leonardo Visconti di Modrone, governor general of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, which controls the site. But in order to practice, he gave himself a very opulent and refined private theater where he could perform in front of chosen audiences.

Even though Nero's theater was mentioned by its contemporaries, its location remained a mystery. Visconti di Modrone declares, "Today we can say that this riddle has been solved.

After 'ancient' dolphin remains discovered in Stirling yard were shown to be much more recent than originally believed, archaeologists became "disappointed"

It is now believed that the artist who once lived in the house buried them in the garden and forgot about them.

The dolphin bones found in a Causewayhead garden and were initially estimated to be around between 6000 to 8000 years old

The dolphin bones discovered in a Stirling backyard are far younger than previously believed, and they were probably buried by a 19th-century artist.

Paul McDonald, a resident of Causewayhead, had lately found the bones in clay while working to construct a swimming pool for his kids.

The 10 foot long bones, which were assumed to be the remains of a dolphin that had washed up on the coast of an ancient inland sea that is now the Carse of Stirling, were estimated to be between 6000 and 8000 years old.

It was praised as a "once in a lifetime" discovery by archaeologists.

The skull was then removed and brought to the National Museums of Scotland (NMS) for analysis. But on Thursday, during on-site excavations, the tale of the bones came to light.

Murray Cook, an archaeologist with Stirling Council, said: “The joke is on me. I had thought that the dolphin bones were thousands of years old, making them important on a global scale. But when we started working on the bones last week, we discovered that they had been sawed. The spine has saw marks on it.

It was divided into three distinct pieces. That proved to us that it is unquestionably not archaic. It appears that someone brought it to the backyard garden to have its flesh removed. At this location, in the nineteenth century, Joseph Denovan Adam maintained a studio where he drew from skeletons. Even though the artist typically painted livestock, it's most probable that he buried the dolphin in the garden and then forgot about it.

A National Museum of Scotland crew provided assistance for the excavation effort. They had all they needed to finish the job. They are still overjoyed to have the dolphin skeleton in their possession. Even though it's not tens of thousands of years old, I still feel it to be an astounding discovery. Archaeology is primarily concerned with the process of discovery.”