Rediscovered Mycenaean Armor Proves Battle-Ready in Modern Marine Trials

Marines Validate Mycenaean Armor: An 11-Hour Battle Test Proves Durability!

In a remarkable fusion of archaeology and modern military practice, a recent study has brought ancient Mycenaean armor into the spotlight, challenging long-held perceptions of Bronze Age warfare. Historically, this armor was considered largely ceremonial, but contemporary testing has revealed its practical efficacy in real combat situations.

The Dendra Panoply

Central to this discovery is the Dendra armor, a full bronze panoply dating back to 1,500 BCE. It was found in the Dendra cemetery near Midea in the Argolid, Greece. This armor, characterized by its impressive coverage and weight, was previously thought to be more symbolic than functional due to its extensive protection and presumed encumbrance.

Top: Geomorphology of the area surrounding Troy in the later phases of the Late Bronze Age (labels indicate the locations of the two army encampments and the geographic features of the area).

Hellenic Armors by Katsikis Dimitrios

Modern Testing by Hellenic Marines

To test the practicality of this ancient armor, researchers collaborated with modern Hellenic Marines. They recreated the Dendra panoply using historically accurate methods and materials, then subjected it to rigorous testing. The most notable experiment involved an 11-hour battle simulation inspired by the legendary Trojan War.

During this simulation, marines donned armor and engaged in a variety of combat scenarios, replicating the conditions and challenges of ancient warfare. Surprisingly, the armor provided significant protection and allowed for considerable mobility. The results indicated that, contrary to previous assumptions, Mycenaean warriors could effectively fight for extended periods while wearing heavy bronze gear.

Emeritus Professor and inspirer of the study, Dr. Giannis Koutentakis, emphasized to the Athenian-Macedonian News Agency (AMNA) that "to address the aforementioned question, it required the innovative collaboration of two seemingly unrelated sciences, archaeology and sports physiology, to precisely evaluate the loads imposed by the armor on the bodies and biological functions of the volunteers. The results overturn the previous notion that this armor was merely ceremonial, primarily due to its supposedly cumbersome design, shedding light on a significant aspect of the Bronze Age in Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean. Furthermore, the findings demonstrate the potential of interdisciplinary collaborations. I hope the new specialty created, 'archaeophysiology,' will be a vehicle for future studies."

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Hittite Bowl Featuring Mycenaean Warrior?: Tracing The Mycenaean Footprints In Anatolia

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Insights into Mycenaean Warfare

The findings from these tests offer profound insights into Mycenaean military capabilities. The successful use of such armor suggests that Mycenaean soldiers were highly skilled and well-prepared for intense combat situations. Additionally, the combination of heavy armor and the use of chariots likely gave the Mycenaeans a strategic advantage on the battlefield.

The implications extend to our understanding of Mycenaean society and its martial culture. The ability to produce and utilize such advanced armor indicates a high level of technological and metallurgical proficiency. It also underscores the importance of warfare in Mycenaean civilization, reflecting their emphasis on military prowess and strategic dominance.

"The technology developed by the Mycenaeans in crafting effective battle armor partially explains their strong presence in the eastern Mediterranean. Only a formidable military force, such as the Mycenaeans, could oppose the Hittites, who dominated from Asia Minor to Mesopotamia in the late 2nd millennium BCE, and earn their respect, as evidenced by Hittite records. Additionally, our study's results weaken the theory that references to bronze armor in the Iliad are later additions, supporting the view that this technology existed long before the Trojan War," concludes Professor of Archaeology Dr. Ken Wardle.

Bronze Age Mycenaean Armors at Kotsanas Museum of Ancient Greek Technology
Photo: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Rewriting Bronze Age History

These revelations necessitate a reevaluation of Bronze Age military history. The effectiveness of Mycenaean armor challenges previous narratives that depicted ancient combat as relatively unsophisticated. Instead, it paints a picture of a highly organized and technologically advanced society capable of conducting prolonged and strategic warfare.

Moreover, this study exemplifies the value of interdisciplinary research, combining archaeology, history, and modern military expertise to unlock new understanding of ancient practices. The collaboration between historians and active military personnel not only validates historical artifacts but also brings to life the experiences of ancient warriors.

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A Mycenaean Type Sword In Hattusha?: Evidence Of Technological Exchange Or Military Conflicts In The Late Bronze Age?

The testing of ancient Mycenaean armor by modern marines has unveiled a new dimension of Bronze Age warfare, highlighting the sophistication and effectiveness of Mycenaean military technology. These findings enrich our understanding of ancient Greek history, illustrating the advanced capabilities of Mycenaean society and reshaping our perceptions of their martial culture. As we continue to explore and test historical artifacts, we gain deeper insights into the complexities and innovations of ancient civilizations.

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Mycenaean Echoes In El-Amarna: Aegean Warriors In The Egyptian Army Of 18th Dynasty?

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Prostitution in Ancient Greece: A Comprehensive Overview

Prostitution in ancient Greece was a multifaceted institution that played a significant role in the cultural, social, and economic life of Greek cities. Its existence and regulation reveal much about ancient Greek society's values and hierarchies. This article delves into the types of prostitution, the role and status of prostitutes, the regulation of brothels, legal and social aspects, cultural depictions, and the economic impact of this profession in ancient Greece.

Types of Prostitution

Hetairai (Companions)

Role and Status: Hetairai were high-class courtesans who provided more than just sexual services. They offered companionship, intellectual conversation, and entertainment at symposia (drinking parties). Unlike common prostitutes, hetairai were often well-educated and could hold significant influence in social and political circles. Their roles were multifaceted, blending elements of companionship, artistry, and sometimes political advisory.

Famous Hetairai: Notable hetairai included Aspasia, who was associated with the statesman Pericles and known for her intellectual prowess and influence. Phryne was another famous hetaira, celebrated for her beauty and her dramatic trial for impiety, during which she famously revealed her breasts to the jury, leading to her acquittal.

Pornai (Common Prostitutes)

Role and Status: Pornai were the common prostitutes who worked in brothels or on the streets. They typically came from the lower classes, and many were slaves or freedwomen. Their services were more accessible to the average citizen due to their lower fees, and their working conditions and social standing were considerably lower than those of the hetairai.

Economics: Pornai were economically vital as they provided affordable sexual services to the broader populace. Their lower fees meant that they served a wider range of clients, from common laborers to less affluent members of society.

Brothels and Regulation

Brothels

Brothels, known as "porneia," were widespread in ancient Greece and were particularly prevalent in cities like Athens. These establishments varied in quality, from luxurious brothels catering to wealthy patrons to more basic facilities for common people. The structure and amenities of these brothels often reflected the status of the prostitutes working within them.

State Regulation

In Athens, the state regulated prostitution to some extent. The government levied taxes on brothels and individual prostitutes, using the revenue to fund public works and services. This regulation aimed to control the spread of disease and maintain public order. By institutionalizing prostitution, the state acknowledged its inevitability and sought to manage its social impacts.

Legal and Social Aspects

Legal Status

Prostitution was legal in ancient Greece, and prostitutes had certain protections under the law. However, they were also subject to social stigmatization and legal restrictions. Prostitutes were barred from participating in certain religious ceremonies and holding public offices, reflecting their marginal status in society.

Marriage and Citizenship

Prostitutes, particularly the lower-class pornai, were generally excluded from respectable marriage and could not claim Athenian citizenship for their children. This exclusion underscored the social boundaries and hierarchies that governed ancient Greek society, maintaining the purity of the citizen class.

Cultural Depictions

Literature and Art

Prostitution was a common theme in Greek literature and art. It was frequently depicted in comedies by playwrights like Aristophanes, who often used the profession to satirize societal norms and behaviors. Vase paintings and other artworks from the period frequently depicted scenes involving hetairai and symposia, highlighting the integration of these courtesans into social and cultural life.

Philosophical Views

Philosophers like Plato and Xenophon discussed prostitution, often with moralizing tones. Plato, in particular, contrasted the higher pursuits of love and intellectual companionship with the purely physical aspects of prostitution. In his dialogues, he explored themes of love and sexuality, sometimes using prostitution as a foil to idealized forms of love and partnership.

Economic Impact

Economic Contribution

Prostitution contributed significantly to the urban economy, particularly in large cities like Athens and Corinth. The income generated from brothels and individual prostitutes supported various sectors, including hospitality and retail. The presence of prostitutes in markets and social gatherings also stimulated economic activity in these areas.

Slavery

Many prostitutes were slaves or former slaves, highlighting the intersection of prostitution with the broader economic system of slavery in ancient Greece. This system allowed for the exploitation of women and men for economic gain, reflecting the deeply ingrained inequalities of Greek society.

In conclusion prostitution in ancient Greece was a deeply ingrained institution, reflecting the complexities of Greek social, economic, and cultural life. From the influential hetairai to the marginalized pornai, prostitutes played various roles and occupied different statuses within Greek society. State regulation, legal constraints, and cultural depictions all underscore the multifaceted nature of this profession and its significance in ancient Greek civilization.

Sources

• Davidson, J. (1997). Courtesans and Fishcakes: The Consuming Passions of Classical Athens. HarperCollins.

• McClure, L. (2003). Courtesans at Table: Gender and Greek Literary Culture in Athenaeus. Routledge.

• Kurke, L. (1997). "Inventing the Hetaira: Sex, Politics, and Discursive Conflict in Archaic Greece." Classical Antiquity, 16(1), 106-150.

• Henry, M. M. (1985). Prisoner of History: Aspasia of Miletus and Her Biographical Tradition. Oxford University Press.

China-Greece "Dialogue of Civilizations" Held in Athens

A "Dialogue of Civilizations" between Greece and China took place in Athens on Friday, focusing on the preservation of world cultural heritage sites.

The event, titled "Dialogue of Civilizations between Liangzhu Ancient City and the Acropolis of Athens," brought together Chinese archaeologists and scholars with their Greek counterparts. This meeting followed a similar event held in Hangzhou, China, last year.

Greek Deputy Minister of Culture Christos Dimas, in a statement read by a representative, emphasized the enduring impact of cultural exchanges: "Cultures have the ability to transcend geographical limitations, to engage with the present and the past, and to build bridges of communication and friendship that endure over time."

The previous year's event saw Greek cultural figures visiting the Liangzhu Ancient City site and the Liangzhu Museum, where they discussed the protection of cultural relics with Chinese scholars.

Stelios Virvidakis, president of the Center of Greek and Chinese Ancient Civilizations, highlighted the ongoing nature of cultural dialogue: "When we see the monuments, we try to imagine what were the virtues of the people, of the residents who built these cities."

Lydia Koniordou, former Greek Minister of Culture and Sports, shared her admiration for the Liangzhu Ancient City and the efforts of Chinese experts in preserving its cultural heritage. "It is an endless dialogue," Koniordou told Xinhua, expressing her appreciation for the ancient civilization and its preservation work.

Ancient Mammoth Bones Discovered in Austrian Wine Cellar

During renovation works in a wine cellar in Gobelsburg, Austria, local winegrower Andreas Pernerstorfer stumbled upon a remarkable find: a set of mammoth bones. These remains, estimated to be between 30,000 and 40,000 years old, could represent at least three individual animals.

Pernerstorfer reported the discovery to the Austrian Federal Monuments Office, which then referred him to the Archaeological Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (OeAW). The OeAW described the find as the most significant of its kind in Austria in over a century.

Excavations led by Hannah Parow-Souchon of the OeAW have revealed multiple layers of mammoth bones, along with stone artifacts and charcoal. These latter items have been instrumental in dating the bones. "Such a dense bone layer of mammoths is rare. It's the first time we've been able to investigate something like this in Austria using modern methods," Parow-Souchon stated.

Interestingly, this isn't the first time mammoth bones have been found in Gobelsburg. About 150 years ago, researchers discovered a similar layer of bones, flint artifacts, decorative fossils, and charcoal in an adjacent cellar. The latest discovery could provide new insights into how prehistoric humans hunted mammoths, a topic that remains largely mysterious.

Archaeologists suggest that the location of the bones in Pernerstorfer's cellar might have been a site where the mammoths died, possibly driven into a trap by early humans. Current examinations of the remains aim to uncover more details about this prehistoric period. The bones will eventually be transferred to the Natural History Museum Vienna for restoration.

Earlier this year, another significant discovery of prehistoric animal bones, including those of a cave lion and a mammoth, was made in Paradise Cave (Jaskinia Raj) in Poland's Świętokrzyskie region. This site is one of Poland's most important archaeological locations, though much remains to be learned about it, according to Małgorzata Kot of the University of Warsaw.

Ancient Canoe Over 4,500 Years Old Discovered in Great Lakes

Archaeologists have unearthed a remarkable 4,500-year-old canoe in a Wisconsin lake, alongside at least eight other ancient vessels, the Wisconsin Historical Society announced on May 23.

Believed to be the oldest canoe found in the Great Lakes, this elm-made artifact dates back to 2500 B.C. "What we initially considered an isolated discovery in Lake Mendota has evolved into a significant archaeological site," the society stated. This site provides valuable insights into the ancient peoples of the region and evidences major environmental shifts over millennia.

Previously, two other canoes were identified in Lake Mendota in 2021 and 2022, one dating back 1,200 years and the other 3,000 years. The initial discovery spurred follow-up expeditions, analyzed in collaboration with local Native American nations.

Bill Quackenbush, Tribal Historic Preservation Officer for the Ho-Chunk Nation, remarked, "Seeing these canoes with one’s own eyes is a powerful experience, representing what we know from extensive oral traditions passed down through generations."

Archaeologists believe the canoes were stored in water to prevent wintertime freezing and warping, later becoming buried by natural forces. These canoes are concentrated along an 800-foot stretch of what was likely an ancient shoreline, submerged over time due to environmental changes.

However, the Wisconsin Historical Society noted that no further canoes will be recovered from this site due to its fragile condition, exacerbated by long-term exposure to natural elements, boating wakes, and water pollution. Archaeologists and Tribal Historic Preservation Officers determined that the remaining canoes are too delicate to withstand recovery and preservation efforts.

Lake Mendota is located in Madison, Wisconsin.

Columbian Government Acts to Protect 'Holy Grail' Shipwreck Valued at $17.000.000.000

Colombia has designated a special protective status for the "Holy Grail of shipwrecks," discovered last year in the Caribbean, to enable scientists to explore and preserve this significant find. The news was reported by Agence France-Presse and CNN.

The San Jose, which sank on June 8, 1708, during the War of Spanish Succession, has sparked a heated ownership dispute involving Colombia, Spain, Bolivia, and the U.S. Colombia, which found the ship in 2015, has made investigating and potentially recovering its treasure a priority for President Gustavo Petro's administration.

The San Jose's treasure is estimated to be worth a staggering $17 billion and includes 200 tons of silver and emeralds, as well as around eleven million gold coins.

By designating the site as a "protected archaeological area," Colombia aims to ensure its "long-term preservation." The culture ministry stated that these measures will "guarantee the protection of heritage" and facilitate "research, conservation, and valuation activities."

Meanwhile, the American company Sea Search Armada claims they discovered the San Jose in the 1980s and has sued the Colombian government in the Permanent Court of Arbitration, seeking approximately $10 billion of the treasure.

"This is not a treasure; we do not treat it as such," Culture Minister Juan David Correa emphasized.

Despite the ongoing legal dispute, Colombia continues to investigate and document the wreck. The Colombian Institute of Anthropology and History (ICANH) plans to use non-intrusive remote sensors to photograph the interior. Depending on their findings, further archaeological expeditions may follow.

"This government is undertaking something unprecedented," Correa said, "exploring the galleon's sinking to deepen our understanding of history and culture."

Could Neanderthals Speak?

Portrait of a Neanderthal man tending a fire in a primitive shelter, embodying protection and provider instincts.

Our imaginations often fill in the gaps about Neanderthals, a group for which we have no written records, including whether they could speak and how they might have communicated.

Historical Consensus and Recent Challenges

Historically, the consensus suggested that Neanderthals lacked the capability for speech. This view, however, was based on limited evidence and often framed within the context of human evolution theory, which needed a "subhuman" category that Neanderthals conveniently filled.

In recent years, this consensus has been challenged. In 2018, researchers Dan Dediu and Stephen C. Levinson re-evaluated their previous work in light of new findings in genetics, paleontology, and archaeology. They concluded that Neanderthals were likely fully articulate beings, and language evolution was a gradual process shared by both Neanderthals and modern humans. Their study, published in Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, argues that cognitive differences between Neanderthals and modern humans are minimal and expected after hundreds of thousands of years of separate evolution.

Grammar and Language Structure

In 2020, Stellenbosch linguistics professor Rudolph Botha argued in his book Neanderthal Language: Demystifying the Linguistic Powers of Our Extinct Cousins that while Neanderthals used linguistic signs similar to modern language, they lacked complex grammar. This theory, while intriguing, faces skepticism. For instance, Petar Gabrić, reviewing the book for Frontiers in Psychology, criticized the assumption that differences in brain structure necessarily indicate linguistic limitations. Similarly, Joshua Katz in the Times Literary Supplement noted the ongoing controversies and lack of universally accepted beliefs about Neanderthal linguistic capabilities.

Physical Evidence and Auditory Capabilities

Previous assumptions that Neanderthals couldn't speak due to inadequate bone structure were challenged in 2021. Researchers at the University of Binghamton and Universidad de Alcalá discovered that Neanderthals had similar auditory and speech capacities to modern humans, based on CT scans and 3D models of their ear structures. This finding, discussed in Discover Magazine, suggests that nothing physical would have prevented Neanderthals from speaking.

Theoretical Models of Neanderthal Speech

Some researchers have theorized about the nature of Neanderthal speech. University of Reading archaeologist Steven Mithen, author of The Singing Neanderthals, posits that Neanderthals likely did not use metaphors, a key component of abstract thinking. He bases this on the shape of Neanderthal skulls, which suggests a different brain structure focused more on visual processing than language. Mithen believes that while Neanderthals could use iconic words and that syntax could spontaneously emerge, the ability to think and communicate using metaphor was unique to modern humans.

Ultimately, the debate over Neanderthal speech reveals much about our desire to understand our ancient cousins. With each new discovery, theories evolve, and the gap between Neanderthals and modern humans continues to narrow. Yet, without direct evidence, much of what we believe remains speculative, shaped by the limited evidence available and the interpretations of various researchers.

Study Finds Paleolithic People Settled in Cyprus Thousands of Years Earlier Than Previously Thought

A groundbreaking study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences has revealed that Paleolithic people settled in Cyprus thousands of years earlier than previously believed. This discovery significantly alters our understanding of early human migration patterns across continents and islands, highlighting the Mediterranean's role in prehistoric human dispersal.

Early Settlement Patterns

Led by Professor Corey Bradshaw of Flinders University, the research team, which included Dr. Theodora Moutsiou and Dr. Christian Reepmeyer, utilized a combination of archaeological data, climate estimates, and demographic modeling. Their findings suggest that the first human occupation of Cyprus occurred between 14,257 and 13,182 years ago, predating earlier estimates by several millennia. This period aligns with favorable climatic conditions that would have supported large hunter-gatherer populations​​.

Methodology and Findings

The researchers examined the ten oldest archaeological sites across Cyprus, analyzing dating evidence and environmental conditions. The study found that the initial settlers arrived during a time of increased temperature and precipitation, which would have made the island more hospitable and capable of supporting substantial human populations. This early settlement was marked by rapid population growth, with estimates suggesting that within 300 years, or roughly 11 generations, the population expanded to a median of 4,000–5,000 individuals​​.

Implications for Understanding Human Migration

This new timeline for human settlement in Cyprus implies that Paleolithic societies possessed advanced planning and maritime capabilities, as evidenced by the organized migration patterns and the use of sophisticated watercraft. The study proposes that large groups, numbering in the hundreds to thousands, arrived in Cyprus in two to three major migration events over less than a century. This suggests a high level of social organization and technological advancement among early human populations​​.

Reevaluating Mediterranean Archaeology

The findings challenge previous assumptions that Mediterranean islands were unreachable and inhospitable for early humans. Dr. Moutsiou and Dr. Reepmeyer emphasize that these results necessitate a reevaluation of early human migration theories in the region. They argue that previous gaps in the archaeological record, due to preservation biases and dating uncertainties, have led to misconceptions about early human settlement patterns. The new evidence underscores the importance of revisiting these questions with advanced technologies and methodologies​​.

Future Research Directions

Professor Bradshaw highlights the need for further research to test the validity of early settlement dates in the Mediterranean in light of new findings. This study opens up new avenues for exploring how climatic changes and environmental factors influenced human migration and settlement patterns during the Pleistocene era. It also calls for more comprehensive archaeological investigations to uncover the full extent of early human activities in the region​​.

For further information, the detailed study can be accessed through the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences: Demographic models predict end-Pleistocene arrival and rapid expansion of pre-agropastoralist humans in Cyprus​​.

This discovery not only reshapes our understanding of early human history in the Mediterranean but also highlights the dynamic and adaptable nature of Paleolithic societies in their quest for new territories and resources.

The Worst Period To Time Travel To...

The late Jurassic period, 150 million years ago, was a time of immense geological change, with land masses almost unrecognizable from their current forms, the emergence of the Atlantic Ocean and the largest known volcano, TAMU masif, spewing massive amounts of CO2 into the ocean and atmosphere. The period was also characterized by extreme temperatures, with seawater averaging 32.1 de C or 90° F, 25% hotter than the current average. The northern and southern hemispheres saw significant amounts of dry biomes, including deserts and savannas, while drier ecosystems gave way to lush expanses towards the equator. Earth was experiencing climactic conditions not seen for nearly 50 million years.

Evolution of Humans in 20 Minutes

Exploring Human Evolution: From Abiogenesis to Self-Consciousness

This video delves into the evolution of humans, starting with abiogenesis—the emergence of life from non-life—possibly in volcanic ocean vents. It introduces LUCA, the last universal common ancestor. While human evolution, including big brains and bipedalism, is well-understood, the leap to self-consciousness is still a mystery. Some philosophers suggest psychedelic mushrooms might have played a role.

The video also highlights how the biopharmaceutical company Sibin uses psychedelic-based therapies to address depression and anxiety effectively, contrasting with traditional antidepressants. It concludes by examining how oxygen and Earth's movement around the sun facilitated human evolution.

Unveiling the Grand Canyon's Mysteries Through Its Prehistoric Ruins

Discovering Ancient Ruins in the Grand Canyon

In an incredible exploration of the Grand Canyon, we follow a journey of discovery as someone stumbles upon ancient ruins from a prehistoric civilization. This adventurer backpacks into the remote corners of this natural wonder, revealing stories hidden within its massive walls. Despite its well-known beauty, the Grand Canyon still holds many secrets. This exploration aims to uncover these intriguing mysteries and inspire others to seek out the hidden history of this ancient landscape.

Watch the Video

Join this fascinating journey and uncover the ancient secrets of the Grand Canyon by watching the video below:

Strange wreckage discovered on farmer's field in Saskatchewan

A farmer and his son discovered a mysterious object while working on their 10,000-acre grain farm in East Saskatchewan, Canada. The object, which weighs around 100 pounds and is made of carbon fibre composite with aluminum honeycomb, appears to have been torched. The family is unsure about the object's origin and how it ended up on their land. Some experts suggest it could be part of a satellite that re-entered the Earth's atmosphere.

Saskatchewan has a history of strange objects making landfall, including a metallic object found in Wollaston Lake in 1968, which turned out to be a part of Canada's Alouette satellite. In 2022, a 3-meter piece of debris was found on a sheep farm in Australia and was investigated by space experts.

What is the Elamo-Dravidian Linguistic Hypothesis?

The Elamo-Dravidian linguistic hypothesis is a proposition in the field of historical linguistics suggesting a genealogical relationship between the Elamite language, once spoken in ancient Elam (modern-day southwestern Iran), and the Dravidian languages, primarily spoken in southern India and parts of eastern and central India. This hypothesis posits that both language families might have descended from a common ancestral language, implying a shared linguistic and perhaps cultural heritage.

Background and Development of the Hypothesis

Elamite Language

Elamite was the language of the ancient Elamite civilization, flourishing from the 3rd millennium BCE to the 1st millennium BCE. Elamite texts have been discovered in cuneiform script, primarily from the ancient cities of Susa and Persepolis. Despite its relatively well-documented corpus, Elamite remains difficult to classify, showing no clear affiliation with neighboring language families such as Indo-European or Semitic.

Dravidian Languages

The Dravidian language family includes major languages such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, along with several other languages spoken in various regions of India and neighboring countries. These languages have a rich literary tradition and historical depth, with evidence of their existence dating back several millennia.

Proponents and Arguments

Linguistic Evidence

The primary advocate of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis was David McAlpin, who, in the 1970s and 1980s, presented several arguments based on linguistic data:

1. Vocabulary Parallels: McAlpin identified cognates between Elamite and Dravidian languages, suggesting common vocabulary items that might point to a shared ancestry.

2. Phonological Similarities: He noted certain phonological features, such as sound correspondences, that appear consistent between the two language groups.

3. Morphological Parallels: McAlpin also highlighted similarities in morphological structures, particularly in verb conjugations and noun declensions.

Archaeological and Genetic Evidence

Supporters of the hypothesis sometimes refer to archaeological and genetic evidence to bolster their claims.

1. Cultural Connections: Some argue that there might have been ancient migrations or cultural contacts between the Elamite region and the Dravidian-speaking regions, facilitated by trade or other interactions.

2. Genetic Studies: Genetic studies have occasionally been cited to suggest ancient population movements that could support the hypothesis of a common origin for the Elamite and Dravidian-speaking peoples.

The hypothesized tree of the Elamo-Dravidian family

Criticisms and Challenges

Despite the intriguing nature of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis, it has faced significant criticism and skepticism within the linguistic community.

1. Insufficient Evidence: Critics argue that the linguistic evidence presented by McAlpin is not robust enough to conclusively demonstrate a genealogical link. The similarities might be coincidental or the result of language contact rather than a common ancestry.

2. Lack of Consensus: The broader linguistic community has not reached a consensus on the validity of the hypothesis. Many linguists remain unconvinced due to the lack of comprehensive evidence and the speculative nature of some of the connections.

3. Alternative Explanations: Some suggest that similarities between Elamite and Dravidian might be better explained by language contact or borrowing rather than a direct genealogical relationship.

Conclusion

The Elamo-Dravidian linguistic hypothesis remains a controversial and largely speculative theory within historical linguistics. While it presents an intriguing possibility of a shared heritage between the ancient Elamite civilization and the Dravidian-speaking populations of India, the evidence currently available is not sufficient to draw definitive conclusions. Further research, potentially involving more comprehensive linguistic, archaeological, and genetic data, would be necessary to provide a clearer picture of any potential connections between these language families.

Experts Identify the Original Sarcophagus of Ramesses II: A Landmark Discovery

The identification of the original sarcophagus of Ramesses II by an archaeologist at the Sorbonne University marks a significant breakthrough in Egyptology. This discovery, made during recent excavations, offers unprecedented insights into the burial practices and material culture of the New Kingdom period. This paper outlines the methods used to identify the sarcophagus, its historical context, and the implications for our understanding of Ramesses II's reign.

Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, ruled Egypt during the 19th Dynasty and is one of the most celebrated pharaohs in ancient Egyptian history. His reign, characterized by extensive building projects and military campaigns, left a lasting legacy. However, the original resting place of his sarcophagus had remained elusive until now.

Discovery and Identification

During an excavation in the Valley of the Kings, archaeologists uncovered a well-preserved sarcophagus that has been identified as the original burial container for Ramesses II. Advanced imaging techniques and material analysis were employed to confirm its authenticity. Hieroglyphic inscriptions and iconographic elements unique to Ramesses II's time were crucial in the identification process.

Historical Context

The sarcophagus dates back to approximately 1279–1213 BCE, coinciding with Ramesses II's reign. Its elaborate design reflects the artistic and religious conventions of the period. The inscriptions include references to deities such as Ra and Osiris, highlighting the pharaoh's divine association and the funerary beliefs of ancient Egypt.

Implications for Egyptology

This discovery sheds light on the burial practices of the New Kingdom, particularly the efforts to protect the remains of significant rulers. It also offers insights into the craftsmanship and resources dedicated to royal burials. The findings provide a deeper understanding of the political and religious landscape of Ramesses II's Egypt.

The identification of Ramesses II's original sarcophagus is a landmark achievement in archaeological research. It not only enhances our knowledge of one of Egypt's greatest pharaohs but also enriches our understanding of ancient Egyptian civilization. Future research will focus on further analysis of the sarcophagus and its context within the broader landscape of New Kingdom mortuary practices.

Assassin's Creed Shadows Faces Backlash Over Black Samurai

Ubisoft's latest installment in the Assassin's Creed series, "Assassin's Creed Shadows," has ignited a fervent debate within the gaming community. The game's narrative centers around Yasuke, a historical Black samurai, set in feudal Japan. Yasuke served under Oda Nobunaga in the 16th century, and his story, though lesser-known, is gaining renewed interest.

The Historical Yasuke

Yasuke was an African warrior who arrived in Japan in the late 16th century and became a retainer of the powerful daimyo Oda Nobunaga. His historical presence has been documented, albeit sparingly, providing Ubisoft with a unique narrative opportunity. The game aims to explore his experiences and the challenges he faced as an outsider in Japanese society.

The Controversy

The controversy began with the release of the game's trailer. Critics argue that Ubisoft's decision to focus on Yasuke over a native Japanese protagonist is a move driven by modern political correctness rather than historical accuracy. Some fans feel that this choice diverts from the series' potential to highlight East Asian protagonists, while others question the authenticity of Yasuke's depiction as a samurai.

Support for Yasuke's Story

On the other side, many applaud Ubisoft for bringing Yasuke's story to the forefront. They highlight the importance of diversity in media and the value of representing historical figures who have been overlooked. Yasuke's inclusion is seen as a way to enrich the narrative and provide a fresh perspective on Japanese history. Supporters also note that Yasuke's story has been previously validated in other games and media, underscoring his legitimacy as a historical figure.

Ubisoft's Response

Ubisoft has defended its creative direction, emphasizing that Yasuke's unique perspective enriches the narrative experience. By portraying Japan through the eyes of an outsider, the game offers a novel exploration of cultural interactions and societal dynamics. Ubisoft aims to strike a balance between historical fidelity and creative storytelling, ensuring that Yasuke's story is told with respect and depth.

Broader Implications

The debate around "Assassin's Creed Shadows" reflects broader discussions on representation and authenticity in the gaming industry. As video games continue to be a powerful medium for storytelling, the choices developers make about their characters and narratives are increasingly scrutinized. Ubisoft's decision to feature Yasuke highlights the challenges and opportunities in balancing historical accuracy with inclusive storytelling.

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Can Video Games Teach Us Real History?

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In conclusion, "Assassin's Creed Shadows" has become a flashpoint in the ongoing dialogue about diversity in media. As the release date approaches, it remains to be seen how the game will be received and whether it will succeed in bridging the gap between historical intrigue and modern representation.

Excavating the Foundations of the Parthenon: Unveiling Ancient Secrets

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Acropolis of Athens, a monumental symbol of Greek heritage, has stood the test of time and conflict. Its most iconic structure, the Parthenon, has experienced both glory and devastation throughout the centuries. One pivotal period in its history was the excavation that took place between 1885 and 1890, led by archaeologists Panagiotis Kavvadias and Georg Kawerau. This monumental undertaking revealed not only the foundations of the Parthenon but also unearthed significant artifacts that provide invaluable insights into ancient Greek civilization.

The Context of Excavation

In the early 19th century, Greece fought for independence from centuries of Ottoman rule. During the Greek War of Independence in the 1820s, the Acropolis became a battleground. The Turkish army, in a desperate bid for resources, dismantled parts of the Parthenon, removing hundreds of marble blocks and repurposing lead-coated iron clamps to make bullets. This destruction added to the historical layers that the 1885-1890 excavation would later uncover.

The Scale of the Excavation

The Great Excavation of the Acropolis, particularly intense between 1885 and 1890, was a massive endeavor that rivaled even the largest archaeological projects of the time. Thousands of square meters were excavated to varying depths, with the area south of the Parthenon reaching depths of over 15 meters. This extensive digging revealed the natural rock beneath, providing a comprehensive understanding of the site's ancient topography.

The meticulous work carried out during this period stands out not only for its scale but also for the consistency in methodology and the wealth of artifacts uncovered. The excavation uncovered almost all known works of sculpture and architectural fragments from the archaic temples and other early buildings of the Acropolis. This included marble Kores (female statues), inscribed bases, copper and clay items, and numerous classical sculptures.

Discovering the Older Parthenon

Among the most significant discoveries was evidence of an earlier structure, known as the Older Parthenon or Pre-Parthenon. The foundations of the current Parthenon are, in many places, much older than the temple itself. To the east of the Parthenon, a gigantic podium extends about five meters beyond the line of the first marble step, indicating an older construction phase.

Historical records suggest that the Older Parthenon was under construction when the Persian Empire attacked Athens in 480 B.C., leading to the destruction of the Acropolis. However, this theory is still a matter of debate among scholars. The excavation confirmed that much of the fill above the natural rock, known as the "Persian debris," dated back to the aftermath of this destruction, offering a clear stratigraphic record of the site's turbulent history.

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Significant Findings and Their Implications

One of the most remarkable discoveries was the "Pit of the Maidens," unearthed in 1886 near the northwest of the Erechtheion, in the presence of King George I and other dignitaries. This pit contained fourteen broken statues of marble Korae, fragments of inscriptions, and other artifacts, including a treasure trove of 62 Athenian silver coins. These finds were linked to the cleanup of the Acropolis following its destruction by the Persians.

The artifacts recovered from the Persian debris provide crucial information about the destruction and subsequent reconstruction of Athens. The finds from the Great Excavation significantly advanced the field of Greek archaeology, offering a detailed glimpse into the architectural and artistic practices of ancient Athens.

Legacy and Historical Impact

The Great Excavation of the Acropolis, documented extensively by the German Archaeological Institute in Athens, remains a cornerstone of archaeological research in Greece. The scale and significance of the work conducted by Kavvadias and Kawerau are evident in the wealth of artifacts and structural insights they uncovered. Their efforts have provided a foundation for understanding the ancient history of Athens and the resilience of its people.

As we reflect on the discoveries made during this pivotal excavation, we are reminded of the enduring legacy of the Parthenon and the Acropolis. These monuments continue to inspire awe and admiration, standing as testaments to the rich cultural heritage and historical depth of Greece. The excavation of 1885–1890 not only brought to light the ancient secrets buried beneath the Acropolis but also reaffirmed the importance of preserving and studying our shared human history.

Why Our Ancestors Had Chiseled Faces & Didn't Need Braces?

Modern orthodontic issues like crooked teeth and misaligned jaws are rare in ancient populations. This article explores the reasons behind this phenomenon, focusing on diet, breastfeeding practices, breathing patterns, and lifestyle differences. The video "Why Our Ancestors Had Chiseled Faces & Didn't Need Braces?" discusses the reasons behind the well-formed facial structures and aligned teeth of our ancestors.

Key points include:

Diet and Jaw Development Ancestors' diets consisted of tough, fibrous foods that required significant chewing. This constant jaw exercise led to well-developed jaws and properly aligned teeth. In contrast, modern diets are softer, reducing the need for extensive chewing and thus leading to underdeveloped jaws and crowded teeth.

Breastfeeding and Weaning Practices Extended breastfeeding periods and natural weaning onto solid foods helped in the proper development of jaws and dental arches. This practice allowed for a gradual and natural progression in chewing abilities and jaw strength, contributing to better dental alignment.

Breathing Patterns Ancient humans predominantly engaged in nasal breathing, which is crucial for proper facial development. Mouth breathing, common in modern populations due to allergies or chronic congestion, can lead to elongated faces and narrower dental arches.

Active Lifestyle An active lifestyle with a natural, unprocessed diet played a significant role in maintaining robust facial structures. The lack of processed foods and the physical demands of ancient life contributed to overall better dental health.

Conclusion Understanding these factors can help modern populations address and possibly prevent some orthodontic issues through dietary choices, encouraging nasal breathing, and promoting natural breastfeeding and weaning practices.

For more detailed insights, watch the video below:

Archaeologists baffled by substantial 'anomaly' discovered beneath Giza pyramids

Archaeologists have identified a significant "anomaly" buried beneath the Giza pyramid complex in Egypt, using advanced tools like ground-penetrating radar. This discovery was made under the Western Cemetery, near the 4,500-year-old Great Pyramid, revealing two underground structures: one shallow and one deep.

The researchers noted the structures' density differs from the surrounding ground, suggesting they are man-made and were likely backfilled after construction. The Western Cemetery is a known burial site for royal family members and high-ranking officials. An initial survey using ground-penetrating radar and electrical resistivity tomography detected the anomaly in the northern part of the survey site, though the exact structure and location remained unclear.

The shallow structure measures 10 meters wide by 15 meters long and is less than 2 meters deep. It is believed to have been built to support the larger, deeper structure, which ranges from 5 meters at its shallowest to 10 meters at its deepest point. The researchers theorize that the shallow structure may have served as an entrance to the deeper one, possibly caused by a mixture of sand and gravel or sparse spacing with air voids.

They emphasize the importance of the continuity between the shallow and deep structures. While the exact material causing the anomaly remains undetermined, it is likely a significant subsurface archaeological structure. The team hopes that careful excavation will reveal the nature of these intriguing structures.

Archaeologists have uncovered a groundbreaking discovery that reshapes American history

Archaeologists have uncovered a groundbreaking discovery that reshapes American history, thanks to ancient footprints.

These human tracks, found in White Sands National Park, New Mexico, are the oldest ever recorded on the continent. Previously believed to be between 11,500 and 13,000 years old, new analysis reveals they date back 23,000 years. This discovery indicates that humans inhabited North America at least 10,000 years earlier than previously thought, possibly even earlier, around the end of the last ice age over 32,000 years ago.

“This site in New Mexico has rewritten the history books,” said Sally Reynolds, a principal academic in paleoecology at Bournemouth University. “These footprints offer a valuable window into the lives of our ancestors, showing how much they were like us.” She highlighted the fascinating insights into human activity and interaction with the landscape and animal life.

The footprints not only hold historical significance due to their age but also provide an unprecedented snapshot of life during that era. From children playing in puddles to hunters pursuing a giant sloth, these 23,000-year-old tracks reveal rich details of our Pleistocene past. They were made by people walking on wet ground at the edge of a now-dry lake. While some tracks are visible today, others are detectable only with ground-penetrating radar.

Matthew Bennett, a Bournemouth University researcher and lead author of two scientific papers on these footprints, told Smithsonian Magazine that although older human tracks exist in Africa and other parts of the world, none tell as vivid and relatable a story. His first paper, published in Science in 2021, described a perilous journey by what appears to be a young woman or adolescent girl carrying a child on her hip across a muddy lakeshore, with predators like dire wolves and saber-toothed cats nearby.

The prints were found at White Sands National Park in New Mexico, which was once home to a large lake(NPS)

Bennett explained how they could see where she slipped in the mud and set the child down, indicating the child was likely under three years old. The child did not accompany the woman on her return journey, raising questions about their fate.

“The footprints left at White Sands reveal teenagers interacting with younger children and adults,” Bennett said in a separate statement. “They show not just functional activities like hunting and surviving but also play and social interaction. This offers a true insight into these early people.”

While the footprints provide exciting glimpses into life 23,000 years ago, Bennett and his team are now focused on understanding how humans arrived in North America. “We need many more sites to understand their origins and migration routes,” Bennett told the Smithsonian. “The lasting legacy of White Sands is to point the way to a new archive of evidence.”

The head of a statue of Hygieia, the Greek goddess of health, discovered in Turkey

The head of a statue of Hygieia, the Greek goddess of health, was discovered wedged between two rocks in Laodikeia

During excavations in the ancient city of Laodikeia, located in Pamukkale, Denizli, in southwestern Turkey, archaeologists unearthed a 2,100-year-old statue head of Hygieia, the Greek goddess of health.

Laodikeia, situated on the southern side of the Lycus River, 6 kilometers north of Denizli, was a prominent and influential city in the 1st century B.C. The city's historical significance dates back to its founding by Antiochus II between 263-261 B.C., named after his wife, Laodice. Ancient sources referred to it as "Laodikeia on the edge of the Lycus." The Romans later established it as the center of Kybira's conventus due to its strategic location.

The city boasted impressive structures, including Anatolia's largest stadium, two theaters, four baths, five agoras, five fountains (nymphaeums), long colonnaded streets, grand temples, and numerous churches and basilicas.

Despite its grandeur, Laodikeia was frequently struck by earthquakes, with a devastating quake in 494 AD significantly damaging the city. Another major earthquake between 602 and 610 AD, coupled with increasing Arab raids, led to its eventual abandonment.

The ongoing excavations, led by Prof. Dr. Celal Şimşek from Pamukkale University's Archaeology Department, revealed the statue head. Şimşek announced the discovery on his social media X account, stating, "The meeting of the Sun and Hygieia with us in Laodikeia after 2,100 years."

Hygieia, the goddess of health, inspired the philosophy of hygiene. She was the daughter and chief attendant of Asklepios, the god of medicine, overseeing cleanliness and preventive medicine. Classical sculptures often depicted her holding or feeding a large snake, a symbol of Asklepion medicine. Her statues were prominent in major healing centers, including Epidaurus, Corinth, Cos, and Pergamon.

The Department of Excavations and Research shared photographs of the remarkable statue head discovery.