Gümüşler Monastery: An Abandoned Byzantine-era Cave Monastery in Cappadocia

Gümüşler Monastery is a Byzantine-era cave monastery in the town of Gümüşler, Niğde Province, modern Turkey.

The monastery is carved out of a large rock and is one of the best preserved and largest of its kind in the Cappadocia region. There are quite a few monasteries hewn out of the rock in Cappadocia and some scholars split these into two types: those with dining halls and those with open courtyards. The Gümüşler Monastery is part of the second group.

The most important part of the monastery complex is the church to its north. The church comprises four freestanding closed aisles based on the Greek cross plan; in the northern aisle of the cross there is a niche with two tombs. To the west there are two entrances covered with a cradle vault.

It is assumed that at least three different masters worked on the paintings found on the walls of the church. In the main apse there are three bands of paintings: the highest shows Christ Enthroned with two angels to his right, the symbols of the gospel writers and the moment of Deisis with Mary and the disciples. The lowest series shows fathers of the church, Basil the Great of Kayseri, Gregory of Nisa, and Gregory of Nazians.

In the north aisle of the cross are representations of The Annunciation, The Nativity and The Presentation at the temple with the figures of John the Baptist and Saint Stephen which must have been painted by the hand of a second artist. On the inside of the narthex to the south of the entrance door are representations of Mary and baby Jesus and on each side of them the archangels Gabriel and Michael which belong to the hand of a third artist.

On the walls of room above the narthex is an example of something not seen anywhere else in Cappadocia: hunting scenes. There is an interesting composition of a variety of animals. The special style and iconography of the paintings on the walls of the Gümüşler Monastery is the same as what can be seen in many churches in Cappadocia. It is possible to date the paintings in the church to the 12th and 13th century A.D. by comparing and evaluating them by these traits.

Byzantine Magnaura Palace Tower Remains Renovation

In Constantinople, close to the Hagia Sophia and next to the Chalke gate of the Great Palace, Magnaura, a part of the Byzantium Grand Palace, is a brick-paved, interior vaulted stone building that connects the building units to each other with tunnels and ramps, located in different elevations. Like other palaces, it was possible to access to Hagia Sophia through various galleries.

Some scholars have claimed that the Magnaura was founded in 425 A.D. during the reign of Emperor Theodosius II. However, others dispute this assertion on the grounds that it arises from an incorrect conflation of the University of Constantinople with the later palace school (ekpaideutērion) housed at the Magnaura that was founded by caesar Bardas in the mid-9th century. The location and architectural features of the Magnaura seem to correspond with those provided by Procopius in his description of the Senate House, which was rebuilt by Justinian I. Around 682, the Magnaura was restored. Later on, this site was often used as a throne room for receptions of foreign ambassadors as well as for public addresses by the emperor and for public assemblies which were often held in the atrium on the western side of the building. Amongst the different ceremonies held at the Magnaura was the silention held at the beginning of Lent, at which the imperial household and members of the Byzantine bureaucracy would gather on its great staircase.

The Staircase (ramp) Tower is the only remained section of the palace that had changed for centuries. Tower of Stairs which has been unprotected for a very long time is now being renovated to restore its original character and to become a part of contemporary life. The minimal intervention proposed enhances the spirit of the place, but through the introduction of modern infrastructure.

Completing and enhancing the remaining structure, the historical characteristics are brought forth via timeless materials and design decisions that introduce revitalization through functional and contemporary additions, purposefully do not overpower the original texture, on the contrary they become unified with the original structure through their transparency and through neutral and complementing material choices like Byzantinian stucco and glass. Structural and spatial 'traces' of former unity of the building is restored, with the introduction of two former large volumes, one in the front entrance and one in the back. The extensions are a contemporary layer reflecting the shadow of the history in today's terminology. The two storied new volumetric additions as glass and steel boxes with vaulted openings are carefully designed as a reflection of the original façade, housing exhibition, and multi-purpose halls respectively. Contemporary architecture is grafted to its skin, obtaining the utmost harmony and balance with this cultural entity and its values.

Not through imitation, but through an architectural design that values reinstating at the most, the parts of the building that can be maintained are protected, and reinstated to their original conditions meanwhile new contemporary additions are introduced, completing the functionality, integrity and the programmatic layout of the building.

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The Spectacular Shipwrecks of the island Sapienza in Greece

The islets located to the south and west of the coast of Messinia in Greece are not well known to the public, but they hide their own surprises, with Sapienza being the most typical example among them.

Sapienza belongs to the so-called Messinian Oinousses and is located off the southwest coast of Messinia, directly opposite Methoni, near the deepest point of the Mediterranean. No one lives there anymore.

The heart-shaped islet near the lighthouse of Sapienza

Sapienza is located on a maritime route which, since ancient times, was of great commercial and strategic interest, as it connected Italy with the Middle East. At the same time, however, it was also a difficult area, full of strong sea currents, strong winds and difficult rocks. As a result, several shipwrecks occurred on the coasts and off the island, some of which are considered important from an archaeological point of view.

The exceptional findings found in them make the Methoni marine area one of the most important underwater archaeological sites.

 

The latest sea surveys in the bay of Methoni and the island of Sapienza in Messinia have brought to light unknown wrecks that have been lying on the seabed for hundreds of years, while both known wrecks on the northern shores of the island of Sapienza have been mapped in detail for the first time.

Geoarchaeological investigations were also carried out in the submerged settlement of the Middle Bronze Age that has been identified in the bay of Methoni.

The identified shipwrecks belong to the most recent times and one to the era of the Turkish occupation.

The scanner even showed "metallic targets", probably cannons. The findings will be examined in detail in the future.

The two shipwrecks (along with a third, older one) were found on top of the Bronze Age settlement, part of which is buried under the bottom sand and is ultimately larger than archaeologists had previously thought.

Shipwreck of Sarcophagi

On the neighboring islet of Sapienza, on its northern shores, the two known shipwrecks of Roman times were captured in detail for the first time.

The first is known as the Shipwreck of Sarcophagi because it carried stone sarcophagi. The shipwreck is lying at a depth of 15 m. ts cargo contains a number of stone sarcophagi including their covers. The sarcophagi are intact except for one, which probably ruined when the ship sunk. The sarcophagi measures 2.20 x 0.80 m.
The sarcophagi bear reliefs; their decoration is simple containing floral motifs, boukranion etc. The covers are curved with simple, shaped decoration at the edges. The shipwreck is dated to the 3rd century AD.

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Shipwreck of columns

The second is called Shipwreck of Columns because there were some columns made of red granite.

Around 1920, local fishermen located archaeological finds lying on the seabed close to the northern cape of Sapienza (Cape Karsi), opposite the village of Methoni.

In 1925, the lawyer and historian Dionisios Potaris (1860–1922), following fishermen's indications, located and recorded the ‘marbles’, in a distance of 50–60 m from the northern shore of Sapienza and in a depth of 6-7 m. He correctly assumed that the pile of marbles was actually a shipwreck transferring antiquities.

The ‘shipwreck of columns’ lies at a depth of 10 m, close to Cape Spitha. The columns are scattered over an area of 30 m2 and are 10 m away from the edge of the Cape. Parts of the columns are aligned and situated at the seabed, while other parts are scattered in a wider area around them.
34 fragmented, plain, single stone columns were located. Only one of them is intact, with a height of 8 m and diameter of 0.90 m. 28 parts of the columns are concentrated, and the remaining 6 are situated at a distance of 60 m from the rest.

The columns are made of reddish granite, similar to the columns positioned in the Fortress of Methoni. The admiral Francesco Bebo positioned this column in 1493/4 in memory of the recovery of the Fortress by the Venetians. Therefore, it is assumed that the ship sank earlier. This particular type of granite exists only in Egypt and in particular areas of Greece (Xanthi, Kavala, and Mykonos Island).

Studies of the column fragments showed that the columns were part of a building containing 16 columns that was demolished or collapsed.
The ship had these columns as part of its cargo. The fragments of the columns are broken irregularly, and they cannot be connected between them. Some of the columns are circular on top, as they were used for tying up the ships close to the ‘mole’.

The results of the geophysical survey are expected to provide important information on the wider location of their sinking.

In fact, in this particular area, it is planned to become an underwater archaeological park in the future.

A Greek-language 'Bloody' Curse Inscription Against Robbers Found in Galilee, Israel

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR TEAM

A convert to Judaism warned away tomb raiders by vowing to curse in Greek anyone who would dare to open his grave.

Dated back to the 2nd or 3rd century AD (late Roman or early Byzantine periods), this painted, bloody-looking burial curse inscription was found in a tomb in the Beit She'arim Necropolis of Lower Galilee in Israel.  The full text and the story of its discovery were presented at the Northern Conference, held jointly on June 1, 2022, by the University of Haifa and the northern region of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA). Though the Beit She’arim necropolis had been extensively studied, the catacomb in which Jacob had been buried had been unknown until last year. This curse was the first inscription archaeologists have found in Beit She’arim for 65 years!

Necropolis of Bet She’arim, Catacomb 20, Copyright: © Tsvika Tsuk

Beit She'arim site

Beit She'arim, located in the Lower Galilee, was a central Jewish settlement during the Mishnaic and Talmudic periods, in the 2nd to 5th centuries CE. The Jewish Sanhedrin Council moved there after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. The Jewish Sanhedrin Council moved there, and it became an important center of Jewish learning and culture.

Inside the innermost chamber, the researchers discovered two inscriptions written in Greek in red paint. Both were deciphered by Jonathan Price, professor of ancient history at Tel Aviv University. The small one was found on the limestone wall near a burial lodge with the name "Judah" on it, who archaeologists believe was the owner of the tomb. The larger inscription, found on a stone slab leaning against the opening of the same alcove, consisted of eight lines warning people to stay away from Jacob/Yaakov ‘the Convert’s’ (Koine Greek: C ΠΡΟCΗΛΥΤΟC) tomb and let the deceased rest in peace.

It was specifically written to deter grave robbers, and as such, it says:

“Jacob the Proselyte vows to curse anybody who would open this grave, so nobody will open it.” “He was 60.”

The last three words of the curse were written in a different script, and the researchers believe that they may have been written after his death by someone else (possibly relatives), following his demise.

An emblem of a menorah carved in the stone, inside a structure at Beit She'arim National Park, an archaeological site in the Lower Galilee. (Doron Horowitz/Flash90)

Why Proselyte?

This title means that he converted to Judaism, perhaps from Christianity or another pagan cult of the time, such as those of Isis or Mithras that thrived in the Late Roman period. At this period, we know that people were desperately seeking life's meaning in different philosophical movements, cults, or religions of the united Roman world.

The Christian faith was growing stronger; however, there are indications that many people in the area also chose to join the Jewish religion. Jerusalem, for instance, is littered with remnants from the burials of converts to Judaism during the second and third centuries AD.

However, converting to Judaism is difficult and involves many serious life changes. After studying Jewish law, converts not only have to heartily accept and be sincerely devoted to the Jewish faith, but they also become members of the Jewish People, and they must embrace the totality of Jewish history and culture.

Greek-speaking areas during the Hellenistic period (323 to 31 BC) Dark blue: areas where Greek speakers probably were a majority Light blue: areas that were Hellenized. Wikipedia.

Why in Greek?

Greek, specifically Koine Greek (Common Greek) served as a lingua franca of the time. Also known as Alexandrian dialect, common Attic, Hellenistic, or Biblical Greek, was the common supra-regional form of Greek spoken and written during the Hellenistic period, the Roman Empire and the early Byzantine Empire.

It evolved from the spread of Greek following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC, and was the language commonly spoken in much of the Mediterranean region and the Middle East during the following centuries, including Roman-period Palestine. It was based mainly on Attic and related Ionic speech forms, with various admixtures brought about through dialect levelling with other varieties.

The excavation of the Beit She’arim ancient necropolis began 80 years ago. The burial inscriptions that were found belong to Jews and are written in various languages, but mostly Greek.

Ruins of the Armenian Akhtala Monastery also known as Pghindzavank

Akhtala, also known as Pghindzavank (“Coppermine Monastery” in Armenian) is a 10th century Armenian Apostolic monastery located in the town of Akhtala in the Lori Province.

The Akhtala fortress was built on an elevated rocky outcrop surrounded by deep canyons from three sides forming a natural protection. One of the cliffs that surrounds Akhtala is known as Lenktemur, named after Tamerlane who according to local tradition buried one of his wives under the cliff.

Since the late 18th century the monastery serviced ethnic Greeks who had settled in Akhtala in order to work in the gold, silver and copper mines. Currently, the monastery has its pilgrimage days on September 20-21. Armenians, Greeks and Georgians visit the monastery on this occasion.

The main building of the monastic compound is Surb Astvatsatsin (Holy Mother of God) church, which is famous for its highly artistic frescoes, which cover the inside walls, the partitions, and the bearings of the building. The murals are one of the best representations of Byzantine art outside the traditional borders of Byzantium. The majority of the murals bear scriptures in Georgian and Greek. The murals were painted under the patronage of Ivane Mkhargrdzeli between 1205 and 1216.

The church used to contain the cross, which according to folklore was used by John the Baptist to baptise Jesus Christ. Vasak, the father of Armenian Prince Prosh, is said to have given this relic to Ivane Mkhargrdzeli who later sold it for a large sum to the monastery of Noravank in Syunik.

The prominent Armenian filmmaker of the 20th century Sergei Parajanov filmed two episodes of his film “The Color of Pomegranates” at the Akhtala Monastery.

Why Saint Sisoi, the Christian Desert Monk is Depicted Mourning Over the Tomb of Alexander the Great?

The Saint of the Orthodox Christian Church, the hermit, desert monk Sisoi, has been depicted for hundreds of years in hagiographies over the open tomb of Alexander the Great.

Saint Sisois is an enigma for both classical and Byzantine archaeology. Specialist scholars try to interpret the symbolism of the relevant hagiographies (the first of which date back to the 14th century AD) and also to answer convincingly the question: Did Saint Sisois really saw the tomb of Alexander the Great?

The existence of Saint Sisoi was pointed out by Mr. Sotiris Athanaselis, Professor of Toxicology at the Medical School of the University of Athens. Specifically, Mr. Athanaselis in his extensive letter entitled "The Tomb of Alexander the Great in Christian Hagiography" writes: “From my first visit to this amazingly hagiographed church, I was struck by a mural-hagiography of Saint Sisoi who is located in front of the open tomb of Alexander the Great (!)” and exclaims:

‘Seeing you, grave, I am terrified and frightened at your sight and I shed tears from my heart, bringing to my mind the debt that all people have to pay (that is, death), so I will suffer also such an end. Oh, you death, who can avoid you?'

“This scene, as depicted in the mural (image below), in addition to the impression it caused me, also created some reasonable questions which I tried to investigate with relative - I confess - success since the whole subject has nothing to do with my profession.”

Original inscription:

“Ορών σε τάφε δειλιώ σου την θέαν και καρδιοστάλακτον δάκρυον χέω, χρέος το κοινόφλητον εις νουν λαμβάνων, πως ουν μέλλω, διελθείν περας τοιούτον. Αι, αι θάνατε τις δύναται φυγείν σε;”

The disciples of Saint Sisoi, who are considered to be the first to depict the relevant scene, describe it as follows:

'Sisoi the Great in Asceticism in front of the tomb of Alexander the Great, frightened from the glorious past, sorrowful about the restlessness of time and temporary glory, behold he mourns'.

Saint Sisoës the Great (also Sisoi the Great, Sisoy the Great, Sisoes of Sceté or Shishoy was born in 367 and died in 429 AD. He was an early Christian desert father, a solitary monk pursuing asceticism in the Egyptian desert in a cave of his predecessor, St Anthony the Great He consecrated in the desert of Thebes in Upper Egypt. His memory is celebrated on July 6 and belongs to the first generation of great hermits who followed Antonios the Great. In ascetic and hagiological texts he is characterized as ‘Osios (= saint, monk) Sisois’ or ‘Abbas (= father) Sisoi’.

Sisoës was a Copt by birth. Having withdrawn the world from his youth, he retired to the desert of Sceté, and lived some time under the direction of his teacher, Abba Or. The desire of finding a retreat yet more unfrequented induced him to cross the Nile and hide himself in the mountain where St. Anthony the Great died some time before.

Saint Sisoës the Great at the tomb of Alexander the Great (16th c., Varlaam Monastery, Meteora), signifying the remembrance of death (Memento mori).

The monastery of Abba Sisoi, in the valley of Nitria in the Wadi el Natroun region of Egypt is one of the ancient monasteries of the Scete, the cradle of Christian monasticism, which have been operating since the 4th century AD. The monastery contains the relic of Saint Sisoi which is said to be perfectly preserved on a red cloth.

The monks claim that it is not uncommon for Saint Sisoi to perform miracles for the true believers and is also considered one of the most important saints of the Coptic Christians in Egypt. His first depictions, in the 16th century, depict him as a respected elder. Saint Sisois is always depicted, in all the hagiographies, next to the tomb of Alexander the Great, reflecting on the futility of life and the inevitability of death.

But why Alexander the Great and not someone else?

Koukouli of Zagori

It should be noted that similar hagiographies to that of Koukouli have been recorded in many places in Greece, including the Monastery of Megisti Lavra and the Monastery of Xiropotamos on Mount Athos, the Monastery of Barlaam in Meteora (1566) and the Monastery of Megisti in Kastelorizo. It is also depicted in Churches of Kastoria as in the chapel of Agios Ioannis the Theologian in the Monastery of Panagia Mavriotissa (1552), in St. Nikolaos Theologinas (1662) and in the church of Ioannis Prodromos in the Apozari district (1727). A similar depiction exists in the Monastery of the Greatest Brigadiers in Milies of Pelion (1774). To all of this should also be added the relatively later depiction in the church dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin in Koukouli, Zagori (1788).

Monastery of Panachrantos, Megara

Of particular importance is the hagiography of Agios Ioannis the Theologian in the Monastery of Panagia Mavriotissa, in which Saint Sisois is depicted in front of an open tomb, where together with the skeleton of Alexander the Great are depicted also two other skeletons. According to one acceptation, this is a declarative element of the posthumous equality of kings and non-kings.

But does this depiction indicate the burial of Alexander the Great in polyandry?

In the hagiography of Koukouli a different thing (and unique in relation to the other hagiographies) is that on the head of the skeleton of Alexander the Great there is a golden crown.

Prodromos, Apizari

Dorotheus, Bishop of Tire (255-362 AD), when he returned from exile during which he had worked as a slave in the mines of the oasis of Zion in Egypt, stated that its inhabitants were pagans and worshiped the Egyptian god Ammon, but also Alexander the Great who was buried there. Knowing the extensive discussions that have taken place and are taking place to locate the exact location of the tomb of Alexander the Great, we can wonder why Saint Sisois is always depicted in front of this tomb?

Mavriotissa

Had Saint Sisois really found the tomb of Alexander the Great somewhere where he was a monk? Is this what the relevant hagiography shows the depiction of a real event? If the exact routes of Saint Sisoi are searched and located, will the legendary tomb of Alexander the Great be located? These are definitely very interesting questions to answer.

Russian style

The question posed by the case of Saint Sisoi is whether its depiction should be taken as "literal" or studied for its symbolic meaning. In the first acceptation, the analysis must focus to the investigation of the historical data about a visit of Sisoi to the tomb of Alexander the Great. In the second, however, archaeologists emphasize how the hagiography reflects "the fear of the death of the entire Byzantine world that has seen an empire collapse and philosophize on the futility of the world".

Movable image of the 16th c. Hermitage Museum.

Also, the fact that in the depictions of Saint Sisoi appears the tomb of Alexander the Great, seems to be a later addition, probably of the Theban hagiographers Georgios and Frankos Kontaris, who in 1556 painted the Monastery of Barlaam, in Meteora. So while until then Osios Sisoi was presented over an open tomb of a stranger, after the intervention of the two brothers he was found above the …sarcophagus of Alexander the Great, precisely to emphasize even more the futility of the worldly.

Introit of St. Sisoi:

On the Way to a New Museum of Underwater Antiquities in Piraeus, Greece

The Ministry of Culture and Sports announced that the Museum Council unanimously approved the architectural, static, electromechanical and museography preliminary studies and the modification of the building programme of the Museum of Underwater Antiquities on the Ietionian Coast of Piraeus. Thus the industrial Silo building on the site of the Piraeus Port Authorities (PPA) will be transformed into an innovative Museum of Underwater Antiquities highlighting the treasures of the Greek seas and becoming an emblematic cultural landmark in the country’s largest port.

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After the Council’s approval, Minister of Culture and Sports Lina Mendoni made the following statement: “A vision of decades is about to be realized, thanks to our cooperation with the PPA, the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation which financed the preliminary studies – and the project’s financing through the Recovery Fund. The unique wealth of the Greek seas acquires an ideal home in the old Silo building , which has been associated with Piraeus’ history since the mid-1930s. It is the most suitable place to house the numerous and already conserved underwater finds, which have remained for years in the Ephorate of Antiquities’ warehouses. The main purpose of creating the Museum of Underwater Antiquities is to highlight our country’s connections with the sea and the long history of Greek culture through the underwater findings. There are only a handful of museums in the world that exhibit exclusively marine antiquities. It is obvious that the Museum will be able to introduce Piraeus as one of the international cultural destinations”.

An ancient greek trireme Source: Tsolakis Architects

The Museum of Underwater Antiquities will house finds salvaged from all the Greek seas: Statues, parts of sculptures, hulls and ship components, rigging equipment, inscriptions, toiletries, utensils and table ceramics, tools and a variety of artefacts from underwater surveys, research and excavations, as well as items handed over by individuals or confiscated.

Experience of a Byzantine ship. Source: Tsolakis Architects

The Museum of Underwater Antiquities will offer visitors the experience of diving into the past, with stops in various periods of time, sunken settlements, shipwrecks, ship models, hulls and cargoes of merchant ships, maps and diagrams, digital applications and projections, with a special emphasis on educational activities and projects.

Sea Bottom and Shipwrecks. Source: Tsolakis Architects

With the planned new extension, the Museum facilities will exceed 13,000 sq.m. It will include  exhibition spaces for permanent and temporary exhibitions, spaces for educational programmes and scientific activities (amphitheatre, library, multimedia room), conservation workshops and service areas for visitors (reception hall, cloakroom, museum shop, cafeteria, restaurant, infirmary, administration offices).

By Archaeology wiki

The 'Madaba Mosaic Map': The oldest known Geographic Floor Mosaic in Art History

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by the archaeologist editor group

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The early Byzantine church of Saint George in Madaba, Jordan, contains a floor mosaic that is known as the Madaba Map or Madaba Mosaic Map. The oldest surviving original geographic representation of the Holy Land, particularly Jerusalem, can be seen on a portion of the Middle Eastern map known as the Madaba Map. It's from the sixth century AD. As a new Greek Orthodox church was being built on the site of an older one, the mosaic was uncovered in 1884. Jerusalem's Patriarch Nicodemus I was alerted, but no investigation was done until 1896. Many sections of the mosaic map suffered damage over the years as a result of fires, construction work on the new church, and moisture-related issues.

In December 1964, the Volkswagen Foundation gave the Deutscher Verein für die Erforschung Palästinas ("German Society for the exploration of Palestine") 90,000 DM to save the mosaic. In 1965, the archaeologists Heinz Cüppers and Herbert Donner undertook the restoration and conservation of the remaining parts of the mosaic.

The Saint George church in Madaba's apse houses the floor mosaic. In contrast to current maps, which face north, this one faces east toward the altar, so that the locations on the map correspond to the true compass directions. From Lebanon in the north to the Nile Delta in the south and from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Eastern Desert, a region is shown on the mosaic map.

A lion (almost rendered unrecognizably by the insertion of random tesserae during an iconoclastic period) hunting a gazelle in the Moab desert, palm-ringed Jericho, Bethlehem, and other biblical-Christian sites are among its other features. It also shows the Dead Sea with two fishing boats, a variety of bridges connecting the banks of the Jordan, and fish swimming in the river and receding from the Dead Sea.

The map may partially have served to facilitate pilgrims' orientation in the Holy Land. All landscape units are labelled with explanations in Greek. The mosaic's references to the tribes of Israel, toponymy, as well as its use of quotations of biblical passages, indicate that the artist who laid out the mosaic used as his primary source the Onomasticon of Eusebius (4th-century CE). A combination of folding perspective and aerial view depicts about 150 towns and villages, all of them labelled.

The largest and most detailed element of the topographic depiction is Jerusalem (Greek: ΙΕΡΟΥΣΑΛΉΜ]), at the centre of the map. The mosaic clearly shows a number of significant structures in the Old City of Jerusalem: the Damascus Gate, the Lions' Gate, the Golden Gate, the Zion Gate, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the New Church of the Theotokos, the Tower of David and the Cardo Maximus. On Jerusalem's southwest side is shown Acel Dama (lit. "field of blood"), from Christian liturgy.

The recognisable depiction of the urban topography makes the mosaic a key source on Byzantine Jerusalem. Also unique are the detailed depictions of cities such as Neapolis, Askalon, Gaza, Pelusium and Charachmoba, all of them nearly detailed enough to be described as street maps.

Other designated sites include: Nicopolis (Greek: ΝΙΚΟΠΟΛΙΣ); Beth Zachar[ias] (Greek: ΒΕΘΖΑΧΑΡ[ΊΟΥ]); Bethlehem (Greek: ΒΗΘΛΕΕΜ); Socho (Greek: Σωχω), now Kh. Shuweikah (southwest of Hebron); Beth Annaba (Greek: ΒΕΤΟΑΝΝΑΒΑ); Saphitha (Greek: CΑΦΙΘΑ); Jericho (Greek: Ίεριχω); Modi'im (Greek: ΜΩΔΕΕΙΜ); Lydda (Greek: ΛΩΔΗ); Bethoron (Greek: Βεθωρων); Gibeon (Greek: ΓΑΒΑΩΝ); Rama (Greek: ΡΑΜΑ); Coreae (Greek: ΚΟΡΕΟΥΣ); Maresha (Greek: ΜΟΡΑΣΘΙ); Azotos Paralos (Ashdod-Coast) (Greek: ΑΖΩΤΟΣΠΑΡΑΛΣ); The Great Plain (Greek: ΡΟΣΔΑΝ), literally meaning, "The Tribe of Dan"; Jamnia (Greek: ΊΑΒΝΗΛΗΚΑΙΊΑΜΝΙΑ) (Lit. "Jabneel, which is also Jamnia"), among other sites.

Unique 14th-century Byzantine Inscription Found on Gerasun Island off Black Sea Coast

A unique Byzantine inscription from the fourteenth century was recently discovered on Giresun Island in the Black Sea; inscribed on a terracotta tablet, it is considered to be one of a kind because it is written in the greek-type regional alphabet of the Empire of Trebizond.

Giresun Island lies 1.2 kilometers (0.7 miles) from the modern Turkish province of Giresun (the ancient Greek Kerasous) on the southeastern coast of the Black Sea. Giresun Island stands out as the only island with human settlement in the East Black Sea along with its mythological stories and historical remains. Some of the island's ancient names are Aretias (Greek: Ἀρητιάς), Areos Nesos (Greek: Ἄρεος νῆσος) (means island of Ares), Chalceritis (Greek: Χαλκερίτις) and Puga. In historical times, the island was likely used by 6th or 5th century BC Greek colonists from the mainland city of Kerasous (presently the city of Giresun).

Excavations have been ongoing on this beautiful and historic island under the supervision of Giresun University associate professor Gazanfer Iltar since 2009. On the island are the ruins of a roofless stone temple, fortifications and ramparts, and two wine or oil presses. The roofless temple was in ancient times attributed to the Amazons who held religious rituals there. Archaeological studies suggest it was built in the Classical-Hellenistic era. A black round stone about 4 meters diameter, called Hamza Taşı in Turkish, is located in the ruins of the temple. In the present day, this stone is the starting point for a walk as part of the annual Aksu festival and it considered a wishing stone for fertility and health. Archaeology findings suggest the stone was sacred to a Roman stone cult or a Cybele Cult.

An aerial view from Giresun Island, Dec. 17, 2021. (BY ANADOLU AGENCY)

Iltar's team has discovered a written artifact on the island for the first time this year with the unveiling of a 14th-century inscription. Iltar said that the inscription is of great importance as it will shed light on the history of the island and Giresun region.

Noting that the inscription was found on the floor of the tower structure on the island, the academician continued: “The artifact belongs to the period of Alexios III Megas Komnenos, the emperor of Trebizond. The inscription states that the structures and walls on the island were commissioned by the venerable Maria, the wife of Pinkernes Kyriakos, the son of Giresun Governor Roustam. The name of Roustam in the inscription also gives us clues about the strategic marriages between the Turkmen beys in the region and the Komnenos dynasty."

The inscription was made of terracotta, measures 30 by 50 centimeters (11 inches to 19 inches) and was written with goose feathers.

A photo of the 14th-century inscription found on Giresun Island, Dec. 17, 2021. (BY ANADOLU AGENCY)

Explaining that the inscription was translated by an academic from Russia, Iltar said: "The inscription provides us with several pieces of information and perspectives. For example, the title of 'pinkernes' means the cup bearer of the emperor of Trebizond. It is actually a high court position in terms of diplomacy, and a pinkernes should be considered one of the closest people to the emperor. Therefore, it is understood that the governor of Giresun at the time was very close to the emperor of Trebizond.”

“The importance of the inscription increases even more as it reveals the relations in the region in the past and it is a unique work written in a regional alphabet of the Empire of Trebizond.” Iltar added that archaeological excavations will continue on the island in 2022 as well.

Empire of Trebizond and its Greek origins

The Empire of Trebizond, or Trapezuntine Empire, was a monarchy and one of three successor rump states of the Byzantine Empire that flourished during the 13th through to the 15th century, consisting of the far northeastern corner of Anatolia (the Pontus) and the southern Crimea. The empire was formed in 1204 with the help of the Georgian queen Tamar after the Georgian expedition in Chaldia and Paphlagonia, commanded by Alexios Komnenos a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople.

The Trapezuntine monarchy survived the longest among the Byzantine successor states. The Despotate of Epirus had ceased to contest the Byzantine throne even before the Nicaean reconquest and was briefly occupied by the restored Byzantine Empire c. 1340, thereafter becoming a Serbian dependency later inherited by Italians, ultimately falling to the Ottoman Empire in 1479. Whilst the Empire of Nicaea had restored the Byzantine Empire through restoring control of the capital, it ended in 1453 with the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans. Trebizond lasted until 1461 when the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II conquered it after a month-long siege and took its ruler and his family into captivity. The Crimean Principality of Theodoro, an offshoot of Trebizond, lasted another 14 years, falling to the Ottomans in 1475.

Trebizond already had a long history of autonomous rule before it became the center of a small empire in the Late Middle Ages. Due to its natural harbours, defensible topography and access to silver and copper mines, Trebizond became the pre-eminent Greek colony on the eastern Black Sea shore soon after its founding. Its remoteness from Roman capitals gave local rulers the opportunity to advance their own interest. In the centuries before the founding of the empire the city had been under control of the local Gabras family, which – while officially still remaining part of the Byzantine Empire – minted its own coin.

The rulers of Trebizond called themselves Megas Komnenos ("Great Comnenus") and – like their counterparts in the other two Byzantine successor states, the Empire of Nicaea and the Despotate of Epirus – initially claimed supremacy as "Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans". However, after Michael VIII Palaiologos of Nicaea recaptured Constantinople in 1261, the Komnenian use of the style "Emperor" became a sore point. In 1282, John II Komnenos stripped off his imperial regalia before the walls of Constantinople before entering to marry Michael's daughter, accepting his legal title of despot. However, his successors used a version of his title, "Emperor and Autocrat of the entire East, of the Iberians and the Perateia" until the Empire's end in 1461.

'Greklandsstenarna': What are The Greece Runestones of Vikings?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Vikings, seafaring Norse warriors known for their exploration, trade, and conquests, have left an indelible mark on world history. While their expeditions to the British Isles, North America, and other parts of Europe are well documented, there's a lesser-known but equally fascinating aspect of Viking history: their interaction with the Byzantine Empire, modern-day Greece. The physical testament to this connection can be found in the form of Greklandsstenarna, or the Greek Runestones.

What are the Greklandsstenarna?

Greklandsstenarna, translated as "Greek or Greece Runestones," are a collection of about 30 runestones—stones with runic inscriptions—that describe the travels and experiences of Viking individuals within the Byzantine Empire. These stones stand as proof of the far-reaching travels of the Vikings, who ventured as far south as the Mediterranean and the heart of what was once the Roman Empire.

They were made during the Viking Age until about 1100 and were engraved in the Old Norse language with Scandinavian runes. Most were inscribed in memory of members of the Varangian Guard who never returned home, but a few inscriptions mention men who returned with wealth, and a boulder in Ed was engraved on the orders of a former officer of the Guard.

Since the first discoveries by Johannes Bureus in the late 16th century, these runestones have been frequently identified by scholars, with many stones discovered during a national search for historic monuments in the late 17th century. Several stones were documented by Richard Dybeck in the 19th century. The latest stone to be found was in Nolinge, near Stockholm, in 1952.

Origins and Inscriptions

Most of these Greek Runestones are found in Sweden, primarily in Uppland (18 runestones) and Södermanland (7 runestones), and they date from the 9th to the 11th centuries. The inscriptions often commemorate the travels or deaths of individuals in Greece," a term the Vikings broadly used to refer to the Byzantine Empire.

The inscriptions vary in length and detail. Some are short and to the point, indicating an individual's travel or death in the Byzantine lands, while others provide elaborate tales of adventure, battle, or service to the Byzantine emperors. These stories highlight the role some Vikings played as members of the Varangian Guard, an elite unit of the Byzantine Army composed mainly of Norsemen.

On these runestones, the word Grikkland ("Greece") appears in three inscriptions, the word Grikk(j)ar ("Greeks") appears in 25 inscriptions, two stones refer to men as grikkfari ("travelers to Greece), and one stone refers to Grikkhafnir ("Greek harbors"). Among other runestones which refer to expeditions abroad, the only groups which are comparable in number are the so-called "England runestones" that mention expeditions to England and the 26 Ingvar runestones that refer to a Viking expedition to the Middle East.

A map of the main routes eastwards.

Vikings in the Byzantine Empire

But why were Vikings in Byzantium in the first place? There are several reasons:

• Trade: The Vikings were avid traders, and their quest for riches often took them down the river systems of Eastern Europe and into the Byzantine heartlands. Byzantium was wealthy, and its markets teemed with goods that were rare in the Norse world.

• Adventure: The Vikings' legendary wanderlust drove them to explore vast stretches of the known world, and the exotic lands of the Byzantines would have been a powerful draw.

• Employment: As mentioned earlier, many Norsemen found employment in the Varangian Guard. This elite unit served as the personal bodyguards of the Byzantine Emperor. They were renowned for their loyalty and prowess in battle.

Varangian Guardsmen, an illumination from the 11th-century chronicle of John Skylitzes.

The Cultural Exchange

The relationship between the Vikings and the Byzantines wasn't merely transactional. These runestones suggest a deeper cultural exchange. Viking artifacts have been found in Byzantine territories, and Byzantine artifacts in Viking graves. This mutual exchange of goods, ideas, and culture enriched both civilizations.

For instance, certain designs in Viking art from this period are believed to have been influenced by Byzantine aesthetics. Similarly, the Norse sagas occasionally reference the Byzantines, indicating a familiarity with this southern civilization.

The Greklandsstenarna serve as stone sentinels that whisper tales of a time when Norse longships sailed not just the stormy North Sea but also the warm waters of the Mediterranean. They remind us of the vast interconnectedness of the medieval world, shattering the misconception that civilizations of that time were isolated entities. In understanding the Greek Runestones, we gain a deeper appreciation for the Vikings' true scope of exploration and the intricate web of relationships they weaved with the world around them.

Eiresione: The Ancient Greek Precursor to the Christmas Tree Tradition

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Eiresione: The Ancient Greek "Christmas Tree" that was Transmitted to European Customs through Byzantium

As the festive season approaches, the world is adorned with Christmas trees, bedecked with ornaments and lights, symbolizing a spirit of joy and goodwill. Yet, few are aware that this beloved tradition has deep roots in the ancient world, specifically in ancient Greece. The Eiresione, a symbol of fertility and gratitude, played a significant role in the development of the Christmas tree custom we know today.

Ancient Greek Origins

In ancient Greece, long before the advent of Christmas, there was a similar custom of decorating a tree. However, this tree was not the familiar fir or pine but an Eiresione, derived from the Greek word "eiros," meaning wool. The Eiresione was a branch of the wild olive tree, known as kotinos, adorned with garlands of white and red wool. What made this tradition unique was the inclusion of the first autumn fruits, such as figs, walnuts, almonds, chestnuts, cereals, and more, excluding apples and pears. Additionally, bottles of oil and honey were part of the decoration. This ritual was a profound expression of gratitude for the fertility of the previous year and a hopeful plea for continued abundance in the coming year. The Eiresione was dedicated to Athena, Apollo, and the Horae, particularly Eunomia, Dike, and Eirene.

The Ritual

On the seventh day of the month Pyanepsion, which roughly corresponds to our modern September 22 to October 20, children from homes with both parents alive took to the streets of Athens, singing carols as they went from house to house. In return for their musical offerings, they received tips from the householders or housewives. Upon returning home, they would hang the Eiresione above their front door. This symbolic decoration remained in place until the same day of the new year, when it was replaced with a new Eiresione, and the old one was ceremoniously burned. Some children would also hang the Eiresione above the door of the Sanctuary of Apollo.

Mythical Origins

According to legend, the valiant Theseus established this custom when he set out for Crete to slay the terrifying Minotaur. During his voyage, Theseus made a stop at Delos and offered a sacrifice to Apollo. He vowed to offer decorated olive branches to Apollo if he were victorious over the Minotaur. True to his word, upon his triumphant return to Athens, Theseus fulfilled his promise, thus establishing the Eiresian tradition.

The Byzantine Influence

As time passed and cultures evolved, the Eiresione tradition found a new life during the Byzantine era. The decoration of Byzantine pillars, akin to the Eiresione, was not only embraced but also incorporated into the Christmas holiday. Children continued to sing carols in the streets, echoing the ancient Greek custom. Interestingly, the practice of placing a child in a manger, symbolizing the birth of Jesus, can also be traced back to Byzantine Greece.

Transmission to Europe

The Eiresione's journey did not end there. It served as a precursor to the modern Christmas tree. The custom of decorating trees during the Christmas season found its way to the Christian peoples of the north, likely through the influence of foreign groups, including the "Knights of the Middle Society." These knights played ritual roles in official ceremonies, helping to bridge the gap between cultures. The "Small Society" comprised non-religious individuals, while the "Middle Society" included foreign Christians. The "Great Society" was composed of Greek Orthodox Christians.

"The Christmas tree (Eiresioni)", painting by Spyridon Vikatos, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Greece.

The Revival

In the 20th century, the tradition came full circle when Bavarians, accompanying King Otto on a mission to free Greece, introduced their own Christmas custom, resembling the Eiresione. This revival of an ancient tradition immediately resonated with the Greek people, and the Christmas tree, as we know it today, found its place in their hearts.

The fascinating journey of the Eiresione, from ancient Greece to Byzantium and then to Europe, highlights the enduring power of cultural traditions. This ancient custom of gratitude and hope, represented by the decorated Eiresione, laid the foundation for the beloved Christmas tree tradition celebrated worldwide today. As we gather around our own decorated trees during this holiday season, let us remember the rich history and cultural exchange that have shaped this cherished tradition.

Ancient Greek and Byzantine carols:

The Portable Byzantine Sundial Calendar: The Second Oldest Geared Mechanism in Existence

Looking for the link that connects the mechanism of Antikythera with today’s mechanics, we have to count also the Byzantine portable sundial-calendar that is on display in London, at the London Science Museum. The bronze find consists of four fragments, among which are well-formed and well-worked cogwheels (gears).

The clock, just like the Antikythera mechanism, can "show" the time and day in 16 different cities-regions of the known world in Greek (Constantinople, Siini-Aswan, Thebes, Africa, Alexandria, Antioch, Rhodes, Athens, Sicily, Thessaloniki, Rome, Dalmatia, Dioclea, Caesarea Sratonos, Palestine and Ascalon), as well as the relative positions of the sun and moon and the phases of the moon. This is also a masterpiece that is obviously based on deep knowledge of astronomy, mathematics and technological achievements, such as metalworking, automation and gear construction.

It may be almost half a millennium after the mechanism but it is a tangible proof that no knowledge was lost in the meantime. There may be a lag in the development or expansion of knowledge but no loss.

This device, consisting of a sundial and geared mechanical calendar, is the second oldest known of its kind. The earliest known example is the Antikythera Mechanism.

Saint Nicholas of Myra: The Real Story Behind Santa Claus

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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As the holiday season approaches, images of a jolly old man with a white beard and a red suit are ubiquitous in many parts of the world. Santa Claus, as he's known today, has become a symbol of merriment, generosity, and the holiday spirit. Yet few realize that this beloved figure finds its roots in the life of a real person: Saint Nicholas of Myra. This article delves into the true story of Saint Nicholas, the fourth-century bishop whose life and legends paved the way for our modern Santa Claus.

The Historical Nicholas

Saint Nicholas of Myra, sometimes known as Nicholas of Bari, was an early Christian bishop from Myra, a port city in Asia Minor (present-day Demre, Turkey), who lived during the Roman Empire (15 March 270–6 December 343). He also goes by the name Nicholas the Wonderworker because of the numerous miracles credited to his intercession. In many European cities and nations, Saint Nicholas is revered as the patron saint of sailors, merchants, archers, penitent thieves, prostitutes, kids, brewers, pawnbrokers, singles, and students. As was typical for early Christian saints, his fame grew among the religious, and through Sinterklaas, his fabled practice of presenting gifts in secret gave rise to the modern Santa Claus ("Saint Nick") figure.

In Greece, Saint Nicholas is best known as the patron saint of sailors, fishermen, ships, islands and all cities with harbors.

Saint Nicholas is one of the most revered saints in all of Christianity. On December 6, both East and West observe a day of remembrance. Orthodox, Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican Christians all honor and remember him. He comforted every man in need and was a passionate critic of those who preyed on the weak and underprivileged. He exerted control over everyone who was to blame for the evil of the people with his exceptional bravery. The absolutely destitute Saint gave to the destitute girls, guarded the crops of the destitute farmers, and helped the sailors. He also participated in the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (325), when Christian doctrine was primarily formulated by denouncing the Arius faction and articulating the true and unadulterated faith of the Church. He allegedly smacked Arios during the Council, which led to his imprisonment by Emperor Constantine the Great.

The slap of Agios Nikolaos on Arios.

Tales of Generosity

Several stories surrounding Nicholas’ benevolence have survived over the centuries. One of the most famous legends tells of a poor man with three daughters who had no dowry, putting them at risk of a life of servitude or worse. On three separate occasions, Nicholas secretly tossed a bag of gold into their home, ensuring each daughter had a dowry. Some versions claim he threw the gold through an open window, while others say he dropped it down a chimney, where it landed in stockings left to dry by the fire. Sound familiar?

Another account speaks of Nicholas saving three innocent men from execution. He boldly intervened, grabbing the executioner's sword and ensuring their release based on new evidence.

Yet another story tells of a time when Myra faced a severe famine. A ship filled with grain docked at the port, and Nicholas approached the sailors, asking them to spare a portion of their cargo for the starving citizens and assuring them that God would recompense their generosity. When they finally unloaded the grain in Constantinople, their cargo had not diminished at all.

He was a representative embodiment of the ancient Greek tradition. The humanitarian ideals of Hellenism, in combination with Christian ethics, met in the holy face of Nicholas and became a religious practice. His democratic tactics and his collegial methods in his actions were articulated through the experience of the long-standing Greek tradition, which was saved and improved by Christian teaching and practice.

Sinterklaas arriving in a Dutch town.

Evolution of the Legend

Saint Nicholas was a true exponent of the Greek-Orthodox Christian ideal, who "traveled" the world and was identified with the German god Odin, the Dutch Sinter Klaas, the Scandinavian Nisse, the English "Father Christmas", the "Nice Old Father" of the Chinese, Père Noël of the French and Santa Claus of the Americans, while on his "return back” to his place of origin he was identified with Agios Vasilis (greek: Άγιος Βασίλης, Basil the Elder)!

The "nice old father" of the Chinese.

In Greece, Saint Nicholas is best known as the patron saint of sailors, fishermen, ships, islands, and all cities with harbors, just as Myra was. The feast day of St. Nicholas is on December 6th, the day when the beloved bishop is reported to have died (in the year 342 A.D.). The proximity of this date to Christmas is perhaps one reason why he has become so closely associated with it. Saint Basil of Caesarea, who lived from A.D. 329–379, shares a very similar story to that of St. Nicholas. A contemporary of Nicholas, Saint Basil was the bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, also in modern-day Turkey. Much like St. Benedict in the West, St. Basil established wide-ranging guidelines for monastic life. He died on January 1, 379, and Greeks all over the world honor Saint Basil (“Agios Vasilis”) on that day. Gifts are exchanged on that day, rather than on Dec. 6th or 25th, to remember St. Basil’s ingenious method of giving back to the people.

Father Christmas English Style.

The story of Agios Nikolaos traveled around and was rooted throughout Europe. The name Saint Nikolaus was transferred to Europe, where the Christians received the Greek beliefs of Agios Nikolaos. Russian and Bulgarian folk songs say that it helps those who are in danger at sea. To the German people, St. Nicholas was identified with the pre-Christian pagan deity of Odin, who visited children with his eight-footed horse, and because it was hungry, they had to have their boots full of straw near the chimney or fireplace. With the Christianization of the Germans, the myth of Odin leaves and Saint Nicholas comes, who pretends to ride a white horse and is considered the protector of sailors. But the boots, the hanging socks in the fireplace, the decorated fir tree—all their pre-Christian-pagan customs remain. St. Nicholas became the patron saint of Moscow and agriculture in Russia and the patron saint of the Navy in Amsterdam, Netherlands, where, despite a Protestant ban on the recognition of saints, he survived under the name ‘Sinter Klaas’, who is commemorated on December 6th, depicted with a priestly uniform and an episcopal staff to distribute gifts to children. European settlers, mainly Dutch, carried the myth with them to the New World.

Santa Claus with pagan symbols as continuation of the God Odin’s pattern.

The sequel was written in New York in the early 19th century, when Americans began looking for ways to create nostalgic traditions and turned to St. Nicholas, who is commemorated a few days before Christmas. In 1821, the first lithographed book in America, "The Friend of Children", contained a story about Santa Claus and is estimated to be the first to want the Saint to visit children on Christmas Eve. The poem "The night before Christmas" or "A visit from St. Nicholas ", as it became known at the beginning, contributed to this belief.

A norwegian Nisse.

Korvatunturi in Lapland, which was established as the village of Santa Claus in 1927, was first used by the Finns for tourism in the early 1980s. The rest was taken over by the newspapers that reproduced the legend, while Coca-Cola, with its well-known advertisement, put the final touch: the image of Santa Claus with the red uniform and the white beard was finally made by the American company. It was an advertisement for the popular drink in 1931. So, while Coca-Cola uses the image of Santa Claus to increase its consumption during the winter, after seventy years of cooperation," it is found that the Santa Claus image also spread thanks to advertising.

Today's Santa Claus, with his toy workshop and worldwide Christmas Eve deliveries, might seem like a far cry from a fourth-century bishop from Myra. But at the heart of both stories lies a spirit of generosity, love, and the magic of the holiday season. By understanding Saint Nicholas of Myra, we find a richer depth to the festive traditions and are reminded of the core values that make the season truly special.

Mysterious Papyrus found inside a Hidden "Crypt" in Agia Sophia: What do they say?

The reason for identifying this special find was the observation of a Muslim believer who went to Hagia Sophia to pray (UNESCO condemned Turkey’s court decision to turn Hagia Sophia into a mosque).

The Muslim saw that a stone about 10 cm long and 30 cm wide had come off a wall and notified the authorities.

Surprised, the police could not believe their eyes when they rushed to the spot, discovering five parchments with Hebrew writing (as they first estimated) hidden in a bag.

The first estimates for the parchments found in a crypt in Hagia Sophia were made by art historian Selçuk Eracun.

"The parchments are not written in Hebrew as originally written," Selçuk Eracun told CNN Turk, adding that "one is written in Romanian and one in runic writing."

"Some parchments contain wishes. The person who wrote the parchment in Romanian wishes good luck to his family. He also writes about his dream of living in America. "There are also the names of the children of his family," he said.

He continued: "The other parchment contains writing similar to the runic alphabet used in Scandinavia."

"As we can see, the parchments are not very old. Those who go to Hagia Sophia to pray, write wishes and leave them. It's a tradition," said the art historian.

"It is not uncommon to find parchments in crypts on the walls, as marble often falls," he concluded.

1,600-year-old Byzantine Steelyard Weight found in Turkey’s Ancient City of Hadrianopolis

Archeologists have discovered a 1,600-year-old steelyard weight during excavations in the ancient city of Hadrianopolis, located in the Eskipazar district of Turkey’s northern Karabük province.

The city of Hadrianopolis in the modern province of Karabuk is believed to have been used as a settlement area in the late Hellenistic, Roman, and early Byzantine eras. This year’s excavations focused on the emergence of a square structure, Karabuk University archeologist Ersin Celikbas, who is supervising the excavations, told Anadolu Agency.

The 1,600-year-old steelyard weight – used as a counterweight in steelyard balances – was unearthed in the square structure, which was uncovered 50 meters (164 feet) south of an ancient church during excavations. Arrowheads and masks were also discovered during the dig, said Çelikbaş.

He said that the steelyard weight is disc-shaped with an inscription saying, “Theodoros, an official in charge of the imperial treasury,” a marking that tells scholars a great deal about the artifact and its setting.

An aerial view of the square structure where the steelyard weight was found in the ancient city of Hadrianopolis, Karabük, northern Turkey. (AA Photo)

The 1,600-year-old steelyard weight – used as a counterweight in steelyard balances – was unearthed in the square structure, which was uncovered 50 meters (164 feet) south of an ancient church during excavations. Photo: AA

According to Çelikbaş, being “in charge of the imperial treasury” denotes the center of the Byzantine Empire – namely Istanbul, known as Constantinople before it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1453.

“From the weight we have, we can say that there was an important trade network in Hadrianopolis,” he said.

“This is important data proving that commercial elements were supplied from the capital of the empire here,” he added. “The weight we have belongs to the fourth century B.C., which indicates about 1,600 years ago from the present,” he explained.

A close-up of the steelyard weight found in the ancient city of Hadrianopolis, Karabük, northern Turkey, Nov. 30, 2021. (AA Photo)

Excavations in Hadrianopolis over the last year have uncovered structures such as two baths, churches, one defense structure, tombs, an amphitheater, one arched and domed structure, a monumental cultic niche, city walls, villas, and other monumental buildings.

The ancient city is famous for mosaics on the floors of churches, where the biblical rivers Gihon, Pishon, Tigris, and the Euphrates, as well as many animals, are depicted, such as horses, elephants, panthers, deer, and griffins – a legendary creature with the head of an eagle and body of a lion.

Any movable artifacts found in the excavations city are taken to the museums in the surrounding provinces, while they are cataloged and preserved, said Celikbas.

The 1800-year-old iron mask, which was recently unearthed in the ancient city, was seen as evidence of the first military base of the Roman period in the Western Black Sea Region.

1,800-Year-old Iron Roman Mask Found in the Ancient City of Karabük

A 1,800-year-old iron mask thought to belong to a Roman soldier was found in the Hadrianaupolis Ancient City in Karabük.

Excavations in the Hadrianaupolis Ancient City, located in the Eskipazar district of Karabük, Turkey have been continuing since 2003. The excavations in the ancient city of Hadrianaupolis, which is estimated to have been used from the 1st century BC to the 8th century AD in the village of Budaklar, were carried out by Karabük University Archeology Department Lecturer Assoc. Dr. It continues under the chairmanship of Ersin Çelikbaş.

In the ancient city, where excavations continue for 12 months of the year, this season, the focus has been on a square planned structure whose function has not been resolved yet. From the fortification wall in the building been in question, it is estimated that this was a military building. An iron mask was unearthed during the work done inside the structure.

Stating that the history of the inner regions of the Western Black Sea Region has not been fully clarified yet, the head of the excavation, Assoc. Dr. Çelikbaş said, “We continue to illuminate the history of the region with our works. During our excavations, we found important data showing the existence of the Roman Empire in the region. This mask also belongs to a Roman soldier. A Roman cavalry face mask, a piece of helmet.” says.

Fragment of a Roman soldier's helmet.

Stating that there could be a Roman garrison and a military base in Hadrianaupolis, Çelikbaş said, “Rome has planned to make its defense at the far end by building bases against all kinds of dangers that may come from the Black Sea Region to its own geography. We think that one of these defensive military cities was Hadrianaupolis. The mask fragment is from the imperial period. It most likely belongs to the 3rd century when we look at similar examples and stratification history.” says.

During the excavations carried out in the southern necropolis of the ancient city last October, an iron ring dating back 1,800 years was found inside the rock tombs. On the agate stone on the ring, it was determined that the character of Pan, known as the god of shepherds in Greek mythology, was carved in very small sizes.

The movable ones from the findings obtained during the studies in the ancient city of Hadrianaupolis are taken to the museums in the surrounding provinces, while the immovables are preserved in their place.

Posted by Archaeophilia

The 'Ezana's Stone' of Aksum: A Trilingual Monument, Similar to The 'Rosetta Stone'

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Legacy of King Ezana and the Ezana Stone: A Testament to Faith and Triumph

In the heart of modern-day Axum, Ethiopia, stands an ancient testament to history and faith—the Ezana Stone. This towering stele, dating back to the 4th century AD, recounts the remarkable journey of King Ezana, ruler of the Kingdom of Aksum. It serves as an enduring symbol of his conversion to Christianity and his victorious campaigns against neighboring regions, including the formidable Kingdom of Meroë. Let's delve into the significance of the Ezana Stone and the legacy it leaves behind.

King Ezana and the Kingdom of Aksum

Between AD 330 and 356, King Ezana reigned over the Kingdom of Aksum, a powerful empire located in the Horn of Africa. His rule was marked by significant accomplishments, both military and religious. King Ezana was not only a conqueror but also a devout Christian, and his story is intricately woven into the fabric of Ethiopian history.

King Ezana's reign was a period of remarkable achievements. He engaged in battles against the Nubians and commemorated his victories through inscriptions on stone tablets, which were a form of liturgical epigraphs praising God. What makes these inscriptions unique is that they were written in several ancient languages, including Ge'ez, Sabaean, and Greek, creating a trilingual monument akin to the famous Rosetta Stone.

The Birth of Ethiopian Orthodoxy

During King Ezana's rule, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church had its origins. It is said that Saint Frumentius, a freed slave and mentor to the young King Ezana, played a pivotal role in the conversion of the king to Christianity. This marked the beginning of a deep-rooted Christian tradition in Ethiopia that endures to this day.

The Conquest of Kush

One of the most significant chapters in King Ezana's reign was his campaign against the Kushites around 350 AD. This military expedition led to the downfall of the Kingdom of Kush. Ge'ez inscriptions discovered in Meroë, the capital of the Kushites, bear testimony to King Ezana's victorious march.

The Inscriptions on the Ezana Stone

The inscriptions on the Ezana Stone provide us with valuable insights into the ruler's campaigns and the fervor of his Christian faith. One of the inscriptions, translated from Greek, speaks of King Ezana's conquests and his benevolent treatment of prisoners and captives. He provided them with sustenance and clothing and resettled them in a region called Matlia.

The Ge'ez translation reveals the King's deep reliance on the Lord of Heaven for his success in battle. It narrates his military campaigns against the Noba and the Agwezat, detailing his victories, the capture of prisoners, and the plunder of enemy territories.

The Sabaean translation speaks of King Ezana's devotion to Jesus Christ and his trust in the Holy Trinity for guidance and triumph. It recounts his battles against the Agwezat and HST, highlighting the Lord's role in his victories.

Legacy of the Ezana Stone

The Ezana Stone is more than just an ancient artifact; it's a symbol of King Ezana's faith, his military prowess, and the birth of Ethiopian Christianity. It stands as a testament to a significant period in African history and the enduring legacy of a Christian nation.

The Ezana Stone, an ancient stele in Axum, Ethiopia, is a window into the past, shedding light on the remarkable reign of King Ezana, his conversion to Christianity, and his military triumphs. It serves as a testament to the enduring legacy of Ethiopian Orthodoxy and the indomitable spirit of a nation. The inscriptions on this stone continue to inspire awe and reverence, reminding us of the power of faith and the importance of recording history for future generations.

Ruins of Aksum: A great field opposite St Mary of Zion Church. Many obelisks were scattered in the archaeology park.

The Oldest Depiction of Jesus Christ and The Crucifixion is Located in Mount Sinai Monastery

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The oldest icon of the Crucifixion is located in the Greek Orthodox Holy Monastery of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai in Egypt and reveals the proximity to the Greco-Roman art heritage

The St. Catherine Icon: A Rare Treasure

The St. Catherine icon is one of the few early Christian icons that has survived the ravages of time, making it a precious relic for art historians and theologians alike. This panel painting features the crucified Christ, with arms outstretched on the cross, and is surrounded by various figures from the Passion narrative.

It is about a very rare and important icon that survived from the so-called "dark ages" of Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. It is the oldest depiction of Jesus Christ, with a crown of thorns and the names of the two crucified robbers "Gestas" and "Dimas" are written, known from the New Testament.

A Fayum portrait. Fayum mummy portraits are a type of naturalistic painted portrait on wooden boards attached to upper class mummies from Roman Egypt. They belong to the tradition of panel painting, one of the most highly regarded forms of art in the Classical world. The Fayum portraits are the only large body of art from that tradition to have survived.

The proximity of the monastery to ancient Greco-Roman settlements, such as the city of Alexandria, has undoubtedly influenced the artistic style of the icon. This unique blend of Greco-Roman art and early Christian imagery has produced an icon that reveals the rich cultural heritage of the region and its impact on the development of Christian iconography.

Greco-Roman Influences

The St. Catherine icon displays several stylistic elements that can be traced back to the Greco-Roman art tradition. These features include the use of a naturalistic approach to the human figure, a focus on the individual's emotional state, and the portrayal of depth and space through the use of shading and perspective. The artist's skillful rendering of these elements demonstrates an intimate knowledge of the Greco-Roman art heritage and showcases the cultural exchange between the two traditions.

For instance, the depiction of Christ's body on the cross reveals a keen understanding of human anatomy and the use of chiaroscuro to create a sense of depth. The artist has also portrayed the emotions of the surrounding figures, such as the grief-stricken Virgin Mary and the anguished John the Evangelist, with striking realism, capturing the raw emotion of the scene.

As we know, the early Byzantine and post-Byzantine paintings continue the Hellenistic and Roman tradition and style of mural painting. The oldest preserved icons of St. Catherine's collection in Sinai date back to the 6th century and are directly related to the Egyptian portraits of the dead in wood (Fayum mummy portraits) and are similarly close to the Greco-Roman heritage, especially with the frescoes of Pompeii.

Characteristic of these idealized portraits are the large expressive eyes, the elongated nose, the small mouth, the impressive colors and the larger volume of the figures, which also strongly resembles the naturalistic Hellenistic mosaics.

The Composition and Christian Symbolism

While the St. Catherine icon bears strong resemblances to Greco-Roman art, it also exemplifies early Christian iconography. It not only depicts the Crucifixion but also incorporates elements of the Passion narrative, such as the presence of the Virgin Mary, John the Evangelist, and other figures from the story.

Ancient Roman mosaic of Apollo, from the archaeological site of Old Paphos, Cyprus.

The icon's composition is deliberate in its message, emphasizing Christ's sacrifice and highlighting the significance of the Crucifixion in Christian theology. The artist has placed Christ at the center of the composition, drawing the viewer's attention to his suffering and death. By doing so, the icon serves as a powerful reminder of the Christian belief in the redemptive power of Christ's sacrifice.

The oldest icon of the Crucifixion of Christ at the Greek Orthodox Holy Monastery of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai is an extraordinary testament to the intricate relationship between the Greco-Roman art heritage and early Christian iconography. This invaluable artifact offers a unique glimpse into the artistic and cultural milieu of the time, highlighting the exchange of ideas and the shared history that shaped the development of Christian art.

As a living witness to the dawn of Christianity, the St. Catherine icon continues to inspire and fascinate scholars and believers, serving as a poignant reminder of the rich cultural heritage that has shaped our understanding of the Christian faith.

The Desecrated Middle Byzantine Frescoes of Elmali Kilise (Church of the Apple)

Carved in an isolated chimney on the west side of the Park of the Churches in the Göreme Valley, Elmali Kilise (Göreme Church 19) is one of the best preserved and fully decorated with frescoes middle Byzantine churches in the area.

The initial dedication of the temple is unknown. However, according to H. Gregoire (1909), it was considered that this church was dedicated to the Archangels since four of them are depicted in equal small domes. The Turkish name Elmali Kilise (Church of the Apple) is probably due to the existence of apple trees, visible till the beginning of the 20th century, near the entrance of the monument. On the other hand, it is believed that this characterization came from the sphere that was held by Archangel Michael, which the non-Christians have wrongly compared to an apple.

Elmali Kilise, together with Karanlik Kilise and Çarikli Kilise comprise the group of churches in Göreme, which have been characterized, based on their architectural plan, as “column churches” or “églises à colonnes”. They are three cross-in-square churches, which are supported on four columns, and share similarities in the contents of the decorative program and in their artistic features. Elmali seems to be second in construction and wall-decoration, after Karanlik.

The decorative program in the church has the typical characteristics, which were adopted in the decoration of the churches after the Iconoclastic dispute. On the dome, Pantokrator is depicted. On the apse of the bema there is Deesis, while on the side walls there are scenes of Dodekaorton, from which though Annunciation is absent. The wall-decoration is completed with Christological scenes, male and female saints, the hospitality of Abraham and the Three young men in the Fiery Furnace. Compared to the slightly earlier Karanlik, which set the example for Elmali’s construction, the church presents weaknesses in the depiction and composition of the figures and also in the perception and use of space.

For the dating of the monument, many suggestions have been made which start from the mid-11th century till the end of the 12th century, even the beginning of the 13th century. Most probable though seems to be the construction in the mid-11th century or the third quarter of the same century.

The temple was restored in 1996-1997 and now is open to the public.

The Armenian Ghost City of 'Ani' (Photo Gallery)

Situated on the eastern border of Turkey, across the Akhuryan River from Armenia, lies the empty, crumbling site of the once-great metropolis of Ani, known as "the city of a thousand and one churches."

Founded more than 1,600 years ago, Ani was situated on several trade routes, and grew to become a walled city of more than 100,000 residents by the 11th century. In the centuries that followed, Ani and the surrounding region were conquered hundreds of times - Byzantine emperors, Ottoman Turks, Armenians, nomadic Kurds, Georgians, and Russians claimed and reclaimed the area, repeatedly attacking and chasing out residents.

These ruins are all that remain of Ani, the cosmopolitan capital of medieval Armenia, one of the earliest kingdoms to adopt Christianity as its state religion in the early A.D. 300s. The site of a fifth-century fortification, Ani was chosen to be Armenia’s capital in the 10th century.

Painting of the Medieval city of Ani.

By the 1300s, Ani was in steep decline, and it was completely abandoned by the 1700s. Rediscovered and romanticized in the 19th century, the city had a brief moment of fame, only to be closed off by World War I and the later events of the Armenian Genocide that left the region an empty, militarized no-man's land. The ruins crumbled at the hands of many: looters, vandals, Turks who tried to eliminate Armenian history from the area, clumsy archaeological digs, well-intentioned people who made poor attempts at restoration, and Mother Nature herself. Restrictions on travel to Ani have eased in the past decade, allowing the following photos to be taken.

The medieval kingdom of Armenia once extended far beyond the modern boundaries of today’s nation. In ancient times these lands came under the control of the Persians, then the Seleucids, the Parthians, and the Romans. But as these different empires rose and fell, Armenian identity prevailed.

Damaged frescoes of the church of St Gregory of Tigran Honents in Ani, on February 19, 2010. Reuters/Umit Bektas

Christian Heritage

One of the first, the Church of St. Gregory of the Abughamrents, was built as a private chapel for the powerful Pahlavuni family. Like many of Ani’s churches, its location was purposefully chosen so it could be seen far away from the city. As Ani thrived under the early 11th-century king Gagik I, more churches were built from the local basalt stone. Ani’s imposing cathedral, built by the great Armenian architect Trdat, and three other churches, rose high above the city walls of Ani in the first half of the 11th century. The dome of one of these, the Church of the Holy Redeemer, was supported on an entirely circular drum and housed a fragment of the True Cross.

A turkish military warning sign with the Citadel behind, in Ani, on June 8, 2011. Original here.

City Abandonment

The city was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319. After a period under Safavid Persian rule, the city was officially absorbed into the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century and since then it became a ghost town, on the outskirts of present-day Turkey, where access is allowed only with the special permission of the Turkish authorities. But for those who are lucky and have the chance to see the majestic ruins closely, can understand what a "magical" city Ani was, like a magnificent miniature of Constantinople in the Far East.

Begun in 1915, the massacre of the Armenian people by the Ottoman Empire —who believed the local population had sided with Russia— wiped out as many as 1.5 million lives. Historians consider it the world’s first genocide (Biden’s Recognition of Armenian Genocide is also recent). The serene ruins of the city, once swarmed by armies through the ages, has always been a special place for Armenians. In the wake of the Armenian Genocide, it stands as an even more powerful reminder of Armenia’s losses and of its astonishing endurance.

PHOTO GALLERY

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