What Are Rocks and How Do They Form?

From towering mountains to pebbles along a river, the Earth is made of a huge variety of rocks. In today's video, we're going to follow the rock cycle of a piece of granite in the Himalayan mountains, and as you'll see, every rock has a far-reaching story to tell often millions of years in the making.

Isle of Skye Discovers a Vast Repository of Dinosaur Footprints

Numerous traces found along Scotland's coast demonstrate that enormous, long-necked dinosaurs formerly roamed this area.

The footprints constitute the biggest dinosaur skeleton yet discovered in Scotland. They also demonstrate that sauropods, which were among the biggest dinosaurs ever, were at home near the water.

Long-standing controversy surrounds the enormous dinosaurs' relationship to water. Paleontologists believed sauropods had to wallow in swamps where the water could support their enormous heft throughout much of the 20th century. The "Dinosaur Renaissance" of the 1970s and 1980s, however, removed this outdated vision thanks to discoveries. For their size, sauropods found out to be surprisingly light, more likely to float than to sink to the bottom of a lake. Instead of sweltering wetlands, a new perspective showed sauropods traversing woods.

The new footprints discovered on the Isle of Skye now add to the mounting evidence that some sauropod dinosaurs frequented ancient coastlines and lagoon borders. The Isle of Skye site's geology provided unmistakable proof that the dinosaurs were roaming a brackish lagoon.

A Huge Find

The University of Edinburgh paleontologist Stephen Brusatte examined the Isle of Skye location after a geologist found bones there. "We had gone out to a lonely stretch of coast on the far northeastern tip of the island," he recalls. According to Brusatte, he and fossil fish expert Tom Challands found what appeared to be a pothole after spending the day largely hunting shark teeth and other small fossils. It was the imprint of a dinosaur.

Hundreds of dinosaur tracks cover a newly discovered site on the Isle of Skye.

This first discovery led to the discovery of a series of tracks that covered an area measuring roughly 49 feet (15 meters) by 82 feet (25 meters).

But the tracksite's vastness isn't the only impressive aspect. The Middle Jurassic period, more than 161 million years ago, is when the Isle of Skye footprints were created. This is "one of the least understood periods in dinosaur evolution," according to Brusatte. The traces provide a fresh look at the types of dinosaurs that inhabited the region and their behavior throughout this enigmatic period.

Anthony Martin, a paleontologist at Emory University, adds that dinosaur bones are uncommon in Middle Jurassic rocks, and even fossil skeletons can be moved from the site of the animal's demise. But tracks are a another matter. Martin asserts that the study of footprints "is extremely valuable for filling in gaps in our understanding of dinosaur evolution."

It is unclear exactly which dinosaurs left the footprints. It's typically impossible to link a skeleton foot to a footprint unless a dinosaur actually perishes in its footsteps.

However, the tracks still include enough information for Brusatte and his coauthors to classify them as sauropod dinosaurs, which moved with their legs very close to one another along the midline and included the controversial Brontosaurus and its relatives. A Middle Jurassic dinosaur named Cetiosaurus, which also happens to be one of the first dinosaurs ever named, is an excellent candidate for this kind of trackmaker, according to Brusatte.

Animals in the Lagoon

Another surprise was the old ecosystem in which these dinosaurs roamed.

A sauropod footprint from the new site in Scotland shows the outline of the dinosaur's toes.

Why sauropods consistently avoided the edges of seas, lagoons, and wetlands at the prehistoric Isle of Skye and other places across the world is still a mystery to paleontologists. According to Brusatte, it's possible that the lagoons and beaches offered a food source, safety from predators, or some other allure.

Martin concurs, pointing out that the discovery of sauropod tracks in coastal habitats is not particularly surprising given that these areas "provided paths of least resistance for sauropods moving from one place to another" because of their flat, accessible shorelines, where predatory dinosaurs would have had more difficulty ambushing prey due to the absence of cover.

So, even though sauropods were primarily land creatures, some of them were at least ok with getting their feet a little wet. As Brusatte points out, "Dinosaurs were probably capable of doing a lot more and living in a lot more places than we give them credit for."

Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/histo...

Which Civilization Invented Numbers? Unveiling the Origins of Numerical Systems

In the intricate tapestry of human history, the concept of numbers stands as a fundamental pillar that has shaped the way we perceive and interact with the world. The journey to inventing numbers was not a solitary path; instead, it emerged independently across diverse ancient civilizations, each weaving its own unique numerical tapestry.

Babylonian Numerals: Foundations in Mesopotamia

Mathematical cuneiform tablet with four columns and fifteen rows of numbers. Larsa, Mesopotamia (modern Tell Senkereh, Iraq), circa 1820–1762 BC.

Around 2000 BC, in the fertile lands of Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), the Babylonians were laying the foundations of numerical systems. Their base-60 numerical system left an indelible mark on human culture. This system, influenced by the cycles of the moon and their calculations of time, paved the way for the divisions of time we use today. Their ingenious combination of symbols and positional notation enabled the representation of a wide range of numbers and remains a testament to ancient mathematical creativity.


Egyptian Numerals: Hieroglyphic Representations

1,333,330 in Egyptian hieroglyphs from the Edfu Temple (237–57 BC) in Egypt.

The hieroglyph on the left is the Egyptian god Heh (chaos or infinity), representing one million. Next, a tadpole hieroglyph represents 100,000. The bent finger hieroglyph is 10,000; the lotus flower is 1000; the coil of rope is 100; and the hobble (used for cattle and missing the crossbar) is 10. Reading from left to right, the hieroglyph number is 1,333,330. The one missing numeric hieroglyph symbol in the photo is the stroke or tally mark for 1.

Contemporary with the Babylonians, the ancient Egyptians developed their own numerical system. Rooted in a base-10 system, the Egyptians created symbols to represent multiples of powers of 10. This unique numerical system, while not possessing the concept of zero, exemplified the practical nature of ancient mathematics. The legacy of their numerical prowess lives on in the grand structures they built, which bear witness to their advanced mathematical understanding.


Indus Valley Civilization: Traces of Early Numerical Notation

Indus Valley Civilization: Traces of Early Numerical Notation

During the period of 3300–1300 BC, the enigmatic Indus Valley Civilization played a role in the earliest development of numerical notation. While the specifics of their system remain elusive, their contributions paved the way for the numerical innovations that followed.


Hindu-Arabic Numerals: India's Gift to the World

The first Brahmi numerals, ancestors of Hindu-Arabic numerals, used by Ashoka in his Edicts of Ashoka c. 250 BC

Around the 6th to 9th centuries AD, in the cultural crucible of India, a revolutionary leap was made with the introduction of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. A base-10 system with the inclusion of zero as a placeholder, this innovation transformed the landscape of mathematics and commerce. The adoption of zero allowed for more efficient calculations and laid the groundwork for the intricate mathematical tapestries woven by future generations.

Each of these ancient civilizations crafted its own numerical story, contributing threads that continue to shape our mathematical understanding today. The diversity of these systems, emerging independently across the globe, highlights the universality of human curiosity and the ingenuity with which we have sought to quantify and comprehend our surroundings.

As we traverse through history, it becomes evident that the invention of numbers was not a linear progression but a mosaic of innovation. From Babylon's base-60 system to India's gift of zero, the ancient civilizations have given us a legacy that continues to influence the very foundations of our modern world. In celebrating these origins, we honor the diverse tapestry of human intellect and the quest for knowledge that unites us across time and space.

12 Most Mysterious Ancient Technologies Scientists Still Can't Explain

If you could travel back to the 1950s and stop somebody in the street of your hometown to show them your mobile phone, they would be fascinated and terrified. The fact that such technology could possibly exist would blow their minds. You’d assume that this time-travelling trick could only work in one direction, but we sometimes come across ancient technology that blows our minds here in the present day. In fact, we’re going to show some to you now.

The Entire History of Human Civilizations | Ancient to Modern (4K Documentary)

The history of our story began long ago. At one point in time, around three billion years ago, we were floating around as little, tiny atoms in the little Petri dish of the world.

Around 6 million years ago, and we see the emergence of the first hominoids - the family of primates that includes humans. 1.9 Million years ago, Homo Erectus was the first species to leave Africa and colonize other parts of the world. They had larger brains than their primate ancestors.

Around 400,000 years ago, the first evidence of the Neanderthals. Their bodies were adapted to the cold environments of Europe and Western Asia. Their distinctive facial features were some of the most human-like ever seen. They are famous for their massive body weight and big facial hair. These prehistoric ancestors were made for the cold.

Then came us; 300,000 years ago, the first Homo Sapiens roamed the earth. The Only surviving species of the Homo Genus. But how did Homo Sapiens rise into a global dominance through the mechanism of civilization?

Why were the Mongols so successful?

Why were the Mongols so successful? In today’s video we will analyze Mongol military history and battle tactics. Enjoy!

How dangerous was it to be a jester?

Explore the history of court jesters, from 7th century China to medieval Europe, and how they were able to speak truth to power.

Contrary to common belief, jesters weren’t just a medieval European phenomenon but flourished in other times and cultures. The first reliably recorded jester is thought to be You Shi, of 7th century BCE China. Jesters had unique relationships to power: they could be viewed as objects of mockery or as entertainers and trusted companions. Beatrice K. Otto digs into history's most infamous jokers.

Inside One of London's Oldest Medieval Crypts

If you imagine a Catholic military order from the Middle Ages, it’s likely to be the Knights Templar - popularised by Dan Brown’s fictional thriller, The Da Vinci Code

But in Medieval Europe, there was another, equally powerful religious society, which also had its English headquarters here in London. It was the Order of St John of Jerusalem. Better known, as the Knights Hospitaller.

In today’s video we will explore the history of the Order of St John, visiting their base of operations here in Clerkenwell, London. The priory is one of the city’s hidden gems, with surprises around every corner.

Formed in Jerusalem in the 11th century to care for pilgrims, the order went on to become an ambitious military organisation, owning lands and wielding influence across Europe.

How did Caesar Conquer Gaul and Destroy the Republic?

Caesar had been appointed as dictator back in Rome despite being in and out of Italy as a whole to engage in campaigns in the Middle East and Africa as well as his endeavors in Asia. He was also repeatedly named consul and his dictatorship renewed multiple times, having pardoned his enemies in the Senate and thus laying claim to very few opponents at home. Once he finally returned to Rome again in the 40s BC, Caesar began to roll out new legal reforms, even changing the Roman calendar. He was essentially the sole authority in the crumbling Roman Republic if one could even still call it that, holding the titles of dictator, tribune, and consul.

The Most Accurate Dinosaur Ever Reconstructed?

Have palaeontologists made the most accurate dinosaur reconstruction ever? Well, thanks to an incredible fossil of Psittacosaurus they very well may have, as this specimen preserves almost all of the animal's skin and colours - plus some surprising bits of anatomy you wouldn't think could ever be reconstructed.

Workers Digging Near A Medieval Monastery Just Uncovered A Mysterious Network Of Tunnels

It’s early spring 2021, and a team of electrical engineers are working amidst the picturesque scenery of Wales’ Wye Valley. Their task involves digging a trench, but soon they find themselves breaking into a strange tunnel hidden beneath the ground. This structure isn’t on any of their maps or plans, meaning it’s taken the workers totally by surprise. It seems that this eerie tunnel has been forgotten for untold centuries.

The Most Powerful and Important Gods of Mayan Mythology

The Mayan Civilization has influenced many aspects of culture, with its beliefs and religions that gave an explanation to the universe. According to studies, there are more than 200 gods in the Mayan culture, however, the Mayan gods manage to be unique and fascinating.

In this video we will see some of the most important and powerful Mayan Gods. Enjoy!

Philosophy of Aristotle: Top 5 Teachings

Discover the profound wisdom of one of history's greatest philosophers, Aristotle. In this video, we explore the top 5 teachings that shaped the foundation of Aristotle's philosophical legacy. From ethics and metaphysics to politics and virtue, Aristotle's ideas continue to inspire and influence modern thought.