Archaeologists uncover the 'back door of hell' in tunnels under an ancient church

'Entrance to the underworld' is discovered in Mexico: Archaeologists uncover the 'back door of hell' in tunnels under an ancient church

Tunnels that the ancient Zapotec civilisation believed to be the 'entrance to the underworld' have been found beneath a centuries-old church.

Mitla, meaning place of the dead, was a city in southern Mexico known for its association with Pitao Bezelao, the Zapotec god of death.

But the Spanish arrived in the 16th Century and razed the city, building a church on the ruins of its most important temple.

A priest later wrote that 'the back door of hell' lay under the city – huge caverns believed to be the entrance to the Zapotec underworld.

But they were walled up, he said, and later excavations failed to find anything matching the scale of his description – until now.

Using non-invasive techniques, archaeologists recently revealed a series of chambers and tunnels beneath the city.

Five different sets of ruins were probed: the church group, the arroyo group, the adobe group, the south group, and the group of the columns.

Marco Vigato, founder of the ARX Project, which is leading the search, said: 'Some of the tunnels and chambers extend to a considerable depth, in excess of 15 metres.

Ancient tunnels believed to be the 'entrance to the underworld' have been found penetrating deep into the earth beneath a centuries-old church

Using non-invasive techniques, archaeologists recently revealed a series of chambers and tunnels beneath the city

Archaeologists have uncovered what they're calling the 'back door of hell' in tunnels under an ancient church (stock image) 

'In the case of the south group, they're up to 30 metres deep – this is as far as the instruments can penetrate.

'One chamber under the Church of San Pablo Apostol measures approximately 15 metres long by 10 metres wide.

'It is possible that the tunnels, particularly those under the church group, extend further to the north, east and south.

'Possibly they connect to other geophysical anomalies identified under the other groups.'

If these are the tunnels of legend, the Zapotec kings may lie within.

Francisco de Burgoa, the aforementioned priest, paints a picture of the royal burial chamber in his 1674 text, Geografica Descripción.

He says the kings are interred 'richly dressed in their best attire,' with 'feathers, jewels, golden necklaces, and precious stones'.

Their bodies, meanwhile, hold 'a shield in the left hand and a javelin in the right, just as they used them in war'.

Five different sets of ruins were probed: the church group, the arroyo group, the adobe group, the south group, and the group of the columns

The underground tunnels were revealed using a combination of ground penetrating radar, electric resistivity tomography, and seismic noise tomography

Instead of electricity, seismic noise tomography measures the speed at which seismic waves move through the ground

Two further caverns he describes contain a chapel, and a burial chamber for the Zapotec high priests respectively.

The final chamber, he says, leads to 'a dark and gruesome room' where 'they threw the bodies of the victims of the great lords and chieftains who had fallen in battle.'

Mr Vigato said: 'The Zapotecs believed the caves and the subterranean labyrinth under Mitla to be an entrance to the underworld, or Lyobaa.

'For this reason, Mitla was the centre of the cult of Pitao Bezelao, the Zapotec god of death and the underworld, and was for centuries the cemetery of the Zapotec kings and high priests.'

It's no coincidence that there was a void beneath the church altar.

Mr Vigato said: 'The church was built deliberately on top of the most important Zapotec temple at Mitla.

'It was a way of converting a pre-existing religious site and symbolising the triumph of the new faith.

'A significant portion of the ruins were incorporated into the foundations of the church, which was built with stones stripped from the ancient buildings.'

The underground tunnels were revealed using a combination of ground penetrating radar, electric resistivity tomography, and seismic noise tomography.

This photo shows the interior of the Church of San Pablo Apostol at Mitla

The researchers now hope to determine the nature of the cavities identified under the site and whether they contain any artifacts of archaeological significance

The tunnels were discovered under a church in the ancient city of Mitla

The first method uses radar waves to model the subsurface, while the second detects buried structures by measuring the flow of electricity through the earth.

Instead of electricity, the final method measures the speed at which seismic waves move through the ground.

Just how old the tunnels are is yet to be established.

Mr Vigato said: 'Natural caves in the area of Mitla have been occupied and partially modified by humans for thousands of years.

'The earliest evidence of crop domestication in the area of Mitla dates back almost 10,000 years.

'There is no indication at the moment as to the possible age of the tunnels under the church or the other groups of structures at Mitla.

'They may have been created by the Zapotecs, or they could be much older.'

He added: 'The findings from the geophysical scans will have to be confirmed with archaeological methods.

'This could determine the nature of the cavities identified under the site and whether they contain any artifacts of archaeological significance.'

You can learn more about the discoveries at Mitla at www.arxproject.org.

Ancient Celtic Tomb Reveals Unprecedented Archaeological Treasure After 2,600 Years

A remarkable 2,600-year-old Celtic burial chamber has just been unearthed in Riedlingen, Germany, capturing global attention with its extraordinary state of preservation. Experts are calling it a discovery of “unique and outstanding scientific importance.” Encased within a 20-foot-high burial mound spanning over 210 feet in diameter, the wooden chamber—complete with its original walls, floor, and ceiling—offers a rare glimpse into ancient Celtic life.

The State Office for Monument Preservation in Stuttgart recently announced the find, marking it as the first fully preserved Celtic burial chamber uncovered in Germany since 1890. The oak timber structure, sheltered for centuries beneath layers of earth, provides invaluable insight into ancient burial customs and construction techniques, which experts are eagerly examining.

Archaeologist Dirk Krausse, from the State Office for Cultural Heritage Baden-Württemberg, expressed the significance of the discovery: “The Riedlingen grave is a stroke of luck for archaeology... Its scientific value transcends the borders of Baden-Württemberg and southern Germany.”

Within the burial chamber, researchers found a wooden tool believed to date back to 585 BC, possibly used during the construction of the tomb itself. This ancient artifact could unlock further secrets about the people who built it, their craftsmanship, and their daily lives.

Andrea Lindlohr, a local official, remarked on the discovery’s importance, saying, “The archaeological heritage of Baden-Württemberg is impressive, offering invaluable insights into ancient societies and long-lost eras.” The find promises to advance our understanding of Celtic civilization, while the application of modern technology on this ancient site enables researchers to reconstruct a rich picture of Europe’s ancient history.

Ancient Mystery of the World’s Oldest Map on a 3,000-Year-Old Babylonian Tablet Finally Uncovered

A recent video by the British Museum highlights the discovery and decoding of what is considered the world’s oldest map. This ancient Babylonian clay tablet, known as the Imago Mundi, reveals a familiar narrative through its inscriptions and map details.

The Imago Mundi, created around the 7th century BC, is a schematic map in the Akkadian language, depicting the world as the Babylonians understood it. It was unearthed in Abu Habba (ancient Sippar) in southern Iraq and entered the British Museum’s collection in 1882. For centuries, the tablet remained largely a mystery until curators uncovered a missing piece, which allowed them to transcribe its cuneiform.

The tablet, dated to the 6th century BC, presents an aerial view of Mesopotamia—the land "between the rivers" in modern-day Iraq—and extends to what the Babylonians believed lay beyond. The inscriptions on the back and above the map describe the creation of the Earth and detail the lands and peoples they thought existed beyond their borders.

One prominent feature is a double ring encircling Mesopotamia, referred to by the scribe as the "Bitter River," marking the edge of the known world. Within this circle lie small shapes representing cities and tribes, including Babylon and a symbol for the Euphrates River. This design suggests the Babylonians viewed Mesopotamia as the world’s center.

British Museum curator and cuneiform expert Dr. Irving Finkel explains, “In this circular diagram, you have captured the entirety of the known world—where people lived, thrived, and perished.” He adds, however, that the map extends beyond the physical world into realms of imagination.

Besides mapping physical locations, the scribe included references to familiar myths, including a Babylonian version of the Noah’s Ark story. The tablet describes how the Babylonian hero Utnapishtim, their version of Noah, built an ark upon divine command. According to the story, this ark came to rest on a mountain beyond the Bitter River—aligning with the biblical tale of Noah.

The tablet also affirms Babylonian beliefs in creation deity Marduk and mythical creatures like the scorpion-man and the lion-headed bird Anzu. Dr. Finkel concludes that these shared narratives underscore a fascinating overlap between ancient stories across cultures.

Ancient House with Erotic Frescoes Discovered at Pompeii

Ancient Pompeii home with 'untouched' frescoes of mythological scenes uncovered by archaeologists 2,000 years after being buried in volcanic rubble

A small home in the ancient Roman city of Pompeii filled with untouched frescoes of mythological scenes has been uncovered by archaeologists after being buried under volcanic rubble for 2,000 years.   

The richly decorated dwelling, called the House of Phaedra after the mythological queen of Athens who features in one of its wall paintings, was discovered on Thursday, according to the site.  

It sheds light on changing architectural styles in the first century AD, and unlike many of the houses excavated at the site, it was not built around the traditional Roman atrium, an open space with a pool for collecting rain water, the Pompeii archaeological park said in a statement.

One of the frescoes found at the small house in Pompeii. Courtesy of the Archaeological Park of Pompeii

Despite its small size, the house 'strikes us for the high level of its wall decorations,' the statement said, noting they were of similar quality to much larger and more opulent homes near the new discovery, which lies in the centre of the site. 

Besides the fresco of Phaedra and Hippolytus, who spurned her love, other mythological scenes adorning the vividly coloured walls of the house include a sexual encounter between a satyr and a nymph, and gods who the site said may have been Venus and Adonis.

A detail of a richly decorated but uncommonly small house with finely preserved frescoes of mythological scenes is pictured in the archaeological site in Pompeii, Italy

The dwelling, called the House of Phaedra after the mythological queen of Athens who features in one of its wall paintings, was discovered on Thursday

Despite its small size, the house 'strikes us for the high level of its wall decorations,' the Pompeii archaeological park said in a  statement 

One depicts a sexual encounter between a satyr and a nymph, and gods who the site said may have been Venus and Adonis

The house sheds light on changing architectural styles in the first century AD

The building also boasts numerous smaller, but detailed and beautifully preserved patterns and scenes from nature.   

The once-thriving city of Pompeii and the surrounding countryside in southern Italy was submerged by volcanic ash when Mount Vesuvius exploded in A.D. 79.

The eruption killed thousands of Romans who had no idea they were living in the shadow of one of Europe's biggest volcanoes. 

It buried the city in a thick layer of ash, preserving many of its residents and buildings.

Images of sexual positions have been found in a private home near Pompeii as well as in the city’s brothel.

Apart from their relaxed attitude to sex, Pompeiians painted phallic symbols on their homes in the belief they brought wealth, fertility and good luck.

The latest  find comes six months after archeologists uncovered remarkably preserved fresco paintings on a wall at a former private residence along Via di Nola, one of Pompeii's longest streets, in April.

One of the stunning artworks depicted Helen of Troy, a beautiful woman in Greek mythology, meeting Paris, prince of Troy, for the first time. 

According to legend, the resulting elopement between the two sparked the Trojan War of the 12th century BC. 

It's one of many buried treasures found at the Italian former city, which was famously destroyed by the lethal eruption of Mount Vesuvius. 

The frescos were been discovered in the 'black room', an 'imposing' banquet hall with elegant black walls at a former private residence along Via di Nola.

Painted onto a black background, the scene shows Helen of Troy, a beautiful woman in Greek mythology (left with a nurse or maid), meeting Paris, prince of Troy (right with his dog). The little Greek writing says: Alexander Helen. Alexander is another name for Paris

A second fresco in the black room, meanwhile, depicts the naked Greek god Apollo trying to seduce the priestess Cassandra

Here, Leda, mother of Helen of Troy is about to conceive with Greek god Zeus disguised as a randy swan

A fourth fresco, uncovered from the ancient volcanic material in April, shows a female figure appearing to hold a dish

It is called the black room because it was painted black, likely to mask soot from oil lamps that would have burnt.

Conversely, the room's mosaic floor is comprised of more than a million tiny and intricately arranged white tiles.

'Here people gathered to feast after sunset, the flickering light of the oil lamps made the images seem to move, especially after a few glasses of good Campania wine,' said Gabriel Zuchtriegel, director of the Archaeological Park of Pompeii, at the time of the discovery.

A second fresco was unearthed in the room, which depicted the naked Greek god Apollo trying to seduce the priestess Cassandra.

Dr Andrew Sillett, a classics lecturer at the University of Oxford, has described the frescos as 'pretty cool' because they were likely done close to the eruption.

'Most paintings we have are somewhat worn as a result of having been painted years before,' he told MailOnline.

'It looks like these were buried very shortly after having been painted.'

A third fresco in the black room, meanwhile, showed Leda, mother of Helen of Troy.

And a fourth fresco, which is barely uncovered from the ancient volcanic material, showed a female figure appearing to hold a dish. 

A Knot That Has Remained Intact for 2,000 Years: The Remarkable Suebi Knot of the Osterby Man

In a bog near the small northern German town of Osterby, preserved against time and the elements, lies one of the most fascinating remnants of ancient Germanic culture: the Suebi knot. This hairstyle, sported by the Suebi—a group of Germanic warriors from the Baltic region—has captivated archaeologists, historians, and enthusiasts of ancient cultures for decades. A seemingly simple hair knot, it has withstood the test of two millennia, preserving a connection to a civilization defined by strength, social stratification, and martial prowess.

The Significance of the Suebi Knot

The Suebi knot was more than a hairstyle; it was a symbol steeped in meaning. For the Suebi people, styling the hair by parting it into two locks tied at the sides of the head carried significance that went far beyond personal vanity. Reserved solely for warriors and nobles, the knot became a powerful emblem of rank, valor, and the fierce warrior culture that underpinned Suebi society. To wear the Suebi knot was to declare one’s status and strength, serving both as a social marker and a tool of intimidation against enemies.

This hairstyle also speaks volumes about the complex structure of Suebi society. Unlike some other ancient tribes where social distinctions were less visible, the Suebi’s style of hair symbolized a rigid social order where only individuals of certain stature could wear the knot. Common folk or lower-ranked individuals were not permitted to don this hairstyle, reinforcing the Suebi’s warrior-centric identity and the value placed on martial skill and noble lineage.

The Discovery of the Osterby Man

The most striking and well-preserved example of the Suebi knot was discovered by chance in 1948. Local peat diggers working near Osterby unearthed a skull with reddish hair, styled in the characteristic Suebi knot, which had astonishingly survived the wear of time and weather. The acids naturally present in the peat bog had preserved the head, creating an almost mummified effect known as a “bog body,” or “swamp mummy.”

Dating back to between 75 and 130 AD, the Osterby Man’s head stands as a testament to the durability of this hairstyle and offers a unique glimpse into Suebi life. The reddish color of his hair is thought to be the result of centuries of exposure to the acidic bog environment. Despite the passage of nearly two thousand years, the Suebi knot remains impeccably styled on the Osterby Man’s head, offering an incredibly well-preserved image of this ancient warrior tradition.

Bog Bodies and Their Archaeological Significance

Bog bodies are one of archaeology’s most intriguing phenomena. Bodies preserved in bogs, or “peat bogs,” undergo a unique form of preservation due to the combination of acidic water, low temperature, and lack of oxygen. This combination prevents the growth of bacteria that would typically decompose a body, preserving both organic and inorganic materials in a way that has fascinated scientists for centuries. Northern Europe is particularly known for its bog bodies, with notable examples including the Tollund Man in Denmark and Lindow Man in England.

These bog bodies provide unparalleled insights into ancient life, and the Osterby Man is no exception. Unlike most other bog bodies, which are fully preserved, only the head of the Osterby Man remains. Nonetheless, this single, well-preserved head has given historians and archaeologists invaluable clues about Suebi culture, customs, and the importance of warrior identity in their society.

The Suebi Knot as a Cultural Artifact

For archaeologists, the Suebi knot represents more than a relic of personal grooming—it is a historical artifact that communicates layers of social, cultural, and martial significance. To recreate the Suebi knot, the Suebi would part their hair down the center and pull each section into tightly tied knots at the sides of the head, creating a style both distinct and imposing. This hairstyle may have also served practical purposes in battle, as tightly bound hair was less likely to interfere during combat. For the Suebi, however, the knot’s symbolism likely held more importance than its function.

The hairstyle also suggests that the Suebi were acutely aware of the psychological impact of their appearance. In battle, a warrior with the Suebi knot would have stood out, his knot symbolizing power, rank, and the martial prowess that the Suebi revered. The hair, styled so intentionally, would have created a fearsome presence on the battlefield, projecting an aura of both menace and authority to foes and allies alike.

The Osterby Man Today: A Link to the Past

The Osterby Man’s head, with its Suebi knot intact, currently resides in the archaeological museum of Gottorf Castle in Schleswig. Here, visitors can witness firsthand the enduring legacy of Suebi culture and marvel at the durability of ancient traditions. Located in a historic residence of the Oldenburg family, Gottorf Castle houses various relics that illustrate the rich tapestry of northern European history, but few are as remarkable as the Osterby Man.

As visitors gaze upon the Osterby Man, they are not simply observing an ancient skull—they are engaging with a relic of a society that valued honor, strength, and social structure. The Suebi knot endures as a lasting symbol of this civilization’s priorities and cultural pride.

The Lasting Legacy of the Suebi Knot

The Suebi knot, preserved through centuries on the Osterby Man, stands as a powerful reminder of the social codes, martial traditions, and distinct identity of the Suebi people. From a hairstyle to an emblem of social rank, the Suebi knot was more than mere decoration. It was a badge of honor, a social marker, and a psychological weapon—one that has now become a key piece of evidence in understanding the lives of ancient Germanic tribes. As a lasting legacy, it continues to fascinate modern audiences and invites us to reflect on the ways human societies, both past and present, use symbols to communicate identity, power, and pride.

The knot, 2,000 years after it was first tied, remains intact—a tribute not just to the durability of hair but to the endurance of a culture’s ideals, values, and expressions.

British Museum Incident: Activists Vandalize Greek Statue with Protest Stunt

At the British Museum, environmental activists from the group Just Stop Oil selected an ancient Greek statue of the goddess Demeter to bear their latest demonstration. In a bold move, they adorned the priceless artifact with a bright orange safety vest and placed a cartoon-style speech bubble next to it, declaring, “Just Stop Famine.”

The incident took place on Friday, October 25, when two activists reportedly approached the statue—dating back to 350–330 BC—and placed the vest on it. Though the museum confirmed no physical damage was done to the statue and that the exhibit remained open to the public, it emphasized the violation of guidelines. “This incident clearly breached our visitor policies and posed a risk to our collection,” a spokesperson for the British Museum told The Art Newspaper.

The stunt forms part of Just Stop Oil's broader campaign calling on the UK government to cease oil, gas, and coal extraction by 2030. Their statement cited potential catastrophic consequences for agriculture if climate change worsens, highlighting the risk of Atlantic circulation collapse, which could devastate food production in Europe.

In defense of their provocative approach, Just Stop Oil warned of severe famine as a possible consequence if fossil fuel burning continues. “Our rich nation won’t protect us from what’s coming. We can’t eat money,” one representative declared, referencing ongoing drought impacts across parts of Africa.

This protest follows other acts by Just Stop Oil, including vest placements on a Beatles statue in Liverpool and banners opened before Van Gogh paintings in the National Gallery. These demonstrations have attracted controversy, with many questioning the ethics of risking harm to cherished art and heritage pieces for political messaging.

Invasion or Evolution? Where Was Marija Gimbutas’ Theory Confirmed, and Where Was It Rejected on the Indo-European Question?

Marija Gimbutas, one of the most distinguished archaeologists of the 20th century, developed a bold and controversial theory about prehistoric Europe. Her theory deals with the so-called "Old European" cultures, the transition from matriarchal to patriarchal societies, and the role of migratory waves that influenced social structures and cultural developments in Europe.

Marija Gimbutas' Theory

1. Old European Cultures and Matriarchy: Gimbutas argued that the prehistoric societies of the Neolithic period in Europe, primarily before 3000 BCE, were characterized by a peaceful, agrarian lifestyle and a culture that was mainly matriarchal and matrilineal. Women held a central position in these societies, with female deities dominating the religion, and fertility, nature, and life playing significant roles in cultural events. This "Matriarchal Utopia," as it is often called, was, according to Gimbutas, harmonious and non-warlike.

2. Invasions of Warlike Tribes and the Transition to Patriarchy: Gimbutas proposed that around 3000 BCE, waves of migrants from the Eurasian steppes, associated with the Yamnaya culture, invaded Europe. These peoples were patriarchal, horse-riding pastoralists, emphasizing warfare and conquest, which led to significant cultural changes. According to Gimbutas, this migration created the "Kurgan culture," which drastically changed the social structures of Old Europe, replacing the matriarchal character with a patriarchal system, reinforcing hierarchical structures and a warlike mentality.

3. Kurgan Hypothesis: Her theory on the origins of the Indo-Europeans is directly connected to the Kurgan culture. According to Gimbutas, the Kurgans were the ancestors of the Indo-Europeans who spread throughout Europe and other regions, disseminating their language, culture, and social system. The introduction of horseback riding, the use of chariots, and the construction of impressive burial mounds (kurgans) were features of this new culture that spread through migrations and cultural exchanges.

Modern Findings from Ancient Genetics and Archaeology

1. Confirmation of Elements of the Theory:

   • Data from modern ancient genetics (ancient DNA) have largely confirmed the movement of populations from the Eurasian steppes to Europe during the third millennium BCE. The Yamnaya culture indeed had a significant genetic impact on the populations of Europe, especially in regions such as Central and Western Europe.

   • Archaeological excavations have also shown evidence of changes in burial customs and social structures, supporting Gimbutas' idea of a transition from matriarchal to more patriarchal and hierarchical systems.

2. Criticism and Rejection of Elements of the Theory:

   • Although the migration of populations and cultural influences were confirmed, archaeologists and anthropologists have challenged Gimbutas' monolithic view of matriarchy. Modern studies suggest that earlier societies were more complex and cannot be strictly classified as matriarchal or patriarchal. The idea of a "golden age of matriarchy" is considered overly simplistic and exaggerated.

   • Gimbutas' emphasis on the peaceful, non-warlike societies of Old Europe has been challenged by discoveries showing evidence of conflicts, fortifications, and defensive structures even before the arrival of the steppe peoples, suggesting that these societies were not as harmonious as she proposed.

Disagreement with Colin Renfrew and Points of Agreement

Colin Renfrew, another eminent archaeologist, opposed Gimbutas' theory through his own hypothesis, known as the "Anatolian Hypothesis." According to Renfrew:

• The Indo-European languages did not originate from the peoples of the steppes but from Neolithic farmers who migrated from Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) to Europe during the 7th millennium BCE, much earlier than the supposed invasions of the Yamnaya.

• Renfrew rejects the idea of violent conquest and the radical replacement of cultures by the peoples of the steppes. Instead, he suggests that the spread of Indo-European languages occurred through the diffusion of agriculture and slow cultural assimilation.

However, Renfrew conceded that the Yamnaya culture played a significant role in the spread of certain cultural traits and that there were indeed migrations from the steppes. Modern archaeological and genetic research has tended to reconcile some of these disagreements, showing that reality was likely a mixture of cultural exchanges, intermixing, and migrations, rather than purely conquest or peaceful penetration.

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Read also: Colin Renfrew's Critique of the Aryan Invasion Theory: Reinterpreting the Rigveda and Reevaluating Archaeological Evidence

Colin Renfrew’s Anatolian Hypothesis: Tracing the Roots of Proto-Indo-European

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Overall, Gimbutas' theory remains significant because it opened the door to new discussions about the nature of prehistoric societies, the role of women, and the migratory dynamics of Eurasia. Despite the criticisms, it contributed to the interpretation of European prehistory and the recognition of the complex processes that shaped the early cultures of Europe.

Early Celtic Elite Burial Chamber Unearthed in Germany’s Danube Plain: A Glimpse into 6th Century BCE Celtic Society

Source: Ministerium für Landesentwicklung und Wohnen / Denkmalpflege Baden-Württemberg

In a remarkable discovery, archaeologists have uncovered a well-preserved Celtic burial chamber dating back to the 6th century BCE in the Danube plain near Riedlingen, southwestern Germany. This rare find, believed to have belonged to a high-ranking Celtic individual, offers fresh insights into the social structures, burial customs, and craftsmanship of early Celtic society.

The burial chamber lies at the heart of an expansive burial mound, known as a "princely burial mound." Reserved for members of the Celtic elite, these monumental structures were prominent symbols of power and social hierarchy, constructed between 620 and 450 BCE. While the mound originally stood over six meters high and 65 meters in diameter, it has eroded over time to approximately two meters, still retaining a striking presence that hints at its original grandeur.

The Wooden Chamber and its Significance

At the core of the burial mound is a wooden chamber dating back roughly 2,600 years. Its unique preservation, attributed to favorable environmental conditions, is a rarity among Celtic sites, where wood and organic materials typically decay over centuries. This chamber, once filled with burial goods and adorned to honor the deceased’s status, exemplifies the high degree of care the Celts dedicated to their burial practices, especially for the elite.

According to Dr. Roberto Tarpini from the State Office for Monument Preservation, who is leading the excavation, the dimensions and complexity of the mound highlight the social significance of the individual buried within. Reserved only for the most powerful, such as warriors or leaders, these monumental tombs were a testament to the social hierarchy in early Celtic society and an indication of the individual’s role in life and their perceived journey into the afterlife.

Insights from Human Remains

Within the chamber, anthropologists have identified the remains of a young male, likely aged between 15 and 20, who stood around 160 to 168 cm tall. Such findings provide valuable information on the physical characteristics, diet, and lifestyle of Celtic society’s elite youth, opening doors to questions about the roles they played and the age at which they were recognized as prominent figures within their community. Additionally, another burial site discovered near the surface contained the skeleton of a man aged 25 to 35, along with bronze garment clasps and a rock crystal amulet—items likely symbolic of his status or protective beliefs in the afterlife.

These burials, combined with the findings in the main chamber, suggest the mound served as a collective burial space for select members of the community over an extended period. The choice of materials, including the amulet’s rock crystal, indicates trade networks and cultural influences spanning beyond local territories, possibly with neighboring regions and cultures.

Advanced Excavation and Preservation Techniques

This discovery is not only significant for its historical insights but also showcases advancements in archaeological methods. Employing state-of-the-art excavation and documentation tools, Dr. Tarpini’s team meticulously records the layout and context of each artifact and feature, ensuring future researchers have a detailed understanding of the site. The preservation of wooden elements is of particular importance, as Prof. Dr. Claus Wolf, President of the State Office for Monument Preservation, noted that every piece of wood from the burial chamber will be carefully conserved and restored.

The meticulous conservation efforts are intended to recreate the burial chamber for a museum exhibit. This approach ensures the findings will be accessible to the public, allowing a broader audience to appreciate the cultural heritage and societal complexity of the early Celts in the Danube plain.

Future Implications for Celtic Studies

As the excavation continues, archaeologists and anthropologists alike are eager to glean more details about the identity and life of the young man buried in this grand mound. The findings could illuminate aspects of Celtic ritual practices, the social roles of young elites, and the symbolism embedded within burial customs. Such discoveries are particularly valuable in filling gaps about Celtic life and societal organization, a topic often limited by the scarcity of preserved materials from this period.

The eventual museum exhibit, slated to feature a reconstructed version of the burial chamber, will offer the public a tangible connection to an ancient world. For archaeologists and historians, this discovery underscores the critical role of burial sites in understanding early European societies. In the context of Germany’s prehistoric landscape, the Riedlingen mound stands as a testament to the sophisticated social structures of the Celtic elite, whose influence reached across the European continent well before the rise of classical civilizations.

The Battle of Kadesh: Ramses II's Propaganda and the Truth from Hittite Texts

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Battle of Kadesh (1274 BC) is one of the most famous military events of antiquity, where Pharaoh Ramses II clashed with the Hittite King Muwatalli II over control of Syria and the strategically located city of Kadesh. Although the battle did not result in a clear victory for either side, Ramses II initiated extensive propaganda in Egypt, proclaiming his grand victory. However, the discovery of Hittite cuneiform texts offered a more balanced and detailed picture of the actual outcome of the battle. This article explores Ramses’ propaganda and the historical revelations that emerged from the Hittite records.

The Historical Background of the Battle

The Battle of Kadesh took place during a period of intense geopolitical turmoil in the Eastern Mediterranean. Egypt and the Hittite Empire, the two greatest powers of the time, were in constant conflict over control of the wealthy lands of Syria, which served as a trade and military hub. Pharaoh Ramses II, seeking to assert Egyptian dominance in the region, invaded Kadesh while Muwatalli II assembled a massive army to defend the city.

The Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II (green) bordering on the Hittite Empire (red) at the height of its power in c. 1279 BC.

Egyptian Propaganda: Ramses as the Victor

Upon returning to Egypt, Ramses II launched a robust propaganda campaign to highlight his victory. Numerous temples, including those at Luxor and Abu Simbel, were adorned with impressive depictions of the battle, showing Ramses personally leading his troops to victory and saving the Egyptian army from disaster. Egyptian records, such as the "Poem of Pentaur," emphasized Ramses' bravery and described the battle as a great Egyptian triumph.

The scenes on the temples depict Ramses as a semi-divine leader, almost single-handedly defeating the Hittites. This propaganda aimed to bolster his image as an invincible and mighty monarch, reinforcing imperial power and political stability within Egypt.

Bas-relief of Ramesses II on his chariot during the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II, south wall in the Hypostyle Hall of the Great Temple of Abu Simbel, Egypt.

The Truth Behind the Battle: Hittite Cuneiform Texts

However, the discovery of Hittite cuneiform texts significantly altered the understanding of the battle. Inscriptions found in Hittite archives, especially in the capital Hattusa, provide a very different version of the events. These texts do not mention a clear victory for either side, confirming the view that the battle ended essentially in a stalemate, with heavy losses on both the Egyptian and Hittite sides.

The Hittite texts highlight Muwatalli II's strategic skill, as he managed to lure Ramses and the Egyptian army into a difficult position near Kadesh. Despite Ramses' attempts to regain control of the situation, the battle did not result in a decisive victory, and both armies withdrew exhausted from the battlefield. These sources suggest that the Hittite strategy was highly effective and that the Hittite leadership succeeded in maintaining control over Kadesh and the surrounding area.

The Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty, on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is believed to be the earliest recorded example of a written international agreement.

The Peace Treaty: A Significant Aftermath

Despite Ramses’ propaganda, the failure of the battle to resolve the disputes between the two empires eventually led to a historic peace treaty, the first in human history. The "Treaty of Kadesh," signed a few years later (around 1259 BC), is one of the oldest recorded peace treaties in history and survives in both Egyptian and Hittite writing. The treaty established borders between the two powers, ending the bloody conflicts over control of Syria.

This agreement demonstrates that neither the Egyptians nor the Hittites achieved a total victory on the battlefield, confirming the stalemate revealed by the Hittite texts. The fact that the two great empires resorted to a diplomatic solution instead of prolonged military conflict shows their recognition of the need for stability in the region.

The Role of Propaganda in Ancient Egypt

Ramses II’s use of propaganda is a prime example of ancient rulers' efforts to control the narrative of history and strengthen their power by imposing ideological constructs. The exaggerated depiction of his victory at Kadesh was intended not only to create a heroic image for himself but also to distract the people from the actual balance of power in the region.

It is worth noting that this method was not unique to Ramses. Many other ancient leaders used art and writing to present their military or political successes in the most favorable light, regardless of the true outcome of events.

An ancient bas relief depicting a Hittite chariot in combat. The three-man Hittite chariots were no match for the faster and more agile two-man Egyptian chariots at Kadesh.

The Battle of Kadesh is a remarkable example of how propaganda can shape the perception of history. While the Egyptian version of the battle presents Ramses II as the absolute victor, Hittite texts reveal that the truth was far more complex. The stalemate at Kadesh and the subsequent peace treaty demonstrate that neither the Egyptians nor the Hittites achieved a decisive military victory.

The comparison of these two different narratives offers a deeper understanding of the role of propaganda in ancient times and how leaders sought to define their image in history. The discovery of the Hittite texts reminds us that the truth can be very different from the official version of events.

The "House of Phaedra" Unveiled in Pompeii

An impressive building named the "House of Phaedra" has been brought to light by archaeological excavations in Pompeii, revealing exceptionally well-preserved frescoes.

The archaeological dig in Pompeii uncovered a lavishly decorated yet unusually small house with exceptionally well-preserved wall paintings. It was named the "House of Phaedra," after the mythical queen of Athens depicted in one of the frescoes.

This discovery sheds light on the shift in architectural style during the 1st century AD. Unlike other houses in the archaeological site, this building was not constructed around the traditional Roman atrium—an open space with a basin for collecting rainwater, according to the announcement from the management of the Pompeii Archaeological Park. This design choice, according to archaeologists, is related to the changes Roman society, and specifically Pompeian society, was undergoing during the 1st century AD.

Despite its small size, the house "impresses due to its high-quality frescoes," comparable to those found in much larger and more luxurious residences nearby.

The thriving city of Pompeii and the surrounding area, located in southern Italy, were completely destroyed by the devastating eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which claimed the lives of thousands of people who were unaware they were living in the shadow of one of Europe’s largest volcanoes. Apart from the fresco of Phaedra and Hippolytus, who rejected the romantic advances of his stepmother, other mythological scenes depicted on the walls of the house include the encounter of a satyr with a nymph and the meeting of Aphrodite with Adonis. There are also several smaller yet detailed frescoes featuring landscapes.

28,000-year-old perfectly preserved cave lion cub found frozen in Siberia, whiskers still intact

A nearly 28,000-year-old cave lion cub discovered frozen in the Siberian permafrost, is so well preserved, you can still make out each and every one of her whiskers.

A closeup of the head of the female Siberian cave lion cub mummy now known as Sparta.

Researchers in Sweden claim the cub, nicknamed Sparta, is probably the best-preserved Ice Age animal ever uncovered and describe Sparta in Quaternary. Her teeth, skin, and soft tissue have all been mummified by the ice. Even her organs remain intact.

To date, Sparta is the fourth cave lion cub (Panthera spelaea) found buried in the permafrost of Yakutia, which lies in the northeast corner of Russia. She was discovered in 2018 by local resident Boris Berezhnev who was looking for ancient mammoth tusks among the tundra.

As wildlife hunting and trade have become more restricted, ‘tusk hunters’ like Berezhnev have begun to search for ancient ivory in the icy north. With climate change weakening the permafrost and extending the tusk hunting season, we’re finding more ancient remains – and not just from woolly mammoths. In the past few years, residents in Siberia have pulled woolly rhinos, wolves, brown bears, horses, reindeer, and bison out of the permafrost, and some of these carcasses date as far back as 40,000 years.

Clearly, these icy steppes were once home to numerous large mammals. In fact, a year before finding Sparta near the Semyuelyakh River, Berezhnev found another cave lion carcass just 15 meters (49 feet) away. This one, named Boris, showed slightly more damage, possibly from its permafrost cave collapsing, but it was still remarkably intact. 

Researchers in Sweden, who have since helped analyze the carcasses, claim both Boris and Sparta are about one to two months old. Yet despite their physical proximity and similar appearances, Boris is thought to be roughly 15,000 years older, give or take a few centuries.

Today, the little we know about cave lions mostly comes from fossils, tracks, and ancient cave art.

Mummified bodies found in permafrost are some of the best evidence we have of their existence. Their frozen carcasses look remarkably similar to modern lions in many ways, just on a much larger scale and with a much warmer coat. But one of the most iconic features of African lions, their mane, seems to be missing on cave lions.

Figure 6 from the Quaternary study: The appearance of the frozen cave lion cub mummies: (a) female Sparta; (b) male Boris. Photos of lion cubs’ heads from the side: (c) Sparta; (d) Boris; (e) Sparta mummy as seen from above; (f) dark brown ‘brush’ of Sparta’s tail.

In fact, early human artwork from the time suggests cave lions rarely sported manes, or if they did, they were extremely discrete. Some Ice Age paintings, for instance, show dark patterns of colouring on the cave lion’s face, but it’s unclear what that represents.

Boris and Sparta are both juvenile cave lions, which means it’s hard to say how their coats would have developed as they aged. Apart from some dark colouring on the backs of their ears, researchers say they are mostly covered in yellowish-brown fur.

If the cubs had a chance to grow up, experts think their fur would probably have turned more of a light grey to help them camouflage in the cold Siberian Arctic.

The presence of a mane is important because it could tell us about the social structures of cave lions. For example, whether they live by themselves or in groups with clear hierarchies.

At the moment, scientists are still debating whether cave lions during the Ice Age roamed the steppes of Siberia on their own or in pride like modern African lions.

There’s one particular painting in France’s Chauvet cave from the Ice Age that depicts nearly a dozen cave lions, both male and female, in the act of hunting bison.

“Hunting in groups can be more effective than solitary hunting when the prey is large, and cave lions would have had many such prey species available in their ecosystem, for example, mammoths and rhinoceros, when there were no other options available to them,” the authors of the recent analysis write.

“In addition, large pride would have helped to protect their kill from the competition and also to protect the cubs and young from predators.”

For now, this is all just guesswork. Even though we have found some astonishingly intact cave lions in recent years, we still don’t have enough information about these extinct predators to reach any conclusions about their social structures.

Perhaps one day, that could change. Maybe we will unearth another cave lion with some hint about their long-lost lives. Or maybe one day, we will successfully bring cave lions back to life.

“There is a very realistic chance to recreate cave lions, and it would be a lot easier than to clone a woolly mammoth,” palaeontologist and one of the study’s authors Albert Protopopov told the Siberian Times.

Some scientists have suggested we do this with woolly mammoths as well, but cave lions are a much younger species. Protopopov suggests that we could supplement their clones with some of the genes from modern African lions, making the work a bit easier. That’s obviously a controversial idea, and the reality of it is probably still a ways off.

For now, the next step is to sequence the entire genome of both Sparta and Boris. Then, we can figure out what to do with the information we collect.

Major Discovery at the Minoan Palace of Archanes, Crete: Rare "Gateway Shrine" Found

This year's excavation at the Minoan palace of Archanes, led by Dr. Effie Sapouna-Sakellaraki, has uncovered a rare and significant find: a "Gateway Shrine." This structure, found at the main entrance of the palace, is a unique feature, as it is the first time such a discovery has been made at a Minoan palace. This discovery confirms the religious significance of the area and enhances our understanding of the ritual practices of Minoan society.

The Gateway Shrine and Its Religious Significance

The Gateway Shrine was uncovered at the same location where four altars and two arms of a stone platform were found, suggesting a connection to religious activities. The presence of these elements indicates that the space was not merely an entrance but also a place of religious importance. The presence of altars and a prominent platform at the palace entrance suggests that ceremonies or offerings were part of the activities conducted in this area.

Read also: Six Minoan palaces nominated for World Heritage UNESCO

Design layout of the southern entrance of the palace with two bases for double axes. Copyright: Greek Ministry of Culture

The excavation also revealed a pyramidal double-axe base on the platform, with the possible presence of a third base, further supporting the theory that the palace was closely tied to ritual symbols of Minoan religion. The presence of double axes is a sign of worship and is associated with the cult of the Great Goddess and other deities of the Minoan pantheon.

The 2024 Excavations: Ongoing Discoveries

The 2024 excavation season, conducted by the Archaeological Society of Athens, uncovered new information about the architecture and history of the Minoan palace. In the southern part of the site, archaeologists discovered a 96-square-meter courtyard south of the entrance, covered by large stones. The excavation revealed pottery artifacts from various periods, including Greek and Mycenaean, proving that the palace continued to be used during the Mycenaean era.

Another significant find was a Mycenaean layer of destruction from a fire, which revealed fragmentary kylikes and other artifacts. These finds indicate the historical continuity and importance of Archanes not only during the Minoan but also in the Mycenaean period, reinforcing the image of cultural exchanges and succession of civilizations in Crete.

The entrance with the four altars (on the right in the photo) and two additional altars, one rectangular and one stepped, within the courtyard of the palace. Copyright: Greek Ministry of Culture

Historical Connections with Previous Research

Archaeological activity at Archanes began in the 1960s by Yiannis Sakellarakis, whose work was continued by Dr. Effie Sapouna-Sakellaraki. The site initially attracted the attention of Sir Arthur Evans, who believed it was the "summer palace" of Knossos. However, modern research has proven that Archanes was an independent center with its own architectural and cultural peculiarities.

Previous excavations had brought to light a wealth of architectural and mobile finds, as well as five tholos tombs and many burial structures in the area of Fourni Hill. The palace, with its luxurious spaces, decorative plasters, gypsum floors, and frescoes, presents a complex picture of Minoan architecture and art.

New Indications of Religious Practices

Another significant find was a stone base discovered south of the entrance with the altars. This base, which had fallen from an upper floor, was likely part of a wooden xoanon (cult image), suggesting that there was a sacred area on the upper floor of the room. The four bronze hooks found along with the base reinforce the hypothesis that this construction had a ritual purpose.

Read also: Water Harvesting and Distribution Systems of the Minoan Civilization: An Ingenious Prelude to Modern Hydraulics

Copyright: Greek Ministry of Culture

Design representation of the entrance of the Archanes palace with the altars.

Conclusions and Prospects

This year's excavation adds new pieces to the puzzle of the history of Archanes, highlighting its religious and cultural role in Minoan and Mycenaean Crete. The discovery of the Gateway Shrine is a rare and significant find that enriches our knowledge of the worship and ritual practices of the Minoans. Furthermore, references to later gateway shrines, such as those of the Mycenaeans and Classical periods, provide a broader historical parallel that highlights the ongoing evolution of religious practices in the Mediterranean region.

Future excavations are expected to shed further light on the role of the Archanes palace and reveal more about the daily practices, rituals, and social structures of the Minoans. The contributions of Dr. Effie Sapouna-Sakellaraki and her team are proving crucial to understanding the Minoan civilization and its significance in the broader history of the Aegean.

Unique Bronze Age hoard saved for the nation

A hoard of Bronze Age artefacts unearthed by a metal detectorist in the Borders has been saved for the nation by National Museums Scotland.

It has acquired the Peebles Hoard, which had lain undisturbed for 3,000 years before it was discovered in 2020.

Efforts have now started to secure funding for continued research and conservation of the collection, which includes more than 500 pieces.

National Museums Scotland (NMS) said the man who found it had received a five-figure sum.

Hundreds of pieces were discovered by a metal detectorist in 2020

Senior curator Dr Matthew Knight said it shed new light on Bronze Age communities in Scotland.

The hoard has been described as one of the most significant ever found in the country.

Dating from between 1,000BC and 800BC it was allocated to NMS under the Treasure Trove system with a payment made to the detectorist.

NMS said it represented a "complex set of material, some of which has no archaeological parallel anywhere in western Europe".

"This includes many unique artefacts, the use of which is yet to be discovered and could transform our understanding of life in Bronze Age Scotland," it added.

The unique hoard unearthed in the Borders gives new insight to Scotland's past

However, it said some of the larger artefacts highlighted Scotland's position as part of an international network of communities across the North Sea.

"Two rattle pendants, the first ever found in Scotland, are more commonly found in Denmark, northern Germany and northern Poland," it said.

"These remarkable objects are created from interlinked bronze rings and pendant plates that would have hung from a horse or wooden vehicle and rattled as they moved."

Other items include a sword still in its wooden scabbard, as well as an array of small bronze buttons looped onto cords.

A CT scan was used to establish what was contained in the hoard

The hoard was found in 2020 by metal-detectorist Mariusz Stepien, who alerted the Treasure Trove Unit.

That allowed experts to coordinate a complex retrieval process which involved removing the hoard from the ground in a single block which was then CT scanned.

Professor Ian Sinclair, founder of the µ-VIS X-ray Imaging Centre at the University of Southampton, said it was "pleased and excited" to have been involved.

"CT scanning the hoard was certainly a big challenge due to the scale of the hoard block," he said.

"But we relished the opportunity to bring our engineering skills to successfully support this research on such an exceptional historical find."

Dr Knight said the complex work had proved worthwhile.

"The Peebles Hoard is exceptional, an utterly unique discovery that rewrites our understanding of both Bronze Age communities in Scotland and our prehistoric international connections," he said.

A fundraising campaign has now started in order to preserve the hoard and unlock its "enormous research potential".

The Sleeping Hermaphrodite: A Masterpiece of Ancient Myth and Baroque Artistry

The "Sleeping Hermaphrodite" is one of the most fascinating sculptures to survive from antiquity, seamlessly blending mythological mystery with a deep sense of human vulnerability. The sculpture, attributed to Gian Lorenzo Bernini, stands as a testament to both ancient creativity and Baroque ingenuity.

Origins and Mythological Significance

The central figure of the sculpture, Hermaphroditus, comes from ancient Greek mythology. Hermaphroditus, the child of Hermes and Aphrodite, embodied both male and female characteristics—a symbol of duality, unity, and transformation. In myth, Hermaphroditus was once a handsome youth, but after an encounter with the nymph Salmacis, the two were fused into one body, merging their forms and natures forever. This dual-gendered being became an enduring symbol of ambiguity, love, and the fusion of opposites.

Sculptors in ancient Greece and Rome frequently revisited the theme of Hermaphroditus, fascinated by the delicate balance between masculinity and femininity. The sleeping pose, in particular, adds to the ambiguity: the soft, serene features and feminine curves belie the hidden masculinity, revealed only upon closer inspection.

Bernini’s Baroque Touch: The Mattress of Realism

Though there are around 20 surviving versions of the "Sleeping Hermaphrodite," only one carries the hallmark of Bernini’s genius—and it’s not in the figure itself, but in the ingenious addition of a simple yet extraordinary element: the mattress.

In 1620, at the youthful age of 22, Gian Lorenzo Bernini was tasked with sculpting the mattress upon which the Hermaphrodite reclines. At first glance, this might seem like a mere accessory, but Bernini’s creation elevates the entire sculpture. He was paid sixty scudi for this contribution, a sum fitting for a piece that would bring to life the illusion of soft, buttoned fabric beneath the cold, white marble figure.

Bernini’s mattress is so exquisitely crafted that it captivates viewers, tempting them to reach out and test its apparent softness. The skill with which he rendered the delicate creases, the impressions made by the figure’s body, and the gentle folds of the fabric demonstrates his unparalleled ability to transform stone into something that defies its rigid nature. His mastery over texture, depth, and form transcends mere decoration—Bernini’s mattress becomes part of the story itself, adding a layer of warmth and reality to the mythological being.

The Sculpture Today: A Treasure at the Louvre

The Sleeping Hermaphrodite that rests on Bernini’s mattress is housed in the Louvre Museum, where it continues to captivate visitors. What sets this version apart is not only the undeniable sensuality and serenity of the figure but also the way Bernini’s mattress enhances the visual and emotional experience. The realistic rendering of the bedding beneath the figure invites onlookers to imagine the comfort of sleep and rest, drawing them into the scene in a deeply human way.

While there are multiple copies of the Sleeping Hermaphrodite, only this one possesses Bernini’s unique contribution. The juxtaposition of ancient myth and Bernini’s Baroque realism makes this sculpture a rare fusion of two worlds—a harmonious blend of art and mythology, delicately balanced between the divine and the mortal.

The Legacy of the Sleeping Hermaphrodite

This sculpture continues to evoke curiosity, wonder, and contemplation. It reflects not only the ancient fascination with duality but also Bernini’s ability to bring life to marble. His mattress gives the piece an extraordinary realism, enhancing the underlying mythological themes of transformation, identity, and fluidity.

The Sleeping Hermaphrodite is more than a representation of a mythological figure; it is a celebration of the human form, both its beauty and complexity. Through Bernini’s touch, the sculpture takes on new life, bridging the gap between myth and reality, making it one of the most beloved treasures in the Louvre today.

Significant Discovery: Macedonian Tomb Found in Ancient Echinos of Othrys!

Initial reports suggest a significant archaeological discovery in an area already known for important findings in the past. Excavation work for a sewage system in eastern Fthiotida, specifically in the Achinos region, has uncovered a large tomb believed to be Macedonian and possibly of great importance, potentially dating to the time of Philip II of Macedon.

Locals have long known that Achinos (ancient Echinos) is rich in ancient relics that frequently come to light. The newly found tomb is located about 300 meters from the road leading to the Acropolis of Achinos.

All work in the area has halted, pending an archaeological assessment of the site. Given the region's history, experts expect that this is not the last significant find in the area.

The modern community of Achinos is built on the ruins of ancient Echinos or Echinountas. It sits at the foothills of Mount Othrys and is close to the shores of the Maliakos Gulf.

As noted by Efi Karantzali, Head of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Fthiotida and Evrytania, the earliest written records of the city date back to the 5th century BC. According to Demosthenes, the Thebans founded Echinos during their period of dominance. However, the settlement likely existed as early as the 5th century BC and expanded later.

The city’s significance in the 4th century BC is evident from its equal participation in the Amphictyonic Council of Delphi, with two representatives. When Philip II of Macedon intervened in southern Greece, recognizing the strategic importance of Echinos, he took the city from the Achaeans of Fthiotis and handed it to the Malians to facilitate his passage through Thermopylae. In the 3rd century BC, the city joined the Aetolian League and was later conquered by the Romans in the mid-2nd century BC.

The earliest evidence of habitation in the Achinos region dates back to the Middle Bronze Age. A Mycenaean-period box-shaped tomb, containing Late Helladic IIB pottery, was the first Mycenaean find excavated in the area.

Regarding the historical periods, parts of the ancient wall of the Acropolis and the lower city are still visible today. The fortifications date to the 4th century BC, with modifications made during the reign of Justinian. Excavations of the Classical-Hellenistic cemetery (4th to 1st century BC) are ongoing as part of the rescue excavations conducted by the Ephorate.

A treasure trove of ancient silver coins, unearthed by metal detectorists, sells for $5.6 million

Adam Staples could hardly believe his ears when his metal detector started to beep. One beep turned into a chorus of beeps—each signaling the discovery of something extraordinary.

An Edward the Confessor Pyramid coin (1065-6), part of the Chew Valley Hoard of 2,584 coins, buried in the turmoil following the Norman Invasion of Britain in 1066, is seen on display at the British Museum in London, Oct. 22, 2024. AP PHOTO/ALASTAIR GRANT

In a farmer's field in southwest England, Staples and six friends uncovered a hoard of over 2,500 silver coins that had remained buried for nearly 1,000 years. Valued at a staggering $5.6 million (4.3 million British pounds), this collection is now destined for a museum, where it will offer fresh insights into the chaotic years following the Norman Conquest of England.

"The first coin we found was from William the Conqueror—worth about £1,000 to £1,500," Staples shared at the British Museum on Tuesday. "We thought there might be five, maybe ten coins. But the find just kept growing." By the end, they had unearthed the largest treasure Staples had ever encountered in his 30 years as an amateur detectorist.

The hoard, discovered in 2019 and now owned by the South West Heritage Trust, consists of 2,584 silver pennies minted between 1066 and 1068. Some bear the image of King William I, while others depict his predecessor, the Anglo-Saxon king Harold II, who was defeated at the Battle of Hastings.

Michael Lewis, head of the Portable Antiquities Scheme, described the find as "one of the most spectacular discoveries in recent years." He noted that the true significance of the hoard is still unfolding, as it sheds light on the famed year of 1066—when William, Duke of Normandy, toppled Harold to claim the English throne.

"Most of us learn about the Norman Conquest in school as a clash between 'good' Saxons and 'bad' Normans," Lewis remarked. "But it's much more nuanced than that. The hoard tells a different story—one that blurs the lines between victor and vanquished."

While the Norman Conquest marked a monumental shift in English history, the coins tell a subtler tale. Whether minted before or after the conquest, the coins share a similar design: a monarch’s profile on one side and, for William’s coins, an intricate cross on the reverse. Harold’s coins, ironically, feature the word "pax"—meaning peace.

Amal Khreisheh, an archaeologist with the South West Heritage Trust, believes the coins were buried as rebellions flared up against William’s rule. "In 1068, the people of Exeter revolted, and Harold’s sons, who had fled to Ireland, began launching attacks along the River Avon," she explained. "It’s likely the hoard was hidden to keep it safe during these uprisings."

The hoard, now known as the Chew Valley Hoard, has been purchased for the nation with funds from Britain’s national lottery. After its debut at the British Museum, it will be displayed in museums across the U.K. before finding a permanent home at the Museum of Somerset in Taunton, 130 miles from London.

The coins’ journey from discovery to museum display has been a lengthy process due to Britain's Treasure Act. Under the law, anyone who finds valuable artifacts must report them to a coroner. Once declared treasure, the find becomes property of the state, and museums can then acquire it through funding bids.

An expert panel determined the hoard’s value at £4.3 million, with half the amount split between the finders and the landowner. Staples revealed that his share was in the "hundreds of thousands" and allowed him to buy a house. Despite his windfall, he has no plans to give up metal detecting, calling it his lifelong passion.

The mysterious symbols found carved in Qatar's desert

Hidden Symbols in the Sands of Time: Al Jassasiya’s Mysterious Petroglyphs

In the windswept deserts of Qatar, mysterious symbols rise from the earth, etched into soft rock like creatures basking in the sun. Others form depressions reminiscent of ancient board games once played across continents, while some carvings are simply baffling in their complexity.

Nestled in the northeastern corner of Qatar, among barren sand dunes, lies Al Jassasiya, the country’s largest and most intriguing rock art site. Here, centuries ago, people used the low-lying limestone as a canvas, leaving behind over 900 enigmatic carvings. These petroglyphs depict everything from intricate patterns of cup marks to mesmerizing representations of ships — symbols that offer a glimpse into the ancient minds that created them.

"Rock art is common across the Arabian Peninsula, but some of the carvings at Al Jassasiya are unique," says Ferhan Sakal, head of excavation and site management at Qatar Museums. Among these rare works are ships carved from a bird’s-eye view — an impressive feat of creativity and abstraction.

Many of these cup marks form curious patterns, like two parallel rows of seven holes, leading some to speculate that they were used to play mancala, a board game with ancient roots. Others suggest these marks may have served as tools for divination, storage for pearls, or even to calculate time and tides. Yet, the true purpose remains a mystery.

As Sakal notes, “We have no direct clues about the motifs used at Al Jassasiya. They likely held a ritual meaning so old that it escapes modern explanation.”

While it’s difficult to date the carvings, theories range from Neolithic to late Islamic periods, with no single answer. A study conducted a decade ago found the petroglyphs could be only a few hundred years old, but the researchers concluded that more study is needed — especially when it comes to limestone carvings, which are notoriously difficult to date.

Among the most fascinating carvings are the ships, offering clues about Qatar’s historical connection to fishing and pearling. These vessels, seen from above, feature precise details like ribs, masts, and anchors. Some anchors even resemble European designs introduced seven centuries ago, marking a fusion of cultural influences.

Experts speculate that ships may have played a symbolic role in ancient beliefs, representing the soul’s journey from this life to the next. Gillespie and Al-Naimi, authors of Hidden in the Sands: Uncovering Qatar’s Past, draw parallels between these carvings and ancient myths from Babylon, Egypt, and Greece, where ships ferried the dead to the afterlife.

Though the true meaning of these carvings may remain elusive, they offer a tantalizing glimpse into a world long gone. Visitors to Al Jassasiya can explore these relics at sunrise or sunset, pondering their origins while surrounded by the silence of the desert. Just be sure to bring water, a hat, and sunscreen — the desert offers no shade, only secrets.

Mass Graves Unearthed at Former Hospital Reveal 'Dark Chapter' in Bristol's Past

Archaeologists have made a profound discovery at Blackberry Hill in Stapleton, Bristol, unearthing a series of mass graves that provide an eerie glimpse into the harsh realities of Victorian life.

The site, once the Blackberry Hill Hospital, has revealed a grim history stretching from the late 18th to early 20th centuries. Burials uncovered during excavations date back to the mid-to-late 19th century, with some potentially tied to the site’s earlier existence as a prisoner-of-war camp.

Led by Cotswold Archaeology between 2018 and 2023, in collaboration with Bristol City Council and the Diocese of Bristol, the project has uncovered remains that lay hidden for centuries. Archaeologists describe the history of the site as "complex and fascinating," yet deeply troubling.

A Hidden History Unveiled
The site’s origins trace back to the late 18th century when it served as Stapleton Prison, housing prisoners from Britain’s wars with France, Spain, Holland, and the United States. In 1832, during Bristol’s devastating cholera outbreak, it was converted into a hospital. Just five years later, it became the Stapleton Workhouse, a place where Bristol’s poorest and most destitute sought shelter.

By the 20th century, it had transitioned into Manor Park Hospital, and later Blackberry Hill Hospital, finally closing its doors in 2007 as part of the city's redevelopment plans.

The recent discoveries shed light on the lives of the 19th-century Bristolians buried here—people who faced poverty, illness, and societal neglect. Their final resting place, once forgotten, now serves as a poignant reminder of the immense hardships they endured.

A Dark Social History
Rosanna Price, the Engagement Manager for the project, explained that these burials reveal "a dark chapter in Bristol’s social history."

"The workhouse provided a refuge for the city’s most vulnerable, many of whom suffered from extreme poverty and illness. These graves tell the stories of those who lived on the fringes of society, offering a rare and often sobering insight into the daily struggles of 19th-century Bristolians."

Excavated remains, along with personal artifacts, are helping archaeologists piece together the lives of these individuals. The findings highlight the dire conditions many faced, and through these discoveries, a vivid picture emerges of Bristol’s social landscape during the era.

Respect for the Past
Richard Leaman, Diocesan Secretary of the Diocese of Bristol, emphasized the respectful and careful handling of the remains. "The removal and reinternment of the human remains have been done with great reverence, and a marker will be placed at the new gravesite as a permanent testament."

The full findings from this poignant excavation are set to be published in 2026, promising to bring even more clarity and understanding to this once-hidden chapter of Bristol’s history.

The Identification of Alexander the Great's Tunic in One of the Royal Tombs at Vergina

Archaeologists may have made the greatest discovery in history.

A recent discovery in Tomb II at Vergina has potentially revealed the sacred tunic of Alexander the Great.

The discovery could change historical understanding of the artifacts associated with the King of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia. A team of archaeologists, led by Antonios Bartziokas, emeritus professor at the Democritus University of Thrace (whose research on the royal tombs of Vergina was published in the Journal of Archaeological Science), has reportedly identified a purple cotton fabric known as a sarapis. This garment, worn by Persian kings, was adopted by Alexander the Great after his victory over Darius III of Persia.

The material was discovered in the golden ossuary in Tomb II, along with the remains of a man and the gold wreath of Vergina, adorned with myrtle leaves and flowers from the Hellenistic period (300–30 BCE), which is believed to have belonged to Meda of Odessa, the princess and fifth wife of Philip II of Macedonia.

After extensive chemical, physiological, and microscopic analyses, the researchers concluded that the fabric is made of cotton, a rare material for the time, dyed with royal purple.

The Tunic's Origins

Among the fabric’s layers, the mineral huntite was found, a shiny, white mineral used in ancient Persia. This further supports the belief that the garment originated from the East.

This discovery has far-reaching implications, as it suggests that many of the objects found in Tomb II may indeed belong to Alexander the Great, not King Philip of Macedonia, as previously believed.

Research suggests that Tomb II, located in the Royal Tombs of Vergina, may not belong to Philip II, but to his half-brother, Philip III Arrhidaeus, who inherited many of Alexander’s symbols of power after his death.

Among the items unearthed from the tomb were a gold diadem, a scepter, and a golden myrtle wreath. All of these artifacts are referenced in historical sources as royal insignia of Alexander the Great. However, the discovery of the sarapis is of exceptional importance, as it is a garment of great symbolic weight in Persian courts.

The sarapis was a purple tunic with a white stripe on the hem, worn exclusively by Persian kings. The fact that Alexander the Great adopted this symbol of Persian authority marked his dominance over the vast Persian Empire.

Extensive studies were conducted on the fabric found. The team applied advanced techniques, such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, to identify the fabric's components.

The lab results confirmed the presence of cotton, royal purple dye, and huntite, a rare material in Greece, safely indicating Persian influence.

The application of huntite, valued for its ability to create a brilliant white color, strengthens the theory that the sarapis found in Tomb II was the one Alexander the Great wore during official ceremonies.

The production of this type of fabric was extremely expensive, as the purple dye came from the murex (a type of sea snail). Dyeing even a small piece of fabric required vast quantities of these gastropods.

A Long-Standing Debate

The identity of the individuals buried in the Royal Tombs of Vergina has been a timeless point of contention for archaeologists. Tomb II has traditionally been attributed to Philip II. However, this recent discovery provides more evidence that suggests the tomb may have belonged to Philip III Arrhidaeus.

Philip III Arrhidaeus was Alexander’s half-brother and is thought to have inherited the throne—at least nominally—after Alexander's death, although he held little actual power.

The discovery of Alexander's sarapis in Tomb II of Vergina is further supported by the depictions on the frieze of the tomb.

Additional Evidence from Depictions and Historical Sources

In one of the hunting scenes depicted, one of the hunters, believed to be Alexander the Great, wears a purple tunic with white stripes, similar to the description of the sarapis found in historical sources.

This visual representation strengthens the connection between the objects discovered and Alexander the Great.

The discovery of Alexander the Great's sacred tunic is not merely another piece in the archaeological puzzle of Vergina. It provides new insights into Persian influence on the Kingdom of Macedon and sheds light on Alexander’s roles as Pharaoh of Egypt, King of Greece, and Emperor of Persia.

The identification of the garment may serve as a springboard for further studies on the role of royal attire in both Hellenistic and Persian culture, as well as in the burial customs of the time.

Grand Egyptian Museum: A New Dawn for Egypt’s Cultural Heritage

The long-awaited Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) has begun its trial phase, opening its doors to visitors and unveiling twelve of its stunning main halls. Situated near the Pyramids of Giza, this architectural marvel stands as a testament to Egypt's rich cultural heritage, aiming to be the largest archaeological museum in the world. After years of anticipation and construction, the museum is gradually opening in phases, offering a glimpse of what promises to be a truly spectacular celebration of ancient Egyptian civilization.

The First Look: A Preview Album from the GEM

As part of this exciting prelude, the Grand Egyptian Museum has shared an album featuring the first images from within its halls, marking the beginning of a new era for Egyptology enthusiasts worldwide. The photographs provide a sneak peek into the museum’s extensive and thoughtfully curated exhibitions. With its sleek, modern design juxtaposed against the timeless beauty of ancient artifacts, the GEM is already impressing visitors and setting the stage for its grand official opening.

A Long-Awaited Dream Realized

The museum’s trial opening represents the realization of a dream that has been many years in the making. Covering an area of 480,000 square meters, the GEM has been designed to house over 100,000 artifacts, with dedicated spaces for exhibitions, educational activities, and state-of-the-art conservation facilities. Its most celebrated exhibits will feature the treasures of the iconic boy-king, Tutankhamun, displayed together for the first time since their discovery.

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The GEM’s design harmoniously integrates cutting-edge modern architecture with elements that pay homage to Egypt’s ancient past. Upon entering, visitors are greeted by a majestic atrium filled with monumental statues, leading them on a journey through the corridors of history. Each of the twelve halls now open provides a window into different periods of Egypt's past, offering a comprehensive and immersive experience.

The Treasures of King Tutankhamun: A Crown Jewel

One of the museum’s highlights is undoubtedly the gallery dedicated to King Tutankhamun. The young pharaoh’s treasures, unearthed by Howard Carter in 1922, have captivated the world for over a century. Yet, despite their fame, many of these artifacts have never been displayed together in one place — until now. The GEM’s dedicated Tutankhamun halls will include over 5,000 objects from the boy-king’s tomb, allowing visitors to explore the opulence and artistry that defined his short yet storied reign.

Among these treasures are the iconic golden mask, chariots, jewelry, and furniture, all meticulously restored and presented in a setting that brings new life to these ancient relics. The museum’s exhibition design uses advanced lighting and display techniques to showcase each piece with the reverence it deserves, providing visitors with a sense of wonder akin to the initial discovery of the tomb.

A Cultural Milestone for Egypt and the World

The Grand Egyptian Museum is not just a monument to Egypt’s ancient history; it is a global center for education, conservation, and cultural exchange. By preserving and showcasing these invaluable artifacts, the GEM aims to connect people from around the world with the rich history of ancient Egypt, inspiring new generations of historians, archaeologists, and cultural enthusiasts.

The trial opening of the museum has already generated immense excitement, with both local and international visitors expressing admiration for its scale and vision. The Grand Egyptian Museum has the potential to transform Giza into a cultural hub, attracting millions of tourists annually and significantly contributing to the local economy.

Egyptian officials have emphasized the museum’s role as a symbol of national pride. The project is a collaboration that highlights Egypt’s commitment to preserving its heritage while making it accessible to the world. With the trial phase successfully underway, the focus is now on preparing for the grand opening, which will mark the completion of all exhibitions, including the much-anticipated display of King Tutankhamun’s treasures.

Looking Ahead: The Official Grand Opening

While the current phase has allowed visitors to enjoy several key exhibitions, the official grand opening will be a landmark event that fully unveils the museum’s vision. It will celebrate not only the treasures of Tutankhamun but also other significant periods of Egyptian history, from the Old Kingdom to the Greco-Roman era.

Preparations for the grand opening are in full swing, with organizers promising a momentous occasion that will attract dignitaries, historians, and culture enthusiasts from across the globe. The event will be a celebration of Egypt’s enduring legacy, offering a new and comprehensive platform for understanding one of the world’s most fascinating ancient civilizations.

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Celebrating History, Beauty, and Unity

The Grand Egyptian Museum stands as a beacon of cultural preservation, a place where the past and present converge, inviting the world to rediscover the wonders of ancient Egypt. The trial opening is a step toward fulfilling a vision that honors the timeless beauty and greatness of a civilization that has inspired countless generations.

As Egypt prepares for the grand opening, it is a moment of celebration not only for the nation but for all who appreciate the power of history and the beauty of human achievement. The Grand Egyptian Museum is set to become a center of learning, inspiration, and admiration, where the treasures of the past will continue to shine brightly, inspiring awe and wonder for years to come.