Discovery of Massive 3,000-Year-Old Statue of Ramses II in Cairo Highlights Egypt’s Golden Age

In a remarkable discovery in 2017, archaeologists unearthed a massive 26-foot statue in a Cairo slum, thought to be of Pharaoh Ramses II, one of Egypt’s most powerful and celebrated rulers. Submerged in groundwater in Cairo’s Mattarya district, near the ancient city of Heliopolis, this colossal quartzite statue was hailed by Egypt’s Antiquities Ministry as one of the country’s most significant archaeological finds.

The Discovery in Mattarya

The torso of the statue of Pharaoh Ramses II was unveiled on Thursday.Mohamed Abd El Ghany / Reuters

The German-Egyptian archaeological team led this groundbreaking excavation, uncovering the statue within a modest neighborhood in eastern Cairo. The find was made close to the ruins of Ramses II’s temple in Heliopolis, an ancient city deeply connected to Egyptian mythology and religious practices. Dr. Salima Ikram, an archaeologist and professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo, described the discovery as “spectacular” and emphasized its historical significance: Heliopolis was the birthplace of the Sun God Ra, a central figure in Egyptian mythology, and represented a foundational part of Egyptian civilization.

Egyptian Antiquities Minister Khaled el-Anani poses for picture with workers next to the head of a statue on Thursday.Khaled Desouki / AFP - Getty Images

Ramses II: The "Great Ancestor" of Egypt

Ramses II, also known as Ramses the Great, ruled during the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt over 3,000 years ago, from approximately 1279 to 1213 BCE. His reign is renowned for stability, prosperity, and a flourishing of art and architecture. Ramses II expanded the Egyptian Empire, pushing its borders as far north as Syria and as far south as Nubia. His military campaigns, notably against the Hittites, were instrumental in solidifying Egypt’s influence across the ancient world. His successors honored him by calling him the “Great Ancestor,” a title that reflects his enduring legacy in Egyptian history.

The pharaoh’s contributions went beyond military prowess; he was also a prolific builder, commissioning some of Egypt’s most famous monuments, including the temples at Abu Simbel and the Ramesseum in Thebes. His name became almost synonymous with Egyptian greatness, and he continues to be a celebrated figure in Egyptian history.

The Heliopolis Sun Temple: A Center of Worship and Civilization

The statue’s discovery near the ruins of Ramses II’s temple adds to the historical intrigue surrounding Heliopolis, one of ancient Egypt’s most important religious centers. The Sun Temple, built in Ramses II’s honor, was once one of Egypt’s largest temples, surpassing even the famed Karnak Temple in Luxor in scale. The site was eventually destroyed during Greco-Roman times, with many of its obelisks and stones repurposed for construction projects in Alexandria and later in Europe. Today, the area remains a site of ongoing archaeological interest, providing invaluable insights into Egypt’s religious and cultural practices.

The Significance of the Mattarya Excavation

The Mattarya site is a part of what’s often called “rescue archaeology,” a term used to describe efforts to preserve historical sites under threat from modern development or environmental factors. The neighborhood, now a working-class area with unfinished buildings and muddy roads, is rich with ancient ruins and artifacts. This particular excavation has brought new attention to Mattarya, underscoring the potential treasures hidden within this densely populated region of Cairo.

Restoration and the Future of the Ramses II Statue

Following the discovery, archaeologists and conservation experts began the meticulous process of extracting the statue from the groundwater, with plans to restore it for display. Officials announced that if confirmed to depict Ramses II, the statue would be prominently displayed at the entrance of the Grand Egyptian Museum, which was set to open in 2018. The restoration process represents not only a testament to Ramses II’s enduring legacy but also a symbol of Egypt’s commitment to preserving its rich heritage for future generations.

A woman walks past the head of a statue at the site of the new discovery in Cairo's Mattarya district on Thursday.Khaled Desouki / AFP - Getty Images

Seti II and Other Findings

Alongside the massive statue of Ramses II, archaeologists also discovered a smaller limestone bust of Pharaoh Seti II, Ramses II’s grandson. This find highlights the complex lineage and enduring legacy of Ramses II's dynasty, which continued to influence Egyptian society long after his reign. These additional discoveries enrich our understanding of Egypt’s royal history and the lineage that followed Ramses II, connecting the great pharaoh’s reign to his successors.

Ramses II in Egyptian Culture and Beyond

Ramses II’s influence extended beyond his lifetime, permeating Egyptian culture, art, and religion. His architectural and cultural contributions helped shape the image of Egypt in the ancient world. Today, Ramses II’s legacy continues to inspire historians, archaeologists, and the public alike, exemplifying the power and splendor of Egypt’s golden age. This recent discovery serves as a reminder of his enduring impact and the cultural wealth still hidden beneath Egypt’s modern cities.

A Window into Ancient Egyptian Glory

The unearthing of the Ramses II statue is not only a significant archaeological achievement but also a testament to Egypt’s rich historical legacy. With each discovery, Egypt continues to share its ancient past with the world, inviting us to explore the lives and accomplishments of the pharaohs who shaped one of history’s most remarkable civilizations. This find in Mattarya is a valuable piece of the intricate puzzle that forms Egypt’s storied past, a reminder of the splendor and grandeur that once defined the land of the pharaohs.

The Legacy of Alexander the Great’s Clean-Shaven Image

Alexander the Great is one of the most iconic figures in history, celebrated for his military genius and transformative influence across vast territories. However, beyond his extraordinary conquests and the establishment of the Hellenistic world, Alexander also introduced a subtle yet significant change in the realm of personal aesthetics — the trend of being clean-shaven. This decision marked a departure from the traditional appearance of Greek rulers and had a lasting impact on the image of leadership for centuries to follow.

The Bearded Tradition of Greek Kings

Before Alexander’s rise in the 4th century BCE, Greek rulers and philosophers traditionally sported beards. The beard was considered a symbol of wisdom, virility, and maturity. In ancient Greek culture, the beard represented a rite of passage for young men and was a sign of status and respect. Prominent figures like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are often depicted with thick, flowing beards, embodying the ideals of Greek masculinity and intellectual prowess.

This tradition was rooted deeply in the visual culture of the time, linking the appearance of a beard with both divine and mortal authority. Sculptures, pottery, and coinage from the Archaic and Classical periods often show leaders and gods with well-groomed beards. In a world where image and symbolism carried great weight, the beard was an established feature of a ruler’s persona.

Alexander’s Break with Tradition

Alexander’s decision to shave his beard was a radical departure from the norm. It is believed that his clean-shaven look was partly influenced by practical concerns on the battlefield. According to Plutarch, one of the reasons Alexander adopted the clean-shaven style was to prevent enemies from grabbing soldiers by the beard during combat. However, there may have been deeper psychological and cultural reasons at play.

The youthful image of a clean-shaven Alexander represented a break from the older generation of leaders. It symbolized his new vision and dynamism, distancing him from the old, traditional ways of his predecessors. Alexander was intent on creating a distinct image of himself, not just as a king of Macedon but as a leader of a new world order. By rejecting the beard, he may have been signaling his intent to innovate and transform, aligning himself more with the gods and heroes of myth, such as Achilles, rather than with the bearded philosophers of the past.

The Impact on Hellenistic and Roman Portraiture

The influence of Alexander’s clean-shaven look persisted long after his death in 323 BCE. His image became a template for Hellenistic kings who sought to emulate his success and charisma. The successors of Alexander, known as the Diadochi, adopted the clean-shaven look as a mark of their legitimacy and connection to his legacy. This trend continued throughout the Hellenistic period, spreading across the territories that once formed part of Alexander’s empire, including Egypt, Persia, and the lands of the Levant.

In the Roman world, the impact was even more profound. The early Roman emperors, inspired by Hellenistic traditions, also adopted the clean-shaven aesthetic. Julius Caesar, Augustus, and their successors were typically depicted without beards, highlighting their association with youth, power, and divine favor. The clean-shaven look became synonymous with the image of a Roman ruler, representing a break from the more rustic and rugged appearance of the early Republic’s leaders.

This trend continued well into the 2nd century CE until Emperor Hadrian decided to revive the beard as a fashion statement, influenced by his admiration for Greek culture and philosophy. Hadrian’s beard marked a return to the traditional image of the philosopher-king, a nod to the classical Greek ideals that he sought to embody. However, the clean-shaven precedent set by Alexander had already left an indelible mark on the visual culture of leadership in both the Hellenistic and Roman worlds.

The Symbolism of the Shaven Face

Alexander’s choice to shave his beard was more than a mere fashion statement; it was a calculated move that reshaped the perception of power. The clean-shaven look became a visual metaphor for youth, vigor, and the new age that Alexander represented. It suggested a modern, forward-thinking approach, contrasting with the older, more traditional symbols of authority.

This change also highlighted the evolving relationship between image and identity in the ancient world. Leaders became increasingly aware of their public personas, using visual cues to communicate messages of strength, divinity, and innovation. By altering his appearance, Alexander effectively redefined what it meant to be a ruler, setting a standard that would be emulated for generations.

Alexander the Great’s decision to shave his beard was a small but impactful choice that carried profound cultural significance. It marked a departure from the old Greek traditions and set a new standard for rulers across the Hellenistic and Roman worlds. The clean-shaven look became a lasting symbol of youth, vigor, and a break from the past, reflecting the transformative spirit of Alexander’s reign.

In the centuries that followed, this trend would be embraced and reinterpreted by countless leaders, serving as a reminder of the enduring legacy of Alexander’s image. In many ways, his decision to present himself without a beard was as revolutionary as his military campaigns, reshaping not only the political landscape of the ancient world but also the visual language of power and authority.

Can Putting a Frog in Milk Keep It Fresh?

The idea of placing a frog in milk to keep it fresh sounds unusual, even a bit unsettling, but it’s rooted in a fascinating piece of folklore. Originating from Russian peasant traditions, this belief finds surprising support in modern scientific research. Let’s dive into the science, history, and cultural significance behind this folk remedy.

The Science Behind the Frog’s “Preservative Powers”

In 2012, scientists in Moscow identified 76 peptides in the secretions of Rana temporaria, a species commonly known as the European common frog. Many of these peptides possess antibacterial properties, which means they can inhibit the growth of certain types of bacteria. Given the global issue of antibiotic resistance, the discovery made headlines, drawing attention to potential medicinal applications. However, it also stirred interest for another reason: the study seemed to validate an old Russian folk belief about using frogs to preserve milk.

These findings align with a possible explanation for the folk practice. If frogs release antibacterial substances, placing a frog in milk might indeed help slow down bacterial growth. But before leaping to conclusions, it’s essential to note that modern researchers don’t actually recommend adding frogs to milk. Instead, they study the compounds the frogs secrete, which might someday be used in preservation or medicine.

Food Preservation in the Pre-Refrigeration Era

In centuries past, preserving milk was a challenge. Even in cold climates like Russia’s, milk would spoil quickly without refrigeration. Farmers and peasants relied on methods like cellars, salting, and fermenting to preserve food, but milk remained tricky to keep fresh. Since bacteria multiply rapidly at room temperature, milk would often turn sour within a day or two, and spoiled milk could be risky to drink.

While we may not fully understand the original reasoning behind this tradition, a frog’s naturally cool, clammy feel could have inspired a belief in its preserving qualities. Another thought is that people might have associated the frog’s “cold” nature with milk’s need to stay cool.

Frogs in Russian Folklore and Milk Tales

The folk tradition of putting frogs in milk was not isolated to a single tale. In Russian culture, frogs symbolize endurance, transformation, and even good fortune in various stories. For example, one tale involves two frogs falling into a milk can. While one frog loses hope and drowns, the other keeps swimming vigorously until the milk churns into butter, allowing the frog to escape. This story, while not directly about preservation, links frogs with milk in an enduring way.

There is also the figure of Babushka-Lyagushka-Shakusha, a mystical “Grandmother Hopping Frog,” who swims in a milk bath. Such figures add a touch of magic to the story, blending folklore with real-life experience. The tales of frogs in milk aren’t unique to Russia, either; similar accounts exist in other cultures, suggesting a widespread belief in the connection between frogs and freshness.

Historical Accounts: Frogs in the Milk by Accident?

One intriguing clue about the origins of this folk belief comes from an 1854 New York Times letter to the editor. A farmer described how he would often submerge his milk cans in a cold spring to keep the milk cool, only to find that frogs sometimes found their way in. After fishing them out, he noted, the milk was still drinkable. While this method wasn’t foolproof, it might have influenced people’s perceptions—over time, farmers and milkmaids might have come to believe that the frogs helped preserve the milk, whether they actually did or not.

The Cultural Legacy of Frog Preservation Myths

The story of using frogs to keep milk fresh may seem bizarre today, but it reminds us of how ancient wisdom often combined practical experience with superstition. While modern science shows that certain frog secretions can indeed be antibacterial, it’s unlikely that Russian peasants fully understood this chemistry. Instead, they turned to nature’s helpers, combining empirical observations with a bit of magical thinking.

In the end, the belief may have arisen simply because frogs often found their way into milk in the first place. But through the eyes of folklore, the amphibian’s presence turned from nuisance to potential benefit, creating a lasting cultural narrative.

So, can a frog keep milk from going bad? Science suggests there may be a kernel of truth, at least at a molecular level. However, practical milk preservation in the modern day involves proper refrigeration rather than amphibious additives. Nevertheless, the story captures the imagination, blending science, history, and culture in a way that makes even a quirky old folk remedy seem almost plausible.

Codex Tudela Folio 75r: The Yope Justice Rituals and Punishment of Adultery in Aztec Culture

The Codex Tudela, a 16th-century document, is one of the most vivid primary sources for understanding Aztec culture, social structures, and religious practices. Among its many fascinating illustrations, Folio 75r offers a rare glimpse into the judicial customs of the Yope people, one of the diverse groups within the Aztec Empire. This folio depicts a brutal but culturally significant punishment for adultery: the act of biting off the noses of those who committed the transgression. Today, the Codex Tudela is preserved in the Museo de América in Madrid, where scholars continue to study it for insights into pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican cultures and their unique legal systems.

The Codex Tudela: A Window into Aztec Culture

The Codex Tudela, like many Mesoamerican codices, was compiled during the early colonial period in New Spain (present-day Mexico). Created by indigenous artists under Spanish oversight, it was intended as an ethnographic record for Spanish officials. The codex covers a broad range of topics, including religious ceremonies, everyday life, social hierarchy, and, as seen in Folio 75r, legal customs. The manuscript provides invaluable insights, not only into the Aztec society at large but also into the individual cultures and traditions of groups like the Yope, whose unique practices are rarely documented elsewhere.

The Yope People and Their Justice System

The Yope were an indigenous group situated in what is now southern Mexico, in the modern state of Guerrero. Although they were part of the greater Aztec Empire, the Yope maintained their own distinct customs and societal norms. They were known for their fierce independence and, notably, for their stern judicial practices. The act of physically maiming someone as a punishment for adultery may seem harsh from a modern perspective, yet it reflects a deeply ingrained value system where social order and morality were prioritized.

Adultery and Punishment in Aztec Society

In the Aztec worldview, fidelity and social harmony were paramount, and adultery was considered a grave offense against not only one's spouse but also the community and the gods. The depiction of the Yope punishment on Folio 75r shows a visually arresting scene: a group of people, with the adulterer subjected to the gruesome act of nose-biting. This form of punishment served a dual purpose—it inflicted physical pain and marked the individual with a lifelong reminder of their transgression, ensuring that they would not easily escape social scrutiny.

Symbolism Behind the Nose-Biting Ritual

The choice of nose-biting as punishment is significant in Aztec and Yope cosmology. In many Mesoamerican cultures, the face and head were seen as the focal points of one’s identity and dignity. Removing or disfiguring part of the face symbolically stripped the individual of honor and status. By biting off the adulterer’s nose, the community enacted a form of ritual humiliation. This disfigurement was intended to bring shame upon the individual, serving as a constant warning to others of the consequences of such transgressions.

The Codex Tudela as a Tool of Cross-Cultural Documentation

The Codex Tudela offers an invaluable perspective on how indigenous Mexican societies viewed justice, morality, and social order. As a document created under Spanish oversight, it also reveals the Spaniards' desire to understand—and ultimately control—the indigenous people. For the Spanish, such customs were viewed as evidence of the "barbaric" nature of the people they sought to "civilize" and convert to Christianity. Ironically, while attempting to impose their own standards, the Spanish also preserved indigenous customs through such documents, ensuring these ancient traditions would not be lost.

Conclusion

Folio 75r of the Codex Tudela continues to fascinate historians and archaeologists, serving as a testament to the complex social and moral frameworks that shaped indigenous life in the Aztec Empire. The Yope custom of nose-biting as punishment for adultery underscores the seriousness with which they approached social transgressions, illustrating a belief that justice and moral order required visible, often painful, consequences. Today, housed in the Museo de América in Madrid, the Codex Tudela stands as a reminder of the cultural diversity and the sophisticated legal systems that existed in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, offering modern readers a window into the complexities of justice in Aztec society.

The Remarkable Engineering of Roman Roads: A Legacy of Durability and Precision

Roman roads have long been admired for their durability and advanced construction techniques, playing an essential role in the expansion and governance of the Roman Empire. These roads were more than mere routes; they were carefully designed and constructed pathways that connected cities, military outposts, and ports across thousands of miles. Their longevity is a testament to Roman engineering prowess, with many of these roads still intact today. This article will explore the methods Romans used to construct these enduring pathways, the reasons behind their remarkable durability, and the logistics behind their construction timeline.

How Were Roman Roads Constructed?

The Romans employed a meticulous, multi-layered process to construct their roads, which provided both stability and durability. Here’s a step-by-step breakdown of the construction technique:

1. Surveying and Planning: Roman engineers, known as agrimensores (land surveyors), first marked out the road route using tools like the groma and chorobates, which allowed for precise alignment and leveling. They aimed for direct paths, regardless of natural obstacles, which were either bridged or tunneled through when possible.

2. Excavation and Foundation: Once the path was marked, laborers would excavate a trench, which varied in depth depending on the terrain and intended use of the road. This trench was foundational, as it provided stability for the road structure.

3. Layering Materials: Roman roads were constructed in multiple layers, each with specific materials and purposes to ensure stability and drainage:

   • Statumen: The first layer was a base of large stones or rubble (usually around 20 cm thick), which provided a solid foundation.

   • Rudus: Above this was a layer of smaller stones and mortar, approximately 25 cm thick. The use of mortar was essential in binding the materials and providing a robust underlayer.

   • Nucleus: Next was a layer of finer gravel or crushed stones, which formed a solid yet smoother surface. This layer was usually around 20 cm thick.

   • Pavimentum: Finally, on top was a layer of polygonal stone slabs, fitted closely together to form a durable surface. The stones were often cut to create a cambered shape, allowing water to drain off easily to the sides.

4. Cambering and Drainage: One of the crucial aspects of Roman road durability was its effective drainage system. The Romans used a slight camber (curved shape) to ensure water runoff, preventing pooling and erosion. Ditches or culverts on either side of the road carried away the excess water.

5. Finishing Touches: Some roads included raised curbs, particularly in urban areas, to separate pedestrian areas from the main path. Occasionally, they installed milestones and inscriptions to indicate distances and directions, adding utility to the road’s design.

Why Are Roman Roads So Durable?

Several factors contributed to the extraordinary durability of Roman roads:

• High-Quality Materials: The Romans selected materials based on the terrain and climate. In volcanic regions, they utilized volcanic stone for added durability, and in other areas, they incorporated local materials, optimizing each road’s resilience.

• Layered Structure: The multi-layered structure of Roman roads helped distribute weight effectively. This layering prevented the surface from sinking or cracking under the weight of carts, animals, and pedestrians.

• Cambered Design: The slight upward curve in the center of the road was a masterstroke in road engineering, as it directed water away from the road surface. This design minimized water damage, which is a primary cause of wear and erosion in roadways.

• Regular Maintenance: The Romans established a network of inspectors who oversaw maintenance, ensuring that damaged sections were quickly repaired. This proactive approach helped preserve the structural integrity of the roads.

• Strategic Alignment and Construction: Roman engineers preferred straight roads, which minimized stress points and reduced wear. Additionally, they adapted the road’s depth and materials to the local environment, ensuring the foundation was stable and resistant to regional weather conditions.

How Thick Was a Roman Road?

Roman roads varied in thickness, but the typical road was around 3 to 5 feet (1 to 1.5 meters) thick. This depth, created by the layered construction method, ensured that the road could bear the weight of heavy traffic without settling or cracking.

In mountainous or marshy regions, Roman engineers sometimes increased the thickness for added stability. Roads in flat, dry areas might be thinner but were still built to last through layers that supported both function and longevity.

How Long Did It Take the Romans to Build a Road?

The time it took to build a Roman road depended on several factors, including the terrain, available labor, and the urgency of the project. Generally, a Roman road could take several months to a few years to complete. For instance, a straight road over a relatively flat landscape could be constructed in less time, sometimes within a year. However, in challenging terrains with obstacles like rivers or mountains, road construction could extend to several years.

The Roman Empire employed a large workforce for road construction, including soldiers, local laborers, and slaves. Military engineers supervised the process, often constructing roads strategically to facilitate troop movement. This mobilization ensured a swift pace, as roads were critical for connecting new territories and securing the empire’s borders.

Conclusion

The engineering marvel of Roman roads lies in their systematic approach to construction, durable materials, and innovative drainage solutions. These roads were much more than mere transportation routes; they symbolized Rome’s technological prowess and administrative reach. From the famous Via Appia in Italy to roads spanning the far reaches of Britain, the longevity of these ancient pathways speaks volumes about the advanced state of Roman engineering.

By understanding the methodology behind these enduring constructions, we gain insight into the Roman Empire's commitment to infrastructure, its understanding of environmental adaptation, and the sheer willpower that went into building a network that united an empire stretching over three continents. Today, Roman roads continue to inspire modern infrastructure, and their legacy endures as a remarkable example of ancient engineering at its finest.

10,000-Year-Old Rock Paintings in Chhattisgarh Hint at Ancient Encounters with "Aliens" and "UFOs"

In the dense forests of Chhattisgarh, India, a remarkable discovery has captured the attention of archaeologists and historians alike. A series of ancient rock paintings dating back approximately 10,000 years depict figures that appear, intriguingly, to resemble modern-day depictions of extraterrestrials and unidentified flying objects (UFOs).

Found in the tribal Bastar region, these rock paintings feature humanoid figures with elongated bodies, large, bulbous heads, and expressions that might remind viewers of the stereotypical image of an alien. Some illustrations even appear to show disc-like objects that resemble the classic "flying saucer" shape seen in popular media and UFO lore.

The unusual features of these paintings have led some archaeologists to speculate about what might have inspired them. The local villagers hold their own explanations, rooted in tribal folklore passed down through generations. They refer to ancient stories about "rohela people"—small, mysterious beings who came from the sky and whisked people away, only for them to return shortly after. This legend, according to the locals, bears a striking resemblance to contemporary narratives of alien abductions.

J.R. Bhagat, an archaeologist from the state’s archaeology department, has studied these intriguing rock paintings in depth. He notes that while it’s challenging to definitively link the artwork to extraterrestrial life, the imagery does seem unlike anything typically seen in ancient rock art. Bhagat acknowledges that the resemblance to aliens and UFOs might be coincidental, but the suggestion of an otherworldly connection continues to intrigue both scientists and the public.

Chhattisgarh's government is now considering consulting national and international space agencies, including the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and NASA, to help decipher the mystery behind these figures. The experts hope to gain insights into whether these paintings might symbolize ancient people's experiences or imaginations of celestial events, which they could have interpreted in visual forms.

While the debate about ancient alien contact remains contentious within the scientific community, the discovery of these paintings adds a new layer to the global intrigue surrounding prehistoric encounters with "otherworldly" beings. Researchers believe that studying these images might shed light not only on early human creativity but also on how ancient cultures possibly conceptualized the cosmos.

For now, the paintings in Chhattisgarh remain an enigmatic artifact—a portal into the lives, imaginations, and beliefs of people who lived thousands of years ago. Whether inspired by real encounters or merely by myth, these images remain a testament to humanity’s age-old curiosity about the unknown.

Mystery of 18,000-Year-Old ‘Puppy’ Found Frozen in Ice Solved by Scientists

An ancient mystery buried in Siberian ice for 18,000 years has finally been solved. Discovered in 2018, a remarkably well-preserved pup, nicknamed Dogor, sparked international curiosity and debate: was this mummified creature the oldest known dog? After years of research, scientists now have the answer — and it’s not what anyone expected.

Dogor, with his fur, teeth, and whiskers intact, seemed to be a pristine snapshot from the Ice Age. Experts hoped his genome might provide insights into the origins of man's best friend. But after extensive genetic testing, researchers from the Francis Crick Institute in London have confirmed that Dogor was not a dog at all but rather a wolf. Surprisingly, he doesn’t appear to be closely related to the earliest domesticated dogs.

Anders Bergström, a postdoctoral researcher in ancient genomics, explained that this finding reshapes our understanding of dog domestication. “We know that dogs were the first animals domesticated by humans during the Ice Age,” Bergström told Live Science, “but the details surrounding their domestication are still a major mystery.” Dogor's discovery adds a new piece to the puzzle, revealing the complexity of the wolf lineage from which dogs eventually emerged.

The researchers analyzed Dogor’s DNA alongside that of 72 other ancient wolves, including 66 genomes sequenced for the first time. Their results indicate that while domestication of dogs likely began between 30,000 and 14,000 years ago, pinpointing the exact time and location remains challenging due to the genetic diversity among ancient wolves. However, the study found that modern dogs are more closely related to wolves from eastern Eurasia, suggesting that domestication probably began in Asia rather than Europe.

Despite this revelation, Bergström and his team acknowledge that there are still big gaps in understanding exactly how and when dogs diverged from wolves. But one thing is clear: Dogor’s mummified body, a frozen link to the ancient past, has brought scientists closer to understanding the origins of our enduring bond with dogs. While much remains to be discovered, Dogor’s true identity as a wolf marks an important step in decoding the long, shared history between humans and their loyal companions.

The "Greek Toe" of the Caryatids: Can Your Feet Reveal Your Greek Ancestry?

If you have a long second toe, you might have heard it called “Greek foot” or “flame foot”—a distinct trait where the second toe is longer than the big toe and the others. Though often linked with Greek ancestry, this trait is actually an inherited genetic variation that isn’t confined to any one ethnicity.

What Is "Greek Foot" and Where Did It Come From?

This foot shape, with a prominent second toe, is known scientifically as Morton’s toe. Named after the American orthopedist Dudley Morton, it affects the way weight is distributed across the foot and can sometimes lead to specific foot issues due to this altered weight distribution. Interestingly, this type of foot structure was idealized in Greek art and sculpture, seen in iconic figures like the Caryatids and other famous statues.

The concept of the “Greek foot” can be traced back to the aesthetic ideals of Ancient Greece. The Greeks considered this foot shape harmonious, and it became a defining feature in their depictions of the human form. This visual ideal was not just an artistic choice but also found its way into Greek architecture and geometry, influencing proportions in design and even economic practices. The famous Caryatids—stone maidens holding up the Erechtheion in Athens—are perfect examples, each displaying this classic "Greek toe."

Greek Foot in Genetics: An Inherited Trait, Not Greek Ancestry

Despite its association with Greek heritage, having a “Greek foot” is more about genetics than lineage. Studies show that this foot shape is actually an X-linked recessive trait, meaning the gene responsible for the longer second toe is located on the X chromosome. This trait can be passed down through families, but it isn’t exclusive to people of Greek descent. Populations all over the world have this feature, including groups as far-flung as the Ainu of Japan and certain indigenous groups in South America.

The Prevalence of Greek Foot Across Cultures

Estimates on how common “Greek foot” actually is vary, with research suggesting prevalence rates between 5% and 30% worldwide. This wide range might be due to how different populations inherit the trait and how often it’s passed along. Despite its name, “Greek foot” is not unique to Greece and has even been observed in Celtic ancestry, sometimes referred to as “Celtic foot.”

So, if you have a long second toe, you share a trait with various cultures and ancient artistic ideals. It’s an inherited quirk rather than a genealogical signature of Greek heritage.

The Physical Impact: Does Greek Foot Give You an Advantage?

Having a longer second toe doesn’t just alter appearance—it can also affect foot mechanics. Morton’s toe can sometimes lead to discomfort due to uneven weight distribution. Those with Greek foot may experience specific types of foot pain or even calluses if they frequently wear ill-fitting shoes.

However, some suggest that Greek foot might offer an advantage in certain athletic activities. A 2004 study showed this trait was more common in professional athletes, potentially because it changes balance and how pressure is applied to the foot. This might mean a slight edge in sports that involve a lot of running or jumping, though this theory needs further research.

A Universal Trait in a Unique Context

Greek foot, while widely recognized for its prevalence in Greek art and sculpture, isn’t limited to Greece or even Europe. It's a fascinating example of how genetic traits can cross boundaries, showing up in people across continents and cultures. So, the next time you catch a glimpse of a statue with a pronounced second toe, remember: it’s not just a Greek trait, but part of a global genetic tapestry.

Sensual Divinity: The Sexual Artistic Trends of 3rd Century Ancient Indian Sculpture

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The early centuries of the Common Era marked a significant period in the history of Indian art, particularly in the realm of sculpture, where sensuality and spirituality seamlessly converged to create evocative representations of divine and human forms. Around 200 AD, the region of Mathura emerged as a pivotal center for artistic development, where the sculpting of human and divine figures reflected not only remarkable craftsmanship but also profound religious and cultural symbolism. This era, characterized by its intricate and sensuous depictions of the human body, particularly the female form, showcased a blend of artistic innovation and spiritual representation.

The Cultural and Religious Context

In ancient Indian culture, religious beliefs were deeply intertwined with the visual arts. The creation of sculptures was not merely an aesthetic pursuit but a medium to express the divine nature of gods, goddesses, and semi-divine beings. The period around 200 AD was influenced by both Hindu and Buddhist religious narratives, with sculptures embodying themes of fertility, prosperity, and divine femininity. This convergence of art and spirituality was epitomized through the depiction of nature spirits known as yakshis, who were believed to symbolize the generative power of the earth and its natural bounty.

Intense Representations of the Feminine Form

The sculptures of this era are often noted for their intense and exaggerated features, particularly in the representation of the female body. These figures typically displayed ample curves, adorned with intricate jewelry and clothing that emphasized, rather than concealed, their physical forms. The sensuous portrayal of the feminine was not intended to evoke mere eroticism but was symbolic of fertility and life-giving energy. The detailed depiction of voluptuous hips, full breasts, and a confident stance was meant to convey a sense of nurturing abundance and the divine aspects of womanhood.

This celebration of the feminine form was deeply rooted in the cultural recognition of the divine feminine, embodied by goddesses such as Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, and Parvati, the consort of Shiva. Additionally, yakshis, as nature spirits, were popular subjects, serving as representations of fertility and the vital forces of nature.

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Notable Examples of Sculptural Masterpieces

Several surviving sculptures from this period illustrate the artistic mastery and thematic focus of the time:

1. The Terracotta Plaques of Bengal: These intricate plaques, often depicting divine and semi-divine figures with sensuous, dynamic postures, showcase the emphasis on fertility and abundance.

2. The Kushan Period Yakshis: Distinctive for their full-bodied depictions, these sculptures highlight the elaborate detailing of adornments and the tribhanga pose, emphasizing movement and grace.

3. The Nagarjunakonda Sculptures: Found in Andhra Pradesh, these depict various scenes from life and mythology, including figures of goddesses and yakshis with flowing garments and bejeweled bodies that enhance their sensual appeal.

4. The Ganga and Yamuna Sculptures at the Temple Entrances: These river goddesses, often placed at the entrance of temples, symbolize purity and prosperity, depicted with detailed carvings that celebrate the divine feminine form.

5. The Yakshi of Didarganj: One of the most celebrated sculptures, the Didarganj Yakshi, hails from the 3rd century BCE but continued to inspire artists in the following centuries. This sandstone statue features an exquisitely carved figure holding a fly-whisk, adorned with heavy necklaces and a flowing garment that accentuates her curvaceous form.

6. The Mathura Yakshi: Originating from Mathura itself, this sculpture exemplifies the region’s style with a robust, sensuous depiction of the female body. The yakshi figures from Mathura were often depicted standing in graceful tribhanga (triple-bend) poses that conveyed fluidity and life, emphasizing their association with growth and fertility.

7. The Standing Buddha of Mathura: While not focused solely on the feminine, the Standing Buddha sculpture from this era is noteworthy for integrating the naturalistic and somewhat sensual depiction of the human body with spiritual themes. This sculpture shows the Buddha with soft, rounded features and a serene expression, embodying both the physical and spiritual ideals of the time.

Symbolism and Interpretation

The emphasis on the human body, particularly the feminine form, had a deep symbolic resonance. The lush depictions signified the interconnectedness of human beauty, divine power, and the earth’s fertility. To ancient viewers, these sculptures evoked awe and reverence, serving as reminders of the sacred nature of life and creation. Such representations aligned with the broader cultural acknowledgment of shakti, the divine feminine energy that pervades the universe.

The artistic trends of 200 AD in India, especially from regions like Mathura, represent a profound fusion of spirituality and sensuality. The sculptures, marked by their intense and beautiful depictions of the human form, continue to fascinate historians and art enthusiasts for their masterful craftsmanship and rich cultural symbolism. They stand as testaments to an era that celebrated the sanctity of life and the divine feminine, intertwining the physical with the metaphysical in ways that still resonate in modern interpretations of art and spirituality.

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To support further reading, here are some relevant and credible sources for the topic of ancient Indian art and sculpture:

1. The British Museum's South Asia Collection: British Museum - South Asia Collection

2. Khan Academy - Art History on Ancient India: Khan Academy - Indian Art

3. The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Met Museum - Indian Sculpture

4. Archaeological Survey of India (ASI): Archaeological Survey of India

5. JSTOR and Project MUSE for academic papers and in-depth analyses: JSTOR Project MUSE

These resources provide insights into the cultural and artistic context of ancient Indian sculptures, their symbolism, and their continued significance.

The Timeless Elegance of Etruscan Art: The Sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa

The sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa, discovered at Poggio Cantarello in Tuscany and dating to 150-140 BC, stands as a testament to the intricate artistry and cultural richness of Etruscan society. This brightly painted terracotta masterpiece is housed in the British Museum, where it continues to captivate scholars and visitors alike with its elaborate detail and symbolism.

Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa, whose name is inscribed in Etruscan script at the base of the chest, belonged to one of the wealthiest families of Chiusi, an important Etruscan city. The sarcophagus reflects not only her elite status but also the intricate craftsmanship characteristic of Etruscan funerary art. Etruscan society placed great emphasis on the afterlife, with a particular focus on ensuring the deceased were remembered and honored. This sarcophagus embodies these beliefs through its lifelike representation of the deceased and the elaborate adornments that accompany her.

The sculptural representation of Seianti portrays her reclining gracefully on a shallow mattress, propped up by a plump pillow, a position that echoes the scenes of banqueting and leisure commonly depicted in Etruscan art. This pose reflects not only comfort but a form of eternal repose, suggesting that the afterlife was seen as a continuation of the pleasures of life. She holds an open-lidded mirror, an attribute symbolizing femininity and possibly self-awareness or introspection, while her right hand is raised to adjust her cloak, imbuing the figure with a sense of natural movement and grace.

The attire of Seianti further emphasizes her high status. She wears an ornate gown and cloak, intricately draped to fall in fluid, sinuous folds over her form. Such drapery, expertly rendered in terracotta, showcases the skill of Etruscan artisans in achieving a lifelike and dynamic representation of textiles. The figure is also adorned with a tiara, earrings, bracelets, and a necklace, each detail underscoring the wealth and fashion of the Etruscan elite.

Inside the sarcophagus, the skeletal remains confirmed the identity of the deceased as a woman aged approximately 50-55 years. This age suggests that Seianti lived a full life, a noteworthy detail in an era when life expectancy was often shorter. The discovery of this sarcophagus provides not only an artistic triumph but also an intimate look into the societal roles and status of Etruscan women.

Etruscan art, as exemplified by Seianti’s sarcophagus, had profound influences that extended well beyond their own civilization. The Etruscans were known for their unique synthesis of Greek and Italic artistic traditions, blending them into a distinctive style that highlighted both their technical skill and their cultural values. Elements such as the reclining pose and the use of terracotta would later inspire Roman funerary practices. The Romans, who inherited much from Etruscan culture following their assimilation, adopted and adapted these artistic conventions, perpetuating the legacy of Etruscan art within their own monuments and sepulchral traditions.

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Etruscans: Italian Civilization Before Ancient Rome

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The sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa is thus more than an exquisite work of art; it is a narrative piece that tells the story of Etruscan social structures, religious beliefs, and artistic achievements. Its enduring presence in the British Museum continues to offer valuable insights into the sophisticated society that once thrived in pre-Roman Italy. Through the life and image of Seianti, modern viewers are invited to glimpse the rich interplay of identity, art, and cultural continuity that defined the Etruscan world.

The Chariot of Monteleone: A Testament to Etruscan Artistry and Cultural Connectivity

The Chariot of Monteleone, an exquisite artifact dating back to approximately 530 BC, stands as a brilliant testament to the advanced craftsmanship and cultural sophistication of the Etruscan civilization. Unearthed in 1902 near Monteleone di Spoleto in Umbria, Italy, this ceremonial chariot is not only a masterpiece of ancient metalwork but also an important symbol of the Etruscans' interaction with neighboring cultures, particularly the Greeks.

The Masterpiece in Detail

The chariot’s most captivating feature is its front panel, adorned with a meticulously crafted depiction of Achilles, the legendary Greek hero. This scene, dynamic and filled with tension, illustrates Achilles in his characteristic heroic poise, clad in detailed armor that showcases intricate artistic techniques. The depiction is not merely decorative; it serves as a narrative tableau that reveals the Etruscans' deep familiarity with Greek mythology and their appreciation for epic themes. This level of detail highlights the technical prowess of Etruscan artisans who seamlessly combined repoussé and engraving techniques to create lifelike scenes that resonate with mythological significance.

Etruscan Art and Influence

The craftsmanship evident in the Chariot of Monteleone is emblematic of the broader artistic excellence of the Etruscans. Renowned for their skill in bronze work, ceramics, and goldsmithing, Etruscan artisans were highly regarded across the Mediterranean. This chariot, with its elaborate panels and harmonious design, exemplifies how Etruscan art was both unique and influenced by other cultures, particularly the Greeks. Greek influence permeated Etruscan art through trade and interaction, resulting in a cultural symbiosis that enriched Etruscan aesthetic expressions.

A Civilization Shaped by Exchange

The Etruscans, who flourished in central Italy between the 8th and 3rd centuries BC, were a highly sophisticated society known for their rich religious traditions, urban planning, and dynamic trade networks. Their cities, such as Tarquinia, Cerveteri, and Vulci, were hubs of cultural and economic activity, facilitating the flow of ideas and goods throughout the Mediterranean.

The Chariot of Monteleone exemplifies the Etruscans' propensity for adopting and adapting external influences. Greek pottery, motifs, and mythological narratives were readily integrated into Etruscan art, showcasing their open-minded approach to cultural synthesis. This was not a one-sided relationship; Etruscan art and religious practices, in turn, left their mark on early Roman culture, shaping the nascent identity of what would become one of history's most influential civilizations.

Legacy and Modern Appreciation

Today, the Chariot of Monteleone is housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, where it continues to captivate scholars and visitors alike. It serves as a window into the world of the Etruscans, illustrating their technical expertise, artistic vision, and the complexity of their cultural engagements. The artifact is more than just an object of beauty; it is a testament to the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations and the enduring legacy of Etruscan craftsmanship.

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The Enigmatic Language of the Etruscans: Non-Indo-European?

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In studying the Chariot of Monteleone, we gain a deeper understanding of how the Etruscans skillfully balanced their unique identity with the influences of neighboring cultures. This artifact, with its vivid depiction of Achilles and the echoes of Greek mythology, remains a powerful symbol of a civilization that thrived on artistry, innovation, and exchange.

The Majestic Giraffes of Niger’s Dabous Carvings

The Dabous Giraffes: A Timeless Connection Between Man and Nature

Over 9,000 years ago, when the Sahara was a lush, green savanna, ancient artists carved a scene that would endure millennia: two towering giraffes, etched into the rocks of what is now Niger’s desert. Hidden in the rugged Aïr Mountains, the Dabous giraffe carvings transport us back to a time when the Sahara was teeming with life, and humans and animals coexisted in a fertile landscape far different from today’s arid expanse.

The carvings, depicting two life-sized giraffes with one guided by a small human figure, serve as a mesmerizing reminder of how vital these animals were to the people of that era. Each giraffe stretches over 18 feet in length, a size that speaks to both the artists' ambition and their reverence for the creatures. The intricate carvings, from the gentle slope of the giraffes' necks to the attentive postures of their heads, capture a moment of interaction between humans and the wildlife that once roamed this savanna.

These giraffes, carved with care and precision, symbolize more than an artistic feat—they embody an era when the land sustained both people and animals in abundance. Scholars believe the carvings may have been ritualistic or symbolic, representing the connection between people and nature, or possibly even a call for prosperity and harmony. The figures hold clues to the daily lives, beliefs, and values of the ancient people who inhabited this once-green Sahara.

Today, the Dabous giraffes are considered among the most significant examples of prehistoric rock art in Africa, if not the world. Their existence reminds us of the Sahara’s forgotten vibrancy, a lush realm transformed over millennia by changing climates. What we see now as an endless stretch of desert was once a landscape of rivers, grasslands, and thriving ecosystems. The Dabous carvings are not only art; they are portals to the past, offering a rare glimpse into a world lost beneath the desert sands.

As the winds erode the stone, the carvings face a fragile future, yet their significance remains etched in history. They remind us that landscapes are not eternal—they evolve, and with them, so does humanity’s relationship with the natural world.

The Dabous giraffes invite us to ponder our place in the changing environment, a reminder that even the grandest ecosystems can transform dramatically over time.

Hundreds of gold coins dating to Rome's Imperial era found in Italy

The remarkable treasure of gold coins from the waning days of the Western Roman Empire, discovered beneath an old theater in Como in 2018, has proven to be even more extraordinary than initially thought.

This find, from its lidded soapstone pot to the meticulously stacked, pristine 5th-century coins, was instantly recognized as a discovery of unparalleled historical significance.

When the discovery was first announced in September 2018, archaeologists had carefully removed the vessel for detailed examination in lab conditions. They initially uncovered 27 gold coins from the reigns of Emperors Honorius (r. 384–423), Valentinian III (r. 425–455), Leo I (r. 457–474), and his brief co-emperor Libius Severus (r. 461–465), estimating the hoard to contain around 300 coins.

In addition, they discovered a gold ingot and two as-yet-unidentified objects, with hopes of more surprises within the densely packed amphora.

Now, after painstakingly extracting the coins one by one, archaeologists have reached a final count: an astonishing 1,000 gold coins, exactly.

Such precise tallying suggests a professional hand—perhaps a skilled accountant, government official, or imperial goldsmith. The majority of the coins—639 in all—were minted in Mediolanum (modern-day Milan), then the capital of the Western Empire, between 395 and 472 A.D. Representing eight emperors and four empresses, 744 of these coins were minted after 455, right up to the empire’s last decades before its fall in 476.

In addition to the coins, the hoard includes raw materials and exquisite examples of fine goldsmithing. There are three large gold rings, likely men’s rings: one octagonal, one set with a high-quality cabochon garnet, and another featuring an intricate basket weave and filigree pattern. The collection also holds three earrings (a pair and an unfinished single earring), an ingot, a gold bar, and delicate gold threads. The ingot, alloyed with silver for added durability, bears signs of being cut and used in crafting precious items.

In total, this treasure represents 11 pounds of gold—an unimaginable fortune, especially in a period when the empire’s economy was deteriorating. Curiously, it was stored in an ordinary, unassuming green soapstone jug, similar to a beer stein, likely made locally. The jug even shows char marks, hinting at its use in cooking. Pliny the Elder noted that soapstone vessels were commonly produced in the Como area (Natural History, Book 37, Chapter 44), a tradition that continues there to this day.

Israeli Airstrikes Rock Historic Lebanese City of Baalbek,

The IDF warned an entire Lebanese city to evacuate as they begun bombarding its outskirts in what they claim is the pursuit of militant group Hezbollah.

Israeli airstrikes pounded the eastern Lebanese city of Baalbek on Wednesday, according to Lebanon’s state-run news agency, hours after the Israeli military issued an evacuation warning for residents in the entire city. 

The city’s ancient Roman temple complex, inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was included in the evacuation warning as well as Baalbek’s surrounding area and key routes to Lebanon’s Bekaa valley. 

Baalbek ( Temple Of Jupiter And Bacchus Temple)

Residents evacuated en-masse with local media footage showing heavy traffic along Lebanese roads exiting the city. 

Footage circulated online showed the onset of airstrikes on Baalbek, with the sound of intense explosions and the cries of children and families who remained in the area. 

ساحة #عرسال منذ قليل#بعلبك_الهرمل#بشير_خضر pic.twitter.com/K6oGsrBBVK

— Bachir Khodr (@BachirKhodr) October 30, 2024

In a post on his social media, local governor Bachir Khodr urged residents to avoid seeking refuge within the city’s Roman temples. Instead, he advised them to head to one of two destinations: Arsal, a town in the Baalbek province about 30km from the city or to the North Governorate. 

Israel claimed to be targeting fuel depots to halt the movement of weapons and artillery from Iran, but did not provide evidence of this activity. 

US State Department spokesperson Matthew Miller said Israel has a responsibility to protect civilian infrastructure and cultural heritage sites.

People check their damaged houses at the site of an Israeli airstrike in Baalbek, east Lebanon, Monday, Oct. 7, 2024.Hassan Ammar/Copyright 2024 The AP. All rights reserved

In the region's deadliest day in a year, more than 60 people were killed in several towns surrounding Baalbek after multiple, overnight Israeli airstrikes into Tuesday.

The army said they were targeting fuel depots to halt the movement of weapons and artillery from Iran, without providing evidence of such activity. 

خريطة توضيحية للأماكن المستهدفة في #بعلبك#بشير_خضر pic.twitter.com/MdgNMAYEj9

— Bachir Khodr (@BachirKhodr) October 30, 2024

The Lebanese health ministry report more than 2,790 people have been killed and 12,700 wounded in Lebanon since 8 October 2023 – when Hezbollah began firing rockets into Israel. 

The conflict escalated sharply last month when Israeli ground forces invaded southern Lebanon. Around 1.2 million Lebanese people have been displaced by the conflict, according to government estimates.

Ancient Roman Forum Discovered, Confirming 200-Year-Old Prediction

Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of an ancient Roman forum in the ruins of Ocuri, a historic city near Ubrique in southern Spain. The discovery, led by the University of Granada (UG), confirms that the forum served as the bustling center of Roman life in Ocuri, situated strategically on the limestone slopes of Cerro de la Mora with sweeping views of the landscape. While the site dates back as far as the sixth century B.C., most of the remaining structures reflect its vibrant Roman era, especially during its peak in the second century A.D.

First uncovered in the late 18th century by local scholar Juan Vegazo, who suspected the central terrace was the forum, the latest excavations by UG validate his theory. The forum, described by UG archaeologist Macarena Bustamante Álvarez as the “heart” of a Roman city, was a lively hub for commercial, political, and religious activities. Key finds include the bases and shafts of columns and a monumental altar, along with remnants of thermal baths, houses, and funerary monuments.

One major discovery extended Ocuri’s occupation timeline: coins bearing early Christian symbols, which show that Ocuri remained inhabited until the late fourth century, nearly a century longer than previously thought. These findings add a new chapter to our understanding of Roman influence on the Iberian Peninsula.

Lost Maya world discovered in 'race against time' to save ancient ruins from growing threat

The "lure of the unknown" drives research, but explorers are close to discovering all of the lost cities. So what will this mean for archeology?

There’s an urgent race to discover lost cities like Valerina (inset) using satellite imaging before they’re destroyed by logging and fire. Source: Getty/ L. Auld-Thomas et al.

Archeologists are in a “race against time” to discover the world’s lost ancient sites before they are destroyed. Trees that protected ancient cities for hundreds of years are being burned, slashed and bulldozed to make way for industrial agriculture and illegal cattle ranching tied to drug running.

The latest discovery was made by PhD student Luke Auld-Thomas as he was trawling through satellite images taken above Mexico. Speaking with Yahoo News, he recalled the exact moment in 2018 he found the Maya city that had been lost for centuries beneath thick forest.

“The first thing I did was strip all the trees away digitally so I could look at the ground, and as soon as I did that it was completely conspicuous what I was looking at,” he said, revealing a new laser technology called Lidar was used during the process.

Towering large quadrangular buildings were the first sign he'd found a city as they are a hallmark of all Maya culture. But it wasn’t initially clear just how big his discovery was.

The nearby Maya city of Calakmul has been protected by trees. Source: Getty

Named Valerina, the city is thought to have been home to a whopping 30,000 to 50,000 people at its peak — which extended from 750 to 850 AD. Thought to contain 6,500 structures, it was found near the port city of Campeche in the Gulf of Mexico.

“I looked at the images more closely and quickly appreciated that one of the quadrangular enclosures was a palace, another was a pyramid plaza complex. But then as I cast my eye out further I realised there were ball courts, administrative buildings, reservoirs, a whole menu of things all cluttered together.

“I realised this was not just a set of buildings it had all of the features of a Maya political capital.”

The discovery has been published in the journal Antiquity.

Lidar technology was used to rediscover structures, sinkholes and caves beneath the trees. Source: Antiquity (Cambridge University Press)

Forest that has protected ancient ruins disappearing

Technology is rapidly advancing the capabilities of archeologists to locate forgotten ruins in hard-to-reach locations. And Auld-Thomas, a student at Tulane University in the United States, is continuing to search for more lost cities.

“Deforestation is destroying archeological sites at a really brisk click and we’re in a race against time to protect them. As remote sensing technology improves we come to appreciate that it has been the forest that’s protected these ruins for so long by making them hard to access,” Auld-Thomas said.

“There’s a sense of urgency about mapping these areas at scale before the forest is destroyed and more archeological heritage is lost forever. On the one hand, technologies are increasing that quickly allow us to map larger areas. But on the other hand, the area that we can map and hope to map is shrinking as it’s nibbled away at the edges.”

Trees across Mexico are being rapidly felled. Source: Getty

The 'lure of the unknown' is vanishing as the world is mapped

While mapping ancient sites is key to their protection, each discovery also takes humankind closer to an age where every inch of the planet has been explored. Childhood dreams of exploring jungles and stumbling upon an ancient world will be no more.

“There’s a big high of being able to discover these things, there’s a peak of excitement building in my discipline. But eventually, we’re going to run out of things to discover, and that’s coming quite soon,” Auld-Thomas admitted.

He finds the situation both “exciting” and “a little sad” because it’s the “lure of the unknown” that drives research, public interest, and in turn new people into the field.

“Once we’ve lost the lure of the unknown I wonder if there will be a little bit of an emotional funk that settles over archeology.”

The Forma Urbis Romae: The Story of Lost Severan Monumental Marble Map of Rome

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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A City Carved in Stone: Decoding Ancient Cartography Through Rome’s Severan Marble Map and: a Testament to Rome’s Glory"

The Forma Urbis Romae, commonly known as the Severan Marble Plan, stands as one of the most remarkable archaeological artifacts from ancient Rome. Commissioned between 203 and 211 CE under the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, this monumental marble map not only documents the urban layout of the city with immense detail but also captures the grandeur of Rome at its peak. Despite its fragmented survival, the Forma Urbis Romae remains a focal point for scholars and historians, offering a glimpse into the empire’s architectural prowess, urban planning, and historical record-keeping. Through this detailed analysis, we will explore what the Forma Urbis Romae reveals about ancient Rome, the mysteries of its purpose, its journey through history, and its significance today.

The Structure and Design of the Forma Urbis Romae

Originally measuring an astounding 18 meters wide by 13 meters high, the Forma Urbis Romae was carved into 150 marble slabs and mounted on an interior wall of the Temple of Peace, also known as the Templum Pacis. The map was crafted from Proconnesian marble and covered a significant area on the temple’s wall, capturing a detailed ground plan of the imperial city at an approximate scale of 1:240. The creators of the map oriented it with the south at the top, an orientation differing from the north-oriented convention typical in modern maps.

The map was extraordinarily detailed, reflecting the ground plans of Rome’s public and private spaces, including temples, baths, and housing blocks (insulae), along with streets and other communal structures. Even interior details, like colonnades, staircases, and doorways, were incised, with certain features highlighted through symbolic signs or dotted lines. The Forma Urbis Romae revealed the precise architectural layout of each building, and despite some inaccuracies in the carving, the map’s details were an exceptional testament to Roman urban sophistication.

What Does the Forma Urbis Romae Tell Us About Ancient Rome?

The Forma Urbis Romae primarily provides insight into Rome’s architecture and urban organization during the Severan period. By showcasing individual buildings and their internal structures, the map hints at the Romans’ meticulous attention to spatial design and their emphasis on monumental architecture. Notably, prominent public buildings like the Colosseum and the Circus Maximus are clearly depicted, underscoring the role of such spaces in Roman culture.

Moreover, the map highlights the Severan dynasty’s architectural legacy. Archaeologist Susann Lusnia suggests that the Forma Urbis served as a symbolic record of Severus’ building program, which included both restoration projects and new constructions aimed at solidifying his dynasty’s standing. The map’s scale and intricacy might suggest it was intended more as a decorative display than as a functional map. However, its basis in actual land surveys reflects the Romans’ advanced mapping techniques and desire for spatial accuracy in monumental depictions of their empire’s capital.

Purpose and Function of the Forma Urbis Romae

Scholars remain divided on the primary function of the Forma Urbis Romae. Some propose that it served as an official cadastral or locator map within the Temple of Peace, which might have functioned as an archive for the city’s records. However, David Reynolds, a scholar in Roman cartography, argues that the map was likely a decorative showpiece rather than a practical tool. Given its immense size, the map would have been challenging to consult in detail from the floor, especially as many sections were left unlabeled, further questioning its practicality.

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Reynolds suggests that there may have been two versions of the Forma Urbis: one functional, preserved in papyrus form with landownership annotations and other precise details, and the marble version intended for public display. This decorative version would visually demonstrate Rome’s urban landscape while drawing attention to Severus’ accomplishments. By placing it in the Temple of Peace, Severus could project his influence over the city’s physical and symbolic landscape.

The Journey of the Forma Urbis Through the Centuries

Following its creation, the Forma Urbis Romae gradually succumbed to the ravages of time. By the early 5th century, the map suffered significant damage when a passageway was cut through the wall it adorned. The marble slabs were eventually abandoned, with many removed or repurposed for lime production during the late medieval period.

Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Map of ancient Rome and Forma Urbis, from Le antichità Romane, 1835-1839.

Rediscovery of the Forma Urbis fragments began in 1562 when antiquarian sculptor Giovanni Antonio Dosio excavated pieces near the Church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. Over the centuries, further fragments were unearthed, with key pieces identified and matched to notable structures like the Forum of Augustus and the Baths of Agrippa. Despite these efforts, only about 10-15% of the original marble map survives, though this has been sufficient to spark ongoing scholarly fascination and reconstruction projects.

The Forma Urbis Today: A Testament to Roman Legacy

In 2024, the fragments of the Forma Urbis Romae finally received a dedicated exhibition space at the newly opened Museo della Forma Urbis near the Colosseum. This museum, part of the larger Archaeological Park of the Celio, allows visitors to walk over the map fragments displayed under glass flooring, experiencing a physical connection to ancient Rome’s monumental design. The museum also features an 18th-century copy of a historical map, the Nolli Map, superimposed on the ancient fragments, helping visitors contextualize the ancient city layout.

The wall of the Temple of Peace where the Severan marble plan once hung (photo: Wikimedia Commons)

Was the Forma Urbis Romae the Oldest Roman Map?

While the Forma Urbis Romae is among the oldest surviving large-scale maps of Rome, it may not have been the first. There is ongoing debate about whether a similar monumental map existed before Severus’ plan. Evidence from archaeological and literary sources hints at earlier representations of Rome, possibly used for administrative or ceremonial purposes, but no definitive pre-Severan maps have been discovered.

Did the Romans Have Accurate Maps?

The Forma Urbis demonstrates the Romans’ impressive ability to create precise architectural renderings, likely informed by cadastral surveys and advanced land measurement techniques. Roman maps, such as the Peutinger Map, further reveal their capacity to map vast territories and connect regions through detailed road networks. Although not always geographically accurate by modern standards, Roman maps provided essential guidance and visualizations for imperial governance, emphasizing strategic and political aspects of the empire’s expanse.

Conjectural reconstruction of the Forma Urbis Romae

Conclusion

The Forma Urbis Romae endures as a powerful symbol of Rome’s imperial ambition, urban organization, and architectural sophistication. The fragments of this marble map are not just remnants of stone but are pieces of a narrative that link modern viewers to an era when Rome was the heart of a vast empire. Now preserved for public admiration in the Museo della Forma Urbis, the map continues to fascinate and inspire, affirming the ingenuity of ancient Rome’s mapmakers and their lasting contribution to the history of urban cartography.

The Creation of Adam: A Profound Artistic Message in Michelangelo’s Hands

Michelangelo's Genius in Detail

Michelangelo Buonarroti, celebrated as one of the most skilled artists of the Renaissance, created The Creation of Adam to portray the Biblical story of God giving life to Adam, the first man. This fresco is rich with symbolism, reflecting not only on theology but on humanity's relationship with the divine. Among the most analyzed elements of this piece is the nearly-touching hands of God and Adam. In the space between their fingers, Michelangelo captured a profound message that resonates across ages.

The Subtle Gesture: Stretched and Contracted Fingers

In this work, God's hand reaches toward Adam, His finger extended to its maximum capacity. This extended gesture symbolizes divine effort, as if God is fully reaching out to offer His presence and connection. Adam, however, holds his finger in a more relaxed, slightly contracted position. The subtle difference here is profound: God seeks man actively, but man’s connection to God requires an act of free will.

Symbolism in Their Connection

This near-touching gesture has stirred many interpretations, with some suggesting it represents the perpetual closeness yet separation between humans and the divine. It is as though God is always close, always present, but the final act of connection lies in Adam’s—humanity’s—decision to reach back. The space between their fingers symbolizes the free will given to humans: while God’s presence is constant, choosing to seek Him remains an individual journey.

Art as a Reflection of Human Choice

Michelangelo, as a man of the Renaissance, was influenced by the philosophies of humanism. This intellectual movement placed a high value on individual experience, knowledge, and choice. In The Creation of Adam, Michelangelo beautifully encapsulates this humanist idea through art, showing that while divine assistance and presence are offered freely, true connection depends on mankind’s conscious choice to reach for the divine.

Legacy of The Creation of Adam

The power of Michelangelo's work lies in its universality. The image of nearly-touching hands has become an iconic symbol, representing not only divine connection but also human relationships, curiosity, and yearning. It transcends its Biblical origins, inviting viewers from all backgrounds to reflect on their own connection with the greater mysteries of life, the universe, and their personal spiritual journeys.

The Creation of Adam reminds us that art is not merely about aesthetics; it can convey complex theological, philosophical, and existential messages. Michelangelo’s genius lies in his ability to use simple gestures to provoke profound reflections on humanity's place in the world and our relationship with the divine.

Crosby Beach: The Living Legacy of "Blitz Beach"

Crosby Beach in Merseyside might appear, at first glance, to be just another windswept coastline along the northwestern shores of England. But take a closer look, and you’ll notice a haunting history embedded in its sands. Known as “Blitz Beach,” this coastline bears witness to a dramatic chapter of Liverpool's past, carrying remnants from the fierce bombings that ravaged the city during World War II. Debris from Liverpool and Bootle, casualties of the 1941 May Blitz, now rest along this beach, woven into a tapestry of memory and resilience.

Stretching over two miles, the sand here is layered with the debris of lives once lived—doorsteps, lintels, fragments of walls, chimneys, and even intricate carvings like curlicues, fleurs-de-lis, and gargoyles. These artifacts, once part of the cityscape, bear witness to a time when entire neighborhoods were reduced to rubble.

The pieces of ornate architecture, which once adorned homes and buildings, now lie scattered on the beach, telling stories of a bustling, vibrant city that faced brutal bombing raids.

The debris was brought to Crosby Beach 75 years ago, repurposed to help protect the coast from the relentless Mersey storms. Over time, these remnants of destruction were reclaimed by nature, washed, eroded, and softened by the elements. Today, the clay and sediment are returning to the river, slowly integrating into the natural landscape, yet each tide reveals traces of the past, mingling history with nature in an ever-changing display.

Walking along Blitz Beach is more than a simple seaside stroll; it’s a pilgrimage through time. The fragments underfoot serve as reminders of resilience, endurance, and the city's resolve to rebuild and thrive.

The Discovery of the Polyxena Sarcophagus: A Window into Ancient Funerary Practices and Mythology

In 1994, archaeologists made an extraordinary find in the Granicus River valley near Biga, in Turkey’s Çanakkale Province, that illuminated aspects of both ancient funerary practices and Greek mythology. Unearthed as part of a rescue excavation following reports of illegal digs, this site revealed two remarkable marble sarcophagi within a tumulus, or burial mound. This discovery, known today as the Polyxena Sarcophagus, continues to offer historians a rich view into the interaction of art, myth, and society in ancient Anatolia.

The Scene of Polyxena’s Sacrifice

The centerpiece of the find was a sarcophagus dating back to around 500–490 BC, adorned with intricate carvings that depict the mythological sacrifice of Polyxena, the Trojan princess. According to Greek legend, Polyxena was the youngest daughter of King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy. After the fall of Troy, the Greeks, led by Neoptolemus (son of Achilles), demanded that she be sacrificed at Achilles’ tomb as a tribute to the fallen hero. The Greeks believed this would appease his spirit, allowing their safe journey home.

The Polyxena Sarcophagus uniquely portrays this moment with an emotional and artistic intensity rarely seen in contemporary works. In the scene, Polyxena is shown in a moment of vulnerability, surrounded by Greek warriors and priests, with Neoptolemus poised to carry out the ritual. The figures are rendered with precise attention to detail, from the expressions of the mourners to the elegance of Polyxena’s garments. This depiction captures the raw emotional weight of the scene while illustrating a tragic aspect of Trojan culture and the influence of Greek myth on Anatolian funerary art.

The Second Sarcophagus: A Mystery Burial

Adjacent to Polyxena’s sarcophagus was another, simpler marble sarcophagus containing the remains of a 10-year-old girl. Dated around 40 to 50 years later, this tomb raises many questions for archaeologists. The identity of the girl remains unknown, yet the style and location of her burial suggest that she may have been part of an elite family, possibly of Anatolian origin with Greek cultural influences.

The proximity of this burial to Polyxena’s sarcophagus hints at a continued reverence for the site and perhaps even for the mythological story it portrays. Some scholars suggest that the girl’s burial near Polyxena’s tomb may have been intended to honor the deceased or align her memory with Polyxena’s legendary sacrifice, though the exact reason remains speculative. The combination of these burials showcases the blending of local customs with Greek mythological themes, emphasizing the cultural exchange between Anatolia and the Greek world.

Significance of the Polyxena Sarcophagus in Archaeology and Art

The Polyxena Sarcophagus has become a crucial artifact in understanding the interaction between Greek and Anatolian cultures during the Archaic period. In Greek culture, sarcophagi decorated with mythological scenes were common, but finding such elaborate artwork in Anatolia suggests that Greek myths and artistic techniques were well-known and perhaps even revered in this region.

Moreover, the scene on Polyxena’s sarcophagus offers insights into how myths served both religious and societal functions. The sacrifice of Polyxena symbolized themes of loyalty, honor, and tragedy, all of which resonated with audiences across cultural boundaries. By depicting Polyxena’s story, the sarcophagus also became a vessel of cultural identity, reflecting values important to the local elite.

A Glimpse into Archaic Funerary Customs

The use of tumuli and intricately decorated sarcophagi sheds light on the funerary customs of the time. Burials within tumuli were typically reserved for the elite, marking the site as a prestigious resting place. This type of burial was an honor, indicating high status or lineage and hinting at the potential influence of Greek funerary practices on Anatolian rituals. The inclusion of mythological scenes may have served not only to honor the deceased but to reinforce social status and the family’s alignment with revered cultural narratives.

The Polyxena Sarcophagus remains a remarkable artifact that bridges the worlds of myth, art, and archaeology. Its discovery and preservation have enriched our understanding of the cultural connections between ancient Greece and Anatolia, offering a tangible link to the beliefs, artistic expressions, and societal values of the time. As archaeologists continue to study this site, the Polyxena Sarcophagus will undoubtedly continue to inspire new interpretations and insights, providing a lasting legacy of a lost world where myth and reality intersected in the most tangible ways.