Mycenaean Echoes in El-Amarna: Aegean Warriors in the Egyptian Army of 18th Dynasty?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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An Enigmatic Papyrus from El-Amarna: A possible Egyptian representation of Mycenaean warriors

Egypt, the cradle of ancient civilizations, has provided a constant stream of archaeological riches that never fail to bewilder us. The city of El-Amarna, the short-lived capital established by the heretic Pharaoh Akhenaten, is a prime source of these treasures. The latest discovery is a rare papyrus that has captured the attention of scholars worldwide. The papyrus could possibly represent Mycenaean warriors, providing an intriguing new perspective on Bronze Age Mediterranean connections.

An Unusual Discovery

Unearthed during a recent dig at El-Amarna, the papyrus was found to be remarkably well preserved, thanks to Egypt's dry climate. The intricate hieroglyphics and vivid colors attest to the craftsmanship and sophistication of Egyptian scribes during the Amarna period (1353–1336 BC). Yet the true fascination lies not in the artistry but in the content: the papyrus depicts warriors bearing an uncanny resemblance to those from the Mycenaean civilization.

Those papyrus fragments, dated to the second half of the 14th century BC and currently being exposed in the British Museum, depict battle scenes between Egyptian and Libyan soldiers. In one of those fragments, we can see warriors bearing the typical Mycenaean Boar-tusk helmet and Egyptian or Aegean-style short-cropped oxhide tunics running on the battle front.

These can be paralleled in representations from the Aegean, suggesting that the painting may show figures wearing boar's tusk helmets and Mycenaean-style tunics. This interpretation of the battle scene argues that the Egyptian iconographic repertoire also included depictions of Mycenean features and adds to the evidence for direct, rather than indirect, contacts between the two cultures.

Fragments of two scenes of the painted papyrus, without text. One shows a fallen Egyptian overcome by a Libyan, while other Libyan archers rush on. The second shows registers of Egyptian infantrymen, some wearing helmets and/or short ox-hide tunics. Other unplaced fragments show parts of further infantrymen, and a tree. The scene includes other indications of landscape. The British Museum.

A Mycenaean Connection?

The Mycenaean civilization, centered in the Peloponnese of modern-day Greece, thrived during the Late Bronze Age (1600–1100 BC). Their warrior-centric society, chariot warfare, and iconic "boar’s tusk" helmets were immortalized by Homer's epic poems.

In the papyrus from El-Amarna, the warriors are illustrated with short, wavy hair, round shields, long spears, and distinctive helmets. The physical attributes and weaponry closely resemble Mycenaean depictions, particularly those found in frescoes from Pylos and Mycenae. Intriguingly, the possible representation of "boar's tusk" helmets, a Mycenaean hallmark, raises questions about the nature of the interaction between the two civilizations.

Cultural Interactions in the Bronze Age

During the Bronze Age, civilizations around the Mediterranean Sea, including the Egyptian and Mycenaean, established complex networks of interaction. This era saw significant trading, diplomatic exchanges, and, inevitably, warfare. Excavations have found Mycenaean pottery in Egypt and vice versa, proving the existence of trade relations.

Moreover, the Amarna Letters—a cache of clay tablets from the 14th century BC—provide evidence of diplomatic correspondence between Egypt and states in the Aegean, possibly including the Mycenaeans. But depictions of Mycenaean individuals in Egyptian artifacts are rare, making this papyrus potentially ground-breaking.

Illustration of a Mycenaean Greek warrior with the distinctive boar-tusk helmet at the fall of Troy

Implications of the Papyrus

If the interpretation of the papyrus holds true, it could signify that the Mycenaeans had a more substantial presence or influence in Egypt than previously thought. The warriors could represent mercenaries, allies, enemies, or simply a demonstration of cultural knowledge. The pictorial representation suggests a more direct interaction, implying that the Mycenaeans were not just abstract entities in Egyptian perception but had a tangible presence.

This discovery could be a step towards recognizing a previously unknown degree of interconnectedness between the Bronze Age civilizations of Egypt and Mycenae. As scholars continue to investigate, this enigmatic papyrus will serve as a tantalizing puzzle piece in the vibrant mosaic of Bronze Age history.

The Mycenaean boar-tusk helmet

The distinctive Boar-tusk helmet of the Mycenaean warrior elite could be a strong evidence of the presence of those fearsome Aegean warriors in the plains of Egypt, supported also by the large quantities of Mycenaean pottery that have been also found in El-Amarna, in the same period. Both evidence suggest some degree of cultural contact between the Mycenaeans and the Egyptians of the Late 18th Dynasty.

Mycenaean helmet with wild boar teeth

The so-called ‘odontophracto’ helmet is considered a Mycenaean invention and was a basic part of the armor, at least until the 13th century.

According to the Homeric description, the helmet consists of the "kynei", a dog's skin leather cap with a wool lining, which is protected by superimposed rows of specially worked boar's teeth.

Mycenaeans seem not to have been included amongst the Egyptians' repertoire of depictions of foreigners, although Minoans clearly identified on many Egyptian frescoes, such as those on many tombs and temples (tombs of Anen, Rekhmire, Puimre, Senenmut, Menkheperrasoneb, Abydos Temple of Rameses II).

We also know about the close involvement of Minoan Crete in international relations and cultural exchanges with the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt either through marriage, art, technology or exchange of gifts (Minoan frescoes at Tell El-Dab'a).

Distant theaters of royal action in the Bronze Age: The international policy of the pharaohs and the ‘Aegean List’

The usage of professional warriors from the Bronze Age (some of them of Hellenic origin) can be safely assumed as the complete retails of the organization and structure of the period armies are not quite clear to us. The employment of mercenaries cannot be excluded in the early Bronze Age but it becomes certain in the later stages. It is also known that earlier Aegean armies and navies, such as the Minoans, used mercenaries from Africa.

We do know that after the Egyptian Pharaoh Rameses II (r. 1279–1213 BC, about one century after the El-Amarna papyrus) defeated the Sherden sea pirates at the beginning of his reign, he hired many of them to serve as his bodyguard. It has been suggested that some of them were from Ionia. In the reign (1213–1203 BC) of his successor Merneptah, Egypt was attacked by their Libyan neighbors, and some experts believe that the Libyan army included mercenaries from Europe’s mainland. Among them were people termed ‘Ekwash, and it has been proposed that this meant Achaeans (Mycenaeans), but there is no certainty of that as other evidence points to an attempted encroachment by Libyans only upon neighboring territory.

The fresco ‘Captain of the Blacks’ at Knossos, thought to represent a Minoan officer with two spears, leading a troop of Nubian mercenaries, Heraklion Archaeological Museum, Crete, Greece.

Another important indication of the developed relations between Egypt and the Aegean is the famous "Aegean List" of Pharaoh Amenhotep III, an inscription of toponyms found at the base of a statue in the northern half of the West Portico of the great Peristyle Court in Kom el-Hettân, which seems to refer to areas and nations of the Aegean that were probably visited by an Egyptian merchant or diplomatic mission.

Each statue base bears a different series of toponyms written within “fortified” or “crenellated” ovals and superimposed on bound captives—a standard Egyptian way of denoting foreign places. Together, they represent roughly half of the known outside world.

The order in which the toponyms are to be read is crucial. In the center of the front side, two bound prisoners support Amenhotep III’s prenomen and nomen. The two place names to the right should be read first, since they face the same direction as these cartouches; they are kftiw, i.e., Keftiu, identified as Crete, and tny (ti-nA-y-w), i.e., Tanaja (Danaia, the Danaoi-Land, meaning the land of Danaans, the homeric Achaeans), identified as mainland Greece. Both are known from other Egyptian sources from the time of Thutmose III onward, and their identification is accepted by most scholars.

The Aegean List’s other toponyms are unique; not one of them appears in any other Egyptian source, either before or after Amenhotep III’s reign. All scholars agree that these names denote sites and regions in the Bronze Age Aegean, but their identification is sometimes challenging. Some of them are translated as Amnisos, Phaistos, Knossos, Lyktos, Kydonia, Mycenae, Pisaia, Kythera, Methara, or Messana(?), Thebes, Tegea, or Dikte(? ), and Eleia, or Ilios (Troy)(?).

The Aegean List remains of critical importance as a clear indication that the Egyptians had substantial knowledge of specific Minoan and Mycenaean sites during Amenhotep III’s reign.

The extroverted and aggressive Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt

The Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt is classified as the first dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt, the era in which ancient Egypt achieved the peak of its power. The Eighteenth Dynasty spanned the period from 1550/1549 to 1292 BC. This dynasty is also known as the Thutmosid Dynasty after the four pharaohs named Thutmose.

The Eighteenth Dynasty empire conquered all of Lower Nubia under Thutmose I. By the reign of Thutmose III, the Egyptians had directly controlled Nubia up to the Nile River, the 4th cataract, With Egyptian influence and tributaries extending beyond this point. The Egyptians referred to the area as Kush, and it was administered by the Viceroy of Kush. The 18th dynasty obtained Nubian gold, animal skins, ivory, ebony, cattle, and horses, which were of exceptional quality. The Egyptians built temples throughout Nubia.

After the end of the Hyksos period of foreign rule, the Eighteenth Dynasty engaged in a vigorous phase of expansionism, conquering vast areas of the Near East, with Pharaoh Thutmose III submitting the "Shasu" Bedouins of northern Canaan and the land of Retjenu, as far as Syria and Mittani, in numerous military campaigns circa 1450 BC.

The El-Amarna papyrus presents a captivating glimpse into the cross-cultural encounters of the ancient world. As the world waits for more comprehensive analyses and potential verification of the Mycenaean representation, the papyrus holds its secrets close, reminding us that history often reveals itself in fragments and whispers rather than in complete narratives or loud declarations. Its tantalizing hints of an interlinked Mediterranean world make the papyrus an invaluable addition to our understanding of the vast tapestry of human history.

The Spectacular Shipwrecks of the island Sapienza in Greece

The islets located to the south and west of the coast of Messinia in Greece are not well known to the public, but they hide their own surprises, with Sapienza being the most typical example among them.

Sapienza belongs to the so-called Messinian Oinousses and is located off the southwest coast of Messinia, directly opposite Methoni, near the deepest point of the Mediterranean. No one lives there anymore.

The heart-shaped islet near the lighthouse of Sapienza

Sapienza is located on a maritime route which, since ancient times, was of great commercial and strategic interest, as it connected Italy with the Middle East. At the same time, however, it was also a difficult area, full of strong sea currents, strong winds and difficult rocks. As a result, several shipwrecks occurred on the coasts and off the island, some of which are considered important from an archaeological point of view.

The exceptional findings found in them make the Methoni marine area one of the most important underwater archaeological sites.

 

The latest sea surveys in the bay of Methoni and the island of Sapienza in Messinia have brought to light unknown wrecks that have been lying on the seabed for hundreds of years, while both known wrecks on the northern shores of the island of Sapienza have been mapped in detail for the first time.

Geoarchaeological investigations were also carried out in the submerged settlement of the Middle Bronze Age that has been identified in the bay of Methoni.

The identified shipwrecks belong to the most recent times and one to the era of the Turkish occupation.

The scanner even showed "metallic targets", probably cannons. The findings will be examined in detail in the future.

The two shipwrecks (along with a third, older one) were found on top of the Bronze Age settlement, part of which is buried under the bottom sand and is ultimately larger than archaeologists had previously thought.

Shipwreck of Sarcophagi

On the neighboring islet of Sapienza, on its northern shores, the two known shipwrecks of Roman times were captured in detail for the first time.

The first is known as the Shipwreck of Sarcophagi because it carried stone sarcophagi. The shipwreck is lying at a depth of 15 m. ts cargo contains a number of stone sarcophagi including their covers. The sarcophagi are intact except for one, which probably ruined when the ship sunk. The sarcophagi measures 2.20 x 0.80 m.
The sarcophagi bear reliefs; their decoration is simple containing floral motifs, boukranion etc. The covers are curved with simple, shaped decoration at the edges. The shipwreck is dated to the 3rd century AD.

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Shipwreck of columns

The second is called Shipwreck of Columns because there were some columns made of red granite.

Around 1920, local fishermen located archaeological finds lying on the seabed close to the northern cape of Sapienza (Cape Karsi), opposite the village of Methoni.

In 1925, the lawyer and historian Dionisios Potaris (1860–1922), following fishermen's indications, located and recorded the ‘marbles’, in a distance of 50–60 m from the northern shore of Sapienza and in a depth of 6-7 m. He correctly assumed that the pile of marbles was actually a shipwreck transferring antiquities.

The ‘shipwreck of columns’ lies at a depth of 10 m, close to Cape Spitha. The columns are scattered over an area of 30 m2 and are 10 m away from the edge of the Cape. Parts of the columns are aligned and situated at the seabed, while other parts are scattered in a wider area around them.
34 fragmented, plain, single stone columns were located. Only one of them is intact, with a height of 8 m and diameter of 0.90 m. 28 parts of the columns are concentrated, and the remaining 6 are situated at a distance of 60 m from the rest.

The columns are made of reddish granite, similar to the columns positioned in the Fortress of Methoni. The admiral Francesco Bebo positioned this column in 1493/4 in memory of the recovery of the Fortress by the Venetians. Therefore, it is assumed that the ship sank earlier. This particular type of granite exists only in Egypt and in particular areas of Greece (Xanthi, Kavala, and Mykonos Island).

Studies of the column fragments showed that the columns were part of a building containing 16 columns that was demolished or collapsed.
The ship had these columns as part of its cargo. The fragments of the columns are broken irregularly, and they cannot be connected between them. Some of the columns are circular on top, as they were used for tying up the ships close to the ‘mole’.

The results of the geophysical survey are expected to provide important information on the wider location of their sinking.

In fact, in this particular area, it is planned to become an underwater archaeological park in the future.

The Spectacular Lycian Rock-Hewn Tombs: A Testament to Unique Architecture

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Nestled along the picturesque Turquoise Coast of southwest Anatolia (what is modern-day Turkey) and eastern Greek islands, the ancient Lycian civilization has left a breathtaking legacy carved into the very face of the landscape. The Lycian rock-hewn tombs, dating back to the 4th century BC, are a testament to the exceptional artistry and engineering prowess of this once-thriving society. These tombs, adorned with intricate facades and boasting extraordinary architectural designs, offer a glimpse into the rich history and culture of the Lycians, who considered their final resting place as important as their lives.

The Lycian Civilization

The Lycians were a unique civilization that inhabited the region now known as the Teke Peninsula in southwestern Turkey. They were an independent and proud people, with their own language and writing system, known as Lycian script. The Lycians were a seafaring people, known for their fierce resistance against invaders and their well-developed democratic system. They existed from around 2000 BC until they were eventually assimilated by the Greeks and the Romans.

The region's rugged terrain, with its numerous bays and natural harbors, provided natural defenses against invaders and enabled the Lycians to maintain their independence for centuries. The Lycian language belonged to the Luwian subgroup of the Anatolian language family. It is primarily known through inscriptions found on various monuments and artifacts. The Lycians used their own unique script, derived from the Luwian hieroglyphic script, which was later adapted into a more simplified alphabetic system.

Around 200 BC, the Lycian language vanished and was replaced by ancient Greek. Although the Lycian language became extinct, many of its inscriptions have been deciphered, offering valuable insights into Lycian society and culture.

The Lycians were known for their well-developed democratic system, which was organized into a federation of city-states referred to as the Lycian League. Each member city had its own local government and was represented in a central assembly, which made decisions on matters of common interest, such as defense and foreign policy. This political structure allowed the Lycians to maintain a certain level of autonomy and resist external threats, despite their relatively small size.

Lycian religion was polytheistic, sharing many gods and goddesses with neighboring civilizations such as the Hittites and Greeks. Some of the primary deities worshiped by the Lycians included Leto, Apollo, and Artemis, who were revered as protective and benevolent figures. The Lycians also had their own indigenous gods, such as the mountain god Sandas and the goddess Kubaba. Religious practices included temple worship, animal sacrifices, and elaborate burial rituals, as evidenced by the numerous rock-hewn tombs found in the region.

Lycian art and architecture were heavily influenced by neighboring cultures, such as the Greeks and Persians, while still maintaining a distinct Lycian style. The most iconic remnants of Lycian architecture are the rock-hewn tombs, which showcase a variety of styles, including house-style, temple-style, sarcophagus, and pillar tombs. Other notable examples of Lycian architecture include the ancient cities of Xanthos, Myra, and Patara, which feature well-preserved ruins, including temples, theaters, and city walls.

Lycian tombs differ from Hellenistic tradition in that they frequently blend in with cities, demonstrating Lycia's ties to eastern traditions, whereas in Hellenistic culture, the dead were buried outside of livable areas (often flanking main roads into the cities).

Lycian Rock-Hewn Tombs: A Unique Architectural Marvel

The Lycian rock-hewn tombs are carved directly into the sheer cliff faces and rock formations of the region, combining the natural beauty of the landscape with human artistry. These tombs come in various styles, reflecting the architectural diversity of the Lycian civilization.

• House-style tombs: These tombs resemble traditional Lycian houses, with a rectangular shape and a pitched roof. They often feature intricately carved friezes and ornamental details, such as geometric patterns, animals, and mythological scenes.

• Temple-style tombs: Inspired by ancient Greek temple architecture, these tombs have a distinct pediment, columns, and a porch-like structure. The best example of this style is the Amyntas Rock Tomb in Fethiye, which offers a stunning view of the city and the surrounding bay, the Royal Tomb at Pinara and the Painted Tomb at Myra. This temple-style tomb is not exclusive to Lycia and can be found in Caunos (some impressive examples can be found in the town of Dalyan) and other regions of Anatolia.

• Sarcophagus tombs: These tombs are characterized by a free-standing sarcophagus, often elevated on a pedestal or platform. The sarcophagus itself is elaborately decorated with reliefs and inscriptions, while the tomb's roof imitates the curved shape of a traditional Lycian wooden coffin.

• Pillar tombs: Unique to Lycian architecture, these tombs consist of a tall, slender pillar with a sarcophagus placed on top. The most famous example is the Harpy Tomb in Xanthos, where the sarcophagus is adorned with relief carvings of mythical creatures called Harpies.

The Purpose and Symbolism of the Tombs

The Lycians believed that their deceased ancestors played a crucial role in their lives and their connection to the afterlife. The rock-hewn tombs were designed to honor and protect the souls of the deceased, allowing them to maintain their status and wealth in the afterlife. The elaborate and monumental nature of these tombs is a reflection of the importance of the individual buried within and their role within Lycian society.

Their honored dead were buried in geographically high places like cliffsides to give them a "higher" location and make them closer to "heaven," as they also believed that their dead were carried to the afterlife by magical winged creatures that resembled sirens.

All Anatolian cultures created impressive monuments for their dead that were connected to ancestor worship. The soft limestone in the area is likely what helped the Lycians perfect this form of art. The Lycian people's stonemasonry is of note, and it plays a particularly important role in the creation of tombs.

Their fascinating funerary monuments can still be seen all over the landscape of Lycia today. The most recent count found 1,085 examples that are still in tact, with rock-cut tombs being the most prevalent type. The quantity and caliber of the tombs in Lycia are legendary.

Lycia is not the only place in the Mediterranean where rock-cut tombs have been discovered; others include the Palestinian and Nabatean region, Cyrenaica, eastern Anatolian Urartu, the Kurdish border region between Iran and Iraq, the area around Persepolis in Iran, Hegra in Saudi Arabia, and Beni Hassan in Egypt. These locations all have one thing in common: their geographic location, as this type of tomb is typically found in areas with steep cliffs and deep ravines.

Preservation and Tourism

Today, the Lycian rock-hewn tombs are a significant tourist attraction along the Turquoise Coast, drawing visitors from around the world to marvel at their unique architecture and immerse themselves in the ancient history of the region. The Greek and Turkish governments, as well as international organizations, have taken measures to preserve these invaluable historical sites, ensuring that they will continue to captivate and inspire future generations.

The Lycian rock-hewn tombs represent a mesmerizing fusion of artistic expression, architectural innovation, and cultural beliefs. As these ancient marvels continue to captivate and inspire generations of visitors, they stand as a timeless tribute to the extraordinary legacy of the Lycian civilization and the enduring power of human creativity.

On the Way to a New Museum of Underwater Antiquities in Piraeus, Greece

The Ministry of Culture and Sports announced that the Museum Council unanimously approved the architectural, static, electromechanical and museography preliminary studies and the modification of the building programme of the Museum of Underwater Antiquities on the Ietionian Coast of Piraeus. Thus the industrial Silo building on the site of the Piraeus Port Authorities (PPA) will be transformed into an innovative Museum of Underwater Antiquities highlighting the treasures of the Greek seas and becoming an emblematic cultural landmark in the country’s largest port.

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After the Council’s approval, Minister of Culture and Sports Lina Mendoni made the following statement: “A vision of decades is about to be realized, thanks to our cooperation with the PPA, the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation which financed the preliminary studies – and the project’s financing through the Recovery Fund. The unique wealth of the Greek seas acquires an ideal home in the old Silo building , which has been associated with Piraeus’ history since the mid-1930s. It is the most suitable place to house the numerous and already conserved underwater finds, which have remained for years in the Ephorate of Antiquities’ warehouses. The main purpose of creating the Museum of Underwater Antiquities is to highlight our country’s connections with the sea and the long history of Greek culture through the underwater findings. There are only a handful of museums in the world that exhibit exclusively marine antiquities. It is obvious that the Museum will be able to introduce Piraeus as one of the international cultural destinations”.

An ancient greek trireme Source: Tsolakis Architects

The Museum of Underwater Antiquities will house finds salvaged from all the Greek seas: Statues, parts of sculptures, hulls and ship components, rigging equipment, inscriptions, toiletries, utensils and table ceramics, tools and a variety of artefacts from underwater surveys, research and excavations, as well as items handed over by individuals or confiscated.

Experience of a Byzantine ship. Source: Tsolakis Architects

The Museum of Underwater Antiquities will offer visitors the experience of diving into the past, with stops in various periods of time, sunken settlements, shipwrecks, ship models, hulls and cargoes of merchant ships, maps and diagrams, digital applications and projections, with a special emphasis on educational activities and projects.

Sea Bottom and Shipwrecks. Source: Tsolakis Architects

With the planned new extension, the Museum facilities will exceed 13,000 sq.m. It will include  exhibition spaces for permanent and temporary exhibitions, spaces for educational programmes and scientific activities (amphitheatre, library, multimedia room), conservation workshops and service areas for visitors (reception hall, cloakroom, museum shop, cafeteria, restaurant, infirmary, administration offices).

By Archaeology wiki

Is the Phaistos Disc Fake? A Comparison With The Etruscan Disc of Magliano

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by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier discovered the Phaistos Disc in 1908. Since then, the disc has sparked scholarly discussions. Jerome Eisenberg, an art historian, is among those who think the disc is a fake. Shocking artifact or contemporary forgery?

The mysteries of the ancient world have long sparked the curiosity of historians and archaeologists, but alongside the quest for understanding lies the risk of deception. Among these potentially confounding pieces are the Phaistos Disc and the Disc of Magliano, both of which have stirred significant debate about their authenticity. Some, like Jerome M. Eisenberg, Ph.D., assert that these artifacts may not be as ancient as we believe. This article delves into the intriguing world of these enigmatic discs and the ongoing debates about their authenticity.

The Phaistos Disc: A Cretan Mystery

Phaistos Disc in now on display in the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, Crete. Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Unearthed in 1908 in the Minoan palace of Phaistos, located on the Greek island of Crete, the Phaistos Disc is an artifact that has mystified experts for over a century. It's a round clay disc about 15 centimeters in diameter, covered on both sides with a spiral of strange, stamped symbols. The symbols, 241 in total, represent 45 distinct signs, with everything from human figures and animals to abstract symbols, none of which match any known written language.

The disc is believed to date back to the second millennium BC, around 1700–1600 BC, during the middle or late Minoan Bronze Age. However, this dating has been a matter of speculation as it was inferred from the archaeological context rather than from the disc itself.

Controversially, Jerome M. Eisenberg, an expert in the detection of forgeries in ancient art, has suggested that the Phaistos Disc is a modern creation. He proposed that the disc was created by its finder, Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier. According to Eisenberg, Pernier might have been motivated by a desire for fame, or the rivalry between Italian and French archaeologists to discover significant Minoan artifacts.

The Disc of Magliano: An Etruscan Enigma

The Disc of Magliano, on the other hand, was discovered in Magliano, Tuscany, in 1882. It is a bronze artifact, around 10 cm in diameter, bearing inscriptions in Etruscan language arranged in two concentric spirals. The artifact, dated back to the late 6th or early 5th century BC, represents one of the longest known Etruscan inscriptions.

Unlike the Phaistos Disc, the language on the Disc of Magliano is known, but the text remains enigmatic due to the lack of an extensive understanding of Etruscan grammar and vocabulary. The authenticity of the Magliano disc is generally accepted, providing a fascinating contrast to the controversies surrounding the Phaistos disc.

Inscriptions are displayed in a spiral pattern toward the disc's center. It is one of the longest surviving manuscripts in the Etruscan language because it has over 70 words. According to one interpretation of the writing, it is the guidelines for presenting sacrifices to the deities Tnia, Maris, Calu, and Canthas.

The shape of the object is reminiscent of the famous Phaistos disk.

Comparisons and Controversies

Despite some similarities in form, the Phaistos disc and the disc of Magliano are fundamentally different. They were discovered in different regions, made of different materials, inscribed in different languages, and are from different periods. However, the enigmatic nature of both artifacts has made them subjects of fascination and controversy.

A significant reason why some argue that the Phaistos Disc is a forgery while the Magliano Disc is not lies in the circumstances of their discoveries. The Phaistos Disc was discovered during an official excavation by a known archaeologist, Luigi Pernier, who, according to Eisenberg, had the motive and opportunity to forge such an artifact. The Magliano Disc, meanwhile, was found by a farmer, and its inscriptions are in a known language, lending it more credibility.

Modern forgery or sensational artifact?

Jerome M. Eisenberg declares that the Phaistos disc is created by its “finder” Louis Pernier!

Archaeologists largely agree that the Phaistos Disc is genuine. The excavation records kept by Luigi Pernier are the foundation for the assumption of legitimacy. The later discovery of the Arkalochori Axe, which had glyphs that were similar but not identical, lends credence to this notion.

Two academics have suggested that the disc could be a 1908 fabrication or hoax. The Times said that thermoluminescence dating has never been used to determine the date of manufacturing. Robinson says that in his 2008 analysis, he does not support the forgery accusations but instead claims, "It is essential to perform a thermoluminescence test on the Phaistos Disc. It will either prove that new discoveries are worthwhile to look for or it will discourage academics from wasting their time."

The Mavro Spilio ring, a gold signet ring from Knossos discovered in 1926, has a linear A inscription that was created in a spiral-delimited field, much like the Phaistos Disc. The sole known counterpart to sign 21 (the "comb") of the Phaistos disc can be seen on a sealing discovered in 1955. This is taken into account as proof that the Phaistos Disc is an authentic Minoan artifact.

According to Jerome M. Eisenberg, Ph.D., who studies the issue of counterfeiting in ancient art, the disc was made by its discoverer, Louis Pernier!

Yet, why would Pernier pull off such a prank? Federico Halbherr, an Italian archaeologist who worked with him, conducted excavations in Gortyna in 1884. The earliest European Law Code, "The Big Inscription," was discovered by Halbherr on the city walls. He also discovered numerous other artifacts with ancient Greek writing from the early 5th century BC. This discovery made Halbherr very well known.

SIR ARTHUR EVANS

Painted by William Blake Richmond (1842–1921)

Along with other archaeologists from Italy, Pernier was conducting excavations on the Messara plain. He was employed by Phaistos at the start of the 20th century, in the year 1900. This was at the same time that Arthur Evans began excavating at Knossos, where he soon found a large number of clay tablets containing Linear A and B inscriptions. There were high hopes that Pernier would come to a similar conclusion. It is highly likely that he had not discovered any inscribed material by 1908.

Luigi Pernier

What could he possibly do to gain sufficient fame and glory to compete with Evans and Halbherr?

What could he possibly do to become famous and successful enough to rival Evans and Halbherr? What might he possibly find? The fabrication of the Phaistos Disc, a relic with unintelligible pictographic writing, was his quick solution. Italian archaeologist Pernier He must have been well acquainted with the Magliano Disc throughout his studies in Italy, as it was the most frequently discussed scientific topic in the 1890s. The disc discovered by Italian archaeologists in the late 1880s resembles the Phaistos Disc in many ways. With the writing spiraling inward in Etruscan, the entire design is virtually round. At the time, the Etruscan language was still untranslated. Only two discs of this "model" have ever been discovered in the entire world: the Phaistos and the Magliano!

Why not test the Phaistos disc?

It's a fair question to ask why, with all the controversies surrounding the Phaistos Disc, no definitive tests have been conducted to confirm its age. To begin with, thermoluminescence dating, a common method for dating ancient ceramic objects, could potentially provide an answer.

However, this method is not without complications. Firstly, it involves heating a small sample of the material, which could cause irreversible damage to such a unique artifact. Secondly, thermoluminescence dating has its limits; it can indicate whether an object was fired in antiquity or recently, but it can't pinpoint a specific century within the ancient period. Therefore, even if the test confirms the disc was fired in antiquity, it would not settle the debate about whether it belongs to the Minoan period.

Furthermore, since the disc was allegedly found in a pit along with other artifacts (pottery, clay sealings, etc.), even proving that it was created in antiquity wouldn't necessarily prove it was ’t a forgery. An unscrupulous forger could have inserted a newly-created disc into an ancient archaeological context, thereby making it seem as if the disc and the other objects in the pit were all from the same period.

Why not dispel rumors that the famous Phaistos disc is a fake by finding out how old it is? The guardian of the disc, the Herakleion Archaeological Museum in Crete, won't permit it. This is the brief response to this query. Because of its singularity, it is regarded as immovable.

It is true that thermoluminescent batting would result in the least amount of harm to the disc since it only calls for drilling a small hole or two on the edge that could afterwards be filled in to make it nearly undetectable.

The story of the Phaistos Disc and the Disc of Magliano illustrates the challenges faced by historians and archaeologists when it comes to establishing the authenticity of ancient artifacts. The former, embroiled in a century-long controversy, represents the complications of authenticating an artifact when its discovery circumstances and characteristics arouse suspicion. In contrast, the latter, accepted as a genuine artifact, still poses linguistic riddles for the scientific community.

Both discs, whether authentic or not, contribute to our understanding of the past and how we approach the study of history. The controversies surrounding them underscore the necessity of rigorous scientific investigation in archaeology and highlight the delicate interplay between fact, interpretation, and sometimes, deception, in our quest to unravel the secrets of the past.

Newly Discovered Linear B Tablet Bears a Striking Similarity with First Lines of Homer's Iliad!

A newly discovered Linear B tablet from the Peloponnesian site of Hagios Vasileios (Sparti) constitutes the “smoking-gun” of the fact that Homeric poetry was also written in the second millennium BC!

We are pleased to share with you a very special document from a forthcoming paper, which is entitled “Homer in the Bronze Age? New evidence from Mycenaean Greece” and which will soon appear in ICHΤΗYS 4/1 (2022).

A newly discovered Linear B tablet from the Peloponnesian site of Hagios Vasileios (Sparti) constitutes the “smoking-gun” of the fact that Homeric poetry was known (and written!) in the second millennium BC! Here we provide the (admittedly provisional) transliteration, approximate phonetic rendering, and translation of this invaluable document.

You will certainly appreciate the striking similarity with ll. 1-5 of Iliad 1 (though N.B. the absence of what we know as l. 4; cf. infra).

The hexametric structure is ‘regular’ even in the total absence of the augment (e.g. ἄλγεhα θῆκε for the ἄλγε’ ἔθηκε of ‘our’ Homer) and even in the somewhat unexpected colon in the third hexameter after the hepthemimeral caesura – the allative in -de used in the same metrical slot as the προ- in the alphabetic Greek version. One should also note the different syntax in l. 1, which shows that the patronymic adjective Πηληιάδης is a first-millennium innovation. The metre holds in l. 1 as long that we elide the final vowel of huioio.

akhilewos: this form disproves once and for all one of the traditional etymologies of the hero’s name, by which the second part of the compound is equivalent to λᾱός. We now have an almost full paradigm for this name, as this form should be added to the nom.sg. a-ki-re-u (KN Vc 106) and the dat.sg. a-ki-re-we (PY Fn 79.2).

akhiwōis: this seems to suggest that the adj. Ἀχαιός is a later formation; on the other hand, this must have been the model for the denomination Ahhiyawa-, which we find in several Hittite texts.

oiōnoihikwe: this is the expected form. What is surprising is the difference with the first-millennium version of Homer. The text frustratingly ends on l. 7, but the final sign DA seems clear. This would confirm the Zenodotean lectio δαῖτα, which is now almost universally confined to the apparatus critici. However, a problem arises, because a verb would then be needed. This could easily be found in the next part of the text. It must also be said that the Linear B signs DA and PA are not too different, so one cannot exclude the hypothesis of a scribal mistake. Or were different versions already circulating in the Late Bronze Age Peloponnese?

A special document that has the potential to open a new phase in Homeric and Mycenaean studies!

A Brilliant April Fools’ Day conception by Michele Bianconi :)

On-Site Museum of Naxos Mitropolis: The first museum of this particular type in Greece

The Site Museum of Naxos Mitropolis was created in 1999 and it is the first museum of this particular type in Greece and internationally one of the few museum institutions where visitors have the opportunity to admire the antiquities in situ, at the exact location where they were unearthed during the excavations. A Mycenaean workshop of vessels, a tomb dating back to the Geometric period, and residences of the 2nd century AD. have been found on the site.

The first inhabitants of Naxos considered being Thracians that dominated two hundred years in the island. Later, came the Kares. They came from Asia Minor having as their leader Naxos who gave his name to the island.

Archeological finds we have from the end of the 4th millennium B.C. The 3rd millennium B.C., Naxos presents a big population to the west of the island. At Panormos were found earnests of their civilization. In the town of Naxos was found a developed built-up-area with square houses and tiled roofs.

More finds there are in relation to the cemeteries of the region. Many graves are masterpieces of art and date back to the 3rd millennium B.C.

There were found also earthen and marble vessels and marble statuettes of the prehistoric era.

After the end of the Cycladic civilization flourishes to the same place the marble material. Afterwards, about the 2nd millennium B.C. when it is developed the Mycenaean civilization, falls the Cycladic. When in 1400 B.C. Crete retires, Naxos helps to the spreading of the Mycenaean civilization to the East.

From the Mycenaean city of the last centuries of the second century BC. millennium, part of the brick wall has been preserved on its stone wall platform. Through the wall, areas of pottery workshops were discovered: benches on which were still leaning uncooked vessels, basins for painting the latter with kaolin, an oven for baking, near which was found one of the largest known Mycenaean craters.

It is one of the few and best preserved laboratory area of the Late Bronze Age in the Aegean. The constructions and findings provided a lot of information about the craft infrastructure of the settlement and the extensive network of contacts of Naxos with mainland Greece, Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean during the 12th and 11th centuries BC. The revelation of the ceramic workshop makes Naxos the only center for many luxury vessels of 12th century.

Naxos' population is transferred to the northwest in the main Greece. So, it is created the town of Grotta about at 1000 B.C.

The 7th century B.C., it was created a society with rich people who lived, up on the hill where today is the Castle of Chora. The people had been living from agriculture, cattle, fishery and commerce. At 734 B.C. gives its fleet to Chalkida for sending settlers to the West and in return gives its name to one from the new towns. So, it arises Naxos, in Sicily. Many battles took place against the island around and particularly, against Paros. At one of them, it was killed the great poet of Paros, Arhilohos.

The worship in the religious centre of Delos affected Naxos. The old buildings and the most important offerings in Delos, come from Naxos. The municipality of Naxos dedicates valuable monuments to Apollo of Delos, as the Sphinx. The marble is a plentiful material in Naxos and it is extracted in Delos for the large labours. For the final smoothing of these labours it is used the emery, principal product of Naxos.

In Naxos we find male and feminine nude statues as: Artemis of the National museum (about 650 B.C.), the marble Apollo in Delos, the huge lions in Delos as also the two Kouros in Melanes and Dionysus in Apolonas with length of 10 metres. The most important building in the sacred island is the house of the Naxos' people.

The Mycenaean Word 'DAMOS': Its Importance and its Connection with the Classic Greek 'Demos' (municipality)

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Mycenaean Linear B script, the earliest form of Greek that we have any record of, is a truly fascinating artifact from antiquity. Developed around 1450 BCE in the Late Bronze Age Mycenaean civilization, Linear B evolved from the earlier Linear A script, used by the Minoan civilization. However, while Linear A remains largely undeciphered, Linear B was successfully deciphered in the mid-20th century by the British architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris. Unlike its predecessor, Linear B is not an ideographic script but rather a syllabic script used primarily for administrative purposes, such as recording transactions and inventory. It provides a unique window into the economic, social, and religious life of Mycenaean society, long before the classical era of Greece.

The Linear B inscriptions in Knossos and Pylos were interpreted to contain the Mycenaean-Greek term "damos" (da-mo). The phrase most likely relates to split collective landowners or to groups of people living in a rural farming community. According to the palace records that have been found so far, the term "forest" refers to a particular group of landowners or landowners who control the cultivation of large tracts of land and sell a portion of the produce to the wa-na-ka, ra-wa-ke-ta, and other officials of the palace in exchange for their services. The da-mo, an organized group of the people-community, served as the inspiration for the potential ra-wa-ke-ta military corps.

Damos and telestai (te-re-ta, "master of ceremonies") are also used interchangeably, indicating that perhaps landowners occasionally served as the people's representative. Damokoro, a compound adjective made from the Mycenaean words for municipality and the ko-re-te, was one of the axioms described in Pylos (governor). The damokoro were representatives chosen by the wanaka (supreme king). The term kerosija, which is etymologically related to the senates (gerousia) of classical Athens and Sparta, is only referenced once. The senate must have been a municipal council that gathered under the toparch during the Mycenaean era.

The term is connected to the later Doric Greek type "δᾶμoς" (damos) of the Ionian word "δῆμος" (demos) according to linguists. However, there is currently no proof that the term may have had political significance during the Mycenaean palace period, unlike in the later Archaic and Classical periods, when it also had the meaning of "ordinary people" (who did not come from an aristocratic race), the democratic portion in an ancient city, and the assembly of citizens, in addition to its significance for provincial or country land.

Ancient Greek Demos and Political Organization of Attica

The municipality (ancient Greek: δῆμoς) referred to the assembly of inhabitants as the main political body and later the administrative division of ancient Attica, the continuation of which is today's Attica, a region of Greece. Demes appear to have existed as rudimentary rural land divisions as early as the 6th century BC, but it wasn't until Cleisthenes' reforms in 508 BC that they really took on any significance. Prior to those changes, citizenship was determined by membership in a phratry, or familial group.

As a result of those changes, citizenship is now dependent on enrollment in the citizen lists of a state. At the end of Cleisthenes' reforms, Attica was divided into 139 demes, to which can be added Berenikidai (established in 224/223 BC), Apollonieis (201/200 BC), and Antinoeis (added in 126/127 BC). At the same time, demes were established in Attica's capital city itself, where they had not previously existed. The introduction of demes as the primary political subdivisions of the state reduced the genealogies, or aristocratic family groups, that had previously dominated the phratries.

Map of demes and tribes. Each color stands for one of the 10 tribes, each mark for an individual deme.

A deme served as a kind of smaller polis, and some demes, like Eleusis and Acharnae, were in reality important cities. There were numerous other civil, religious, and military functionaries in different demes, and each deme had a demarchos who oversaw its operations. Demes held their own religious celebrations and made money to spend.

The 10 tribes, or phylai, of Athens were formed by combining demes from the same region to form trittyes, bigger population groups. There was one tritty in each tribe, one from the city, one from the coast, and one from the interior.

New York: 55 Greek Antiquities Return to their Country of Origin

Today is the "Nostimon Imar" (νόστιμον ἦμαρ, “day of homecoming” in Homer's Odyssey), the sweet day of returning home after years of wandering, deals between illegal owners, fake purchase documents. But the antiquities always keep their truth, a truth intertwined with the history of the place that gave birth to them ".

With these words, the Greek Minister of Culture Lina Mendoni received yesterday in New York in a special ceremony that took place in the Manhattan Prosecutor's Office the stolen antiquities that were in the hands of the collector Michael Steinhard as well as some more, coming from another investigation.

In total, 55 archeological finds of high art with historical and symbolic value return from New York to Greece, 47 of them were confiscated by Steinhardt and eight of the Prehistoric era from Thessaly.

Ancient artifacts that return to Greece

The Greek antiquities were handed over by the new Manhattan Attorney General Alvin Bragg, who expressed his enthusiasm for his contribution to the completion of this investigation, awarding the credit to the team of Greek expatriates, Assistant Attorney General Matthew Boctus Homeland Security Service Ricky Patel, emphasizing his appreciation for Greece and the Greek Minister of Culture.

He even described the team of Mathios Bogdanos as a "dream team", which, as he said, is synonymous with this research.

"It is my honor," he said in his address, "that I am here and to be a part of this work. Thank you for the very good work our partners, special agent Ricky Patel and of course our international partner. Madam Minister, it is a great privilege for us that you have trusted us and that we have you here and also that we are returning these archeological findings to you. Also to mention Matthew Bogdano and his team, which is synonymous with this research. "It's a dream team."

A Kouros that return to Greece

Loud message

In the "methodical and tireless effort" on the part of the Attorney General, with a special reference to both Alvin Bragg and his predecessor, Cyrus Vance, Mrs. Mendoni mentioned also in her speech.

In addition, she spoke warmly about Matthew Bogdanos and the contribution of the services of the Ministry of Culture and Sports, which provided key information that allowed the full documentation of the projects in the context of this difficult investigation.

"Your huge success," she said, "is not only the antiquities returning to their countries of origin, including Greece, but the loud message to all those involved in the illicit trafficking of cultural goods, that sooner or later the time will come , that their illegal transactions will be revealed and they themselves will be confronted with the consequences of their actions ".

Ms. Mendoni also expressed her belief that "the fight against the illicit trafficking of cultural property is won with patience, perseverance and method, but above all with the close cooperation of people, institutions and states that consciously fight against the great crime of antiquity."

"The illegal trafficking of the cultural treasures of our country is a serious trauma that hurts all Greeks around the world."

Did Classical Greeks Know About their Earlier 'Linear B' Writing System?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Did classical Greece remember its Linear B heritage?

The Linear B writing system is an ancient script used by the Mycenaean Greeks from around 1450 to 1200 BC, a period which predates the later classical Greek civilization. The script was deciphered in the 20th century by British archaeologist Michael Ventris, and it was found to be an early form of the Greek language. But did the ancient Greeks of the classical period know about this earlier script? In this article, we will explore this question by delving into a fascinating story recounted by Plutarch about the tomb of Alcmene, mother of Hercules, and the discovery made by Agesilaus of Sparta (444–360 BC).

The Tomb of Alcmene and The Discovery of a ‘Bronze Tablet’

According to Greek mythology, Alcmene was the mortal mother of the demigod Hercules, who was fathered by Zeus. Her tomb was said to be located in the ancient city of Haliartus in Boeotia. Diodoros Siculus (5.57.3–5) and Plutarch (De Genio Socratis 577e–579b) give us some interesting stories about the very first writing system of the Greeks and tell us a story about Agesilaus, the king of Sparta, who visited the tomb while on a campaign against Thebes in 370 BC.

According to Plutarch, when Agesilaus of Sparta (444–360 BC) opened the tomb of Alcmene, mother of Hercules, located at Haliartos city in Boeotia, he and his men discovered a bronze tablet engraved with peculiar letters. Plutarch describes these symbols as "very ancient" and "barbaric" letters (“ἔχων γράμματα πολλὰ θαυμαστὰ ὡς παμπάλαια... αλλ' ίδιος τις ο τύπος και βαρβαρικός των χαρακτήρων”) that Agesilaus had to send to Egypt for decipherment. It is speculated that these symbols might have been an example of the Linear B writing system.

Agesilaus, who was an educated man and well-versed in the Greek language, found these symbols unfamiliar and indecipherable. The Egyptians' answer was not very convincing, so apparently they could not read the inscribed text.

Linear B tablets from Pylos

• Could this tablet be inscribed with Linear B characters?

Linear B was used primarily for administrative purposes in the Mycenaean palatial centers, such as Knossos and Pylos. The symbols on the bronze tablet found in Alcmene's tomb might be an example of this ancient script. If so, it is likely that Agesilaus and the ancient Greeks of his time were unaware of their civilization's earlier writing system.

Echoes of Oblivion: The Catastrophic Flood Described by Diodorus Siculus and its Impact on Ancient Civilizations

There is also the testimony of Diodoros Siculus, who talks to us about the lost knowledge of writing during a big flood that took place in prehistoric Greece. Diodorus Siculus was a first-century BC Greek historian, known for his extensive work, "Bibliotheca Historica," a universal history from mythological times to 60 BC. In his narratives, he recounted a significant flood event that allegedly wiped out almost all written documents and records, leading to an immense loss of historical knowledge and collective memory.

In his accounts, Diodorus spoke of a catastrophic flood, a deluge of epic proportions that wreaked havoc on ancient civilizations. This flood was said to be so devastating that it destroyed nearly all written monuments and records of the time. The devastation wrought by this flood not only resulted in material loss, but also led to a significant loss of cultural and historical memory. Entire civilizations were reduced to ruins, and their histories were lost to the abyss of time.

Diodorus Siculus also mentioned that the Athenians, despite being the founders of the city of Saïs in Egypt, were ignorant of their own history due to the effects of this flood. Saïs was an ancient Egyptian city located in the western Nile Delta. It is known to have had strong connections with ancient Greek civilization. The Athenians, being influential in Saïs's establishment, should ideally have had an extensive record of their interactions and achievements. However, the cataclysmic flood erased this part of their history, leaving them, like other civilizations affected by the disaster, oblivious to their historical achievements.

The flood that Diodorus Siculus spoke of had such a profound impact on the ancient world that it upended civilizations, obliterating their histories, and leading to an era of historical and cultural amnesia. This account is a poignant reminder of the fragility of human history and the consequences of natural disasters on our collective memory.

These accounts, however, must be read critically. While Diodorus Siculus' narrative provides a compelling view of an ancient catastrophe, it's important to remember that his writings are based on various sources and hearsay. His reports are yet to be validated by tangible archaeological evidence. Nevertheless, his accounts provide a fascinating glimpse into the understanding of ancient civilizations and their perception of catastrophic events.

Excerpt from the work of Diodoros Siculus about the Heliades Tenages and Actis:

[5.57.2] The most highly endowed of them by nature was Tenages, who was slain by his brothers because of their envy of him; but when their treacherous act became known, all who had had a hand in the murder took flight. Of their number Macar came to Lesbos, and Candalus to Cos; and Actis, sailing off to Egypt, founded there the city men call Heliopolis, naming it after his father; and it was from him that the Egyptians learned the laws of astrology.

Mycenaean scribes and archives.

[5.57.3] But when at a later time there came a flood among the Greeks and the majority of mankind perished by reason of the abundance of rain, it came to pass that all written monuments were also destroyed in the same manner as mankind;

[5.57.4] and this is the reason why the Egyptians, seizing the favourable occasion, appropriated themselves the knowledge of astrology, and why, since the Greeks, because of their ignorance, no longer laid any claim to writing, the belief prevailed that the Egyptians were the first men to effect the discover of the stars.

[5.57.5] Likewise the Athenians, although they were the founders of the city in Egypt men call Saïs, suffered from the same ignorance because of the flood. And it was because of reasons such as these that many generations later men supposed that Cadmus, the son of Agenor, had been the first to bring the letters from Phoenicia to Greece; and after the time of Cadmus onwards the Greeks were believed to have kept making new discoveries in the science of writing, since a sort of general ignorance of the facts possessed by the Greeks.

'Theoi': The Greek Term that Refers to Gods till Today, Found in Myceanaean Linear B Tablets!

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Emerging from the Mycenaean civilization around 1450 BCE, Linear B stands as an invaluable artifact and the earliest deciphered form of the Greek language. The evolution of Minoan Linear A and Linear B's status remained a mystery until the mid-20th century, when British cryptographer Michael Ventris unlocked their secrets. Unlike the still-mysterious Linear A, Linear B was used primarily for administrative tasks, detailing transactions, and keeping inventory within the Mycenaean society. The wealth of information it provides allows us a unique look into the economic, religious, and societal structures of the Late Bronze Age in Greece.

The Greek term “Gods," which refers to the supernatural beings of ancient Greek worship and is still used today by modern Greeks, is found since prehistoric times in Linear B tablets of the Mycenaean period in Knossos.

3 alternatives in Minoan Linear A for pasiteoi = “to all the gods” in Mycenaean Greek

The concept of "pasi/pantes theoi" [pa-si-te-o-i], “to all the gods,” as deciphered in specific tablets referring to worship practices exclusively of Knossos, refers theonymically to a set of deities that probably contain the whole of the Minoan "pantheon." According to the researchers, this report bears similarities with similar practices in the Near East, which use similar reports to appease foreign or non-local deities. Evidence of the continuity of the Minoan religion (or at least the worship of the Minoan gods) during the Mycenaean period in Knossos may be found here as well.

A fresco at Mycenae showing a ritual, a priestess in a cape holds a sword while another across from her holds a spear, two small men hover between them. In the lower panel a priestess is attended by a griffin. 1,400-1,200 BC.

In Homer there are also many references to "all Gods", but only in the religious comparison of Hellenistic civilization do we see a special cult that addresses all the gods, especially in the region of Asia Minor.

Etymology

From Proto-Hellenic *tʰehós (whence also Mycenaean Greek [te-o]), a thematicization of Proto-Indo-European *dʰéh₁s, from *dʰeh₁- (“to do, to put, to place”) + *-s. Cognate with Phrygian δεως (deōs, “to the gods”), Old Armenian դիք (dikʿ, “pagan gods”) and Latin fēriae (“festival days”), fānum (“temple”) and fēstus (“festive”).

Despite its superficial similarity in form and meaning, the word is not related to Latin deus; the two come from different roots. A true cognate of deus is Ζεύς (Zeús).

The Greek deities Athena and Hera as depicted in mycenaean religious art

'Alakasandu' - Alexander: A Greek Name in Hittite Cuneiform Text?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Cross-Cultural Echoes: The Intriguing Case of 'Alakasandu', a Hellenic Echo in Hittite Cuneiform?

In the ancient landscapes of human civilization, two cultures stood tall among the rest: the Hittites of Anatolia and the Mycenaean Greeks of Helladic Mainland. Unbeknownst to many, these cultures had surprising connections in antiquity. One such connection has to do with the fascinating correlation between the Greek name 'Alexander' and a Hittite name: 'Alakasandu'. Scholars have long debated whether these two names, separated by centuries and civilizations, could in fact be one and the same, finding their home in ancient Hittite cuneiform texts.

A total of 11,000 tablets with cuneiform texts were discovered after the 19th-century excavations of the Frenchman Charles Texier revealed Hattusa, the capital of the Hittite kingdom, in the hamlet of Boğazköy in modern-day Turkey. The Czech philologist Bedřich Hrozný (1879–1952) conducted the first decipherment of the language on these tablets in 1915 and demonstrated that they were written in the extinct Hittite language.

Aerial view of Hatussa’s citadel.

We may learn a lot about the Middle and Late Bronze Ages in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and the prehistoric Aegean from the archive of the tablets at Hattusa and texts discovered at other Hittite sites. The discovery of Greek names (such as Eteoklis, "Tawagalawa," and Atreas, "Attarissiya") in the Hittite archives by the Swiss archaeologist Emil Forrer in 1924 gave the sense that the shadowy time of the Trojan War may finally come into the light. The Czech philologist Bedich Hrozn (1879–1952) conducted the first decipherment of the language on these tablets in 1915 and demonstrated that they were written in the extinct Hittite language.

The identification of the names that emphasize the historical context of the Homeric poetry brought the interest to a close. It was also crucial to make mention of a conflict involving the city of "Wilusa" (Ilion/Troy). The monarch of Wilusa, who was a slave to the Hittites (thus referring to the Hittite records), and who had signed a treaty with the Hittite king Muwatali II in the 13th century BC, owes a dowry to the king of "Ahhiyawa" (Achaia), whose name has not been saved. His name was "Alaksandu," and his dowry included some nearby islands (perhaps Tenedos, Imbros, Lemnos, or Lesvos) ("Alaksandu", alternatively called Alakasandu or Alaksandos).

Clay cuneiform tablet; fragment. Hittite treaty between Muwattalli II of Hatti and Alakšandu of Wiluša. Nineteen lines., 1300 BC.

The Hittite Empire and the Name 'Alakasandu'

The Hittite Empire (c. 1600–1178 BCE) thrived in the region that now constitutes modern-day Turkey. The Hittites left behind a rich archive of cuneiform texts, a treasure trove of information for historians and archaeologists. Among these texts, the name 'Alakasandu' appears as the moniker of a significant king. This king was reportedly involved in a treaty with the Hittite ruler Muwatalli II (c. 1295–1272 BCE) in the late Bronze Age.

'Alakasandu' is documented as the king of Wilusa, an ancient city identified with classical Ilios or Ilion, known in the Western tradition as Troy. The debate over whether 'Alakasandu' could be an ancient rendering of 'Alexander' primarily arises from this connection.

The Greek Name 'Alexander'

'Alexander' is a name steeped in Greek tradition, with its roots tracing back to the language's ancient form. It is derived from the Greek 'Alexandros,' literally translating to 'defending men' or 'protector of men,' a compound of 'alexein' (to defend) and 'andros' (of men).

The most famous bearer of this name, Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE), ruled over a millennium after the Hittite king 'Alakasandu.' Alexander's conquests and expeditions spread Greek influence throughout the ancient world, marking a significant period of Hellenistic culture.

The Connection Between 'Alakasandu' and 'Alexander'

The idea that 'Alakasandu' could be a Hittite rendering of 'Alexander' has its roots in historical linguistics, particularly the study of Luwian, a close relative of Hittite. Scholars suggest that the Luwians, like the Hittites, resided in Anatolia and interacted with the Greeks, facilitating the sharing of names and titles.

Several phonetic and linguistic parallels are drawn between 'Alakasandu' and 'Alexander'. Some researchers suggest that the Hittite and Luwian languages might have phonetically rendered 'Alexander' as 'Alakasandu.' Given the position of Wilusa (Troy) near the Aegean Sea, close to the ancient Greek world, there could have been ample opportunity for cultural and linguistic exchange.

Map of anatolian languages distribution.

Counterarguments and Challenges

Despite these compelling links, there remain significant challenges in definitively asserting that 'Alakasandu' is an ancient form of 'Alexander'.

The complexities of ancient language translation and phonetic rendering often lead to discrepancies and ambiguities. There's always a possibility that similarities between 'Alakasandu' and 'Alexander' are coincidental rather than indicative of a linguistic link.

The question of whether 'Alakasandu' is an early form of 'Alexander' gives us a fascinating glimpse into the interconnections and interactions between ancient cultures. While it might never be conclusively proven, the debate itself illuminates the richness and complexity of our human past. It is a testament to the incredible journey of cultural transmission and the enduring legacy of names across ages and civilizations.

Given that in the Homeric poems everything happened on the occasion of the abduction of Helen by Alexander or Paris, maybe during a "marriage", how close are we to connecting these events with the Trojan War?

First Bronze Age Volcanic Eruption Victims found after 3,500 years

A human skeleton and dog skeleton were found in Turkey that age back to the Thera eruption in modern-day Santorini.

Some 3,500 years after the eruption of Thera (modern-day Santorini) in the late Bronze age, skeletons of a human and a dog were found along the Turkish coast among tsunami debris.

This is a remarkable find by Dr. Beverly Goodman-Tchernov of the University of Haifa and Dr. Vasif Şahoğlu of Ankara University who wrote up the study together for the peer-reviewed journal the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS).

Not only do these findings provide more insight into how catastrophic the eruption was for the region, they also give researchers more information for the study of the chronology and history of the Bronze Age. Using calibrated radiocarbon ages from other tsunami debris, the scientists were able to estimate the skeletons as having come from sometime around 1612 BCE.

"This discovery was the outcome of many years of excavations by my colleague Dr. Prof. Şahoğlu combined with sedimentological analysis to assess the deposit origins," said Goodman-Tchernov. "He invited me to come to Turkey in order to assist him to determine whether an ash layer at the site was linked to the Thera Eruption, and when I saw the section, I noticed that there were some similarities immediately below the ash layer to tsunami deposits I had seen elsewhere."

The excavations took place over 10 years, ending in 2019. They were conducted by an international team led by Şahoğlu under the permit of Turkey's Ministry of Culture and Tourism.

Akrotiri archaeological site, Santorini, Greece

"We proceeded to study the deposit, which for many years frustrated and confused us until it became clear that our error was thinking that only a small part of the deposit was tsunami-related, and in fact, the tsunami deposit was much larger than we could have imagined," recounted Tcherov. "Once we understood this, the entire excavation area fit together logically, and the discovery of the human skeleton was like receiving confirmation from the ancients."

The discovery was uncovered using multiple disciplines like earth sciences, geology and archaeology. The evidence gathered by the study shows that massive tsunamis descended on the northern Aegean. This contradicts the belief previously held that assumed that the destruction of the region was due to volcanic ash fallout.

The Thera eruption was a major critical event for the region bringing with it death, destruction and disaster. Despite the earthquakes, ash and tsunamis that plagued the region, however, this is the first time that remains of victims were found. The area in which these skeletons were found indicates to researchers that perhaps survivors were not able to rescue him on time.

"Natural disasters, whether eruptions, tsunamis, earthquakes, hurricanes or plagues, have long been a part of the story of humanity," said Goodman Tchernov. "Every one of us is descendent from people who, whether by luck, skill or accident of geography, managed to survive these challenges. Çeşme man, and other remains from the rescue effort, gives us an opportunity to time travel into the past and better understand what the people experienced at that time. Through this, we can better prepare for what is possible in the future by understanding what happened in the past.

Spain: Researchers Believe they Found Fabled Temple of Hercules Gaditanus

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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A significant pilgrimage place in antiquity was the fabled temple of Hercules Gaditanus, also known as Melqart in Phoenician times. The temple, which dates at least to the ninth century BC, is said to have seen the likes of historical personalities like Julius Caesar and the Carthaginian conqueror Hannibal walk by.

Finding the temple, which has been sought after for ages by historians and archaeologists, has become something of a holy grail for them despite the fact that its location is still unknown thousands of years later.

Aerial view of the temple’s possible location.

Now there is a possible answer to this great mystery. Ricardo Belizón, a Ph.D. student at Seville University in southern Spain, has come up with a new hypothesis, which is backed by scientists from his university and the Andalusian Institute of Historical Heritage (IAPH). Thanks to free software and digital terrain modeling, Belizón has identified traces of a monumental building in the Cao de Sancti Petri, a shallow channel in the Bay of Cádiz between the towns of Chiclana de Frontera and San Fernando, in the southern region of Andalusia.

Hypothetical view that the archaeologist García y Bellido made of the Hercules temple, in 1968, based on the one in Jerusalem.

The temple of Hercules Gaditanus is mentioned in classical Greek and Latin literature as the place where Julius Caesar wept bitterly before a representation of Alexander the Great and where the Carthaginian conqueror Hannibal went to offer thanks for the success of his military campaign a century and a half earlier. All these references mention “a changing environment, in contact with the sea, subject to the changing tides, in a temple where there must have been port structures and a seafaring environment,” says Milagros Alzaga, head of the Center for Underwater Archaeology (CAS), who also participated in the research.

A 3D model showing the Boqueron point in San Fernando (Cádiz) and the rectangular structure of the possible temple of Hercules Gaditanus now submerged under the Caño of Sancti Petri

The proposal made presently by Seville University and the IAPH is within a radius considered to be the most evident, following decades of academic dispute and several temple location recommendations. The location is a sizable swampy canal that is dominated by an islet and the Sancti Petri fortress that towers above it. The region has produced significant archaeological artifacts for more than two centuries, some of which are now on display in the Museum of Cadiz. They include enormous marble and bronze sculptures of Roman emperors and different statuettes from the Phoenician era. All of these findings contributed to defining the precise position of the Hercules Gaditanus temple as being located between the islet's slopes and the Boquerón point, an area of fine sand and rocky intertidal zone.

Who is Hercules in Greek and Roman mythology?

Hercules is one of the most renowned figures in ancient mythology, known for his superhuman strength and his twelve labors. However, there's an important distinction to make when discussing this legendary hero: the difference between his Greek and Roman portrayals.

In Greek mythology, the hero is known as Heracles (meaning "Glory of Hera"). Born to Zeus, the king of the gods, and Alcmene, a mortal woman, Heracles' life was marked by both glory and suffering, much of it orchestrated by Hera, Zeus's jealous wife. Outraged by Zeus's infidelity and the birth of Heracles, Hera sought to make the hero's life as difficult as possible.

One of the most famous episodes from Heracles' life is the Twelve Labors, a series of near-impossible tasks he was forced to perform as penance for killing his own wife and children during a fit of madness, another tragedy instigated by Hera. These labors ranged from slaying the Nemean Lion and capturing the Golden Hind to cleaning the Augean stables in a single day and capturing the three-headed dog, Cerberus, from the Underworld.

Over time, Heracles became a symbol of strength, courage, and endurance. His adventures intertwine with other famous Greek myths, and his legacy was solidified when he was granted immortality and became a god, joining the Olympians after his mortal death.

The Romans were heavily influenced by Greek culture and mythology, often adopting and adapting Greek deities and stories. In Roman lore, Heracles was transformed into Hercules, and while the core elements of his story remained largely unchanged, certain aspects of his character and tales were adapted to fit the Roman worldview.

Hercules was worshipped as both a god and a hero in Rome. He was especially revered as a protector of humanity, a role that saw him incorporated into various aspects of Roman daily life. For instance, the Hercules Cult was notably popular in Rome, with Hercules being honored for his strength, bravery, and protective qualities.

One significant Roman addition to Hercules's story was his relationship with the goddess Roma, a personification of the city of Rome. By aligning Hercules with Roma, the Romans reinforced their city's greatness and divine protection.

Real Mycenaean Religious Frescoes Appear in 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey'

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The vibrant frescoes that were discovered in the Religious Center of Mycenae are now depicted in the brand-new video game "Assassin's Creed Odyssey," which features ancient Greek themes.

The ancient world has always captivated the imaginations of historians, archaeologists, and enthusiasts alike. It offers a glimpse into the lives, cultures, and beliefs of our distant ancestors. One such captivating civilization is the Mycenaean civilization, which flourished in Greece during the Late Bronze Age. In a fascinating convergence of history and gaming, the Mycenaean religious frescoes have made a remarkable appearance in the virtual realm through the popular video game 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey.' Let us delve into the significance of this inclusion and explore the allure of these ancient artworks.

The Mycenaean Civilization

The Mycenaean civilization emerged around the 16th century BCE and reached its peak during the late 13th century BCE. It was renowned for its impressive palaces, fortified cities, and extensive trade networks. The Mycenaeans inherited a rich cultural heritage from their Minoan neighbors, blending it with their own unique religious practices and artistic expressions.

Religious Frescoes in Mycenaean Culture

Among the most striking features of Mycenaean art are the vivid frescoes found in various archaeological sites. These frescoes, painted on palace walls and in private dwellings, offer valuable insights into the religious beliefs and rituals of the Mycenaean people.

Depictions of gods, goddesses, and religious ceremonies adorn these frescoes, showcasing the Mycenaeans' deep-rooted spiritual connection. The gods depicted include Poseidon, Zeus, Hera, Athena, and others, with each deity symbolizing different aspects of the natural world and human existence.

The Inclusion of Mycenaean Frescoes in 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey'

'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey,' developed by Ubisoft, is a critically acclaimed action role-playing video game that immerses players in ancient Greece during the Peloponnesian War. Known for its meticulous attention to historical accuracy, the game recreates the ancient world with stunning detail.

Aerial of the Cult Centre at Mycenae with the Tsountas House to the left

In a remarkable effort to bring history to life, the game designers incorporated Mycenaean frescoes as part of the game's exploration and storytelling. Players can encounter these meticulously recreated artworks within the virtual spaces of the game, allowing them to experience the vibrancy and significance of Mycenaean religious art firsthand.

The traditionally referred-to "religious center" is located in the southwest corner of the Mycenaean acropolis. It is a collection of religious structures, as attested to by the worship discoveries as well as the architectural remnants. Christos Tsountas, a Greek archaeologist, began the excavation at the religious complex. Alan Wace, William D. Taylour, and Georgios Mylonas proceeded and finished the work.

Research established the presence of an altar, a central hearth, a sanctuary, as well as frescoes in the largest room of the complex, known as the "room with the mural," from the early stages of its construction.

On the first level of the mural that is on display in the Museum of Mycenae, two female characters are portrayed.

While the left person, wearing a Minoan outfit, is holding a scepter or spear, the right figure is holding a big sword and is clad in a long, fringed robe. Two male, naked figures that resemble Tanagra shrine idols, or perhaps souls, are hovering between them. A female figure clutching sheaves is depicted on the left and bottom levels of the wall. She is most likely accompanied by a griffin. She wears the distinctive plume worn by sphinxes and the "Prince-Priest" of Knossos, among others.

Details of skirts at the Shrine fresco at Mycenae (©Dimitrios Pergialis).

We lack a precise interpretation of the make-up and personality of these figures, but many opinions have been expressed regarding the sword-wielding figure, identifying her as a "Goddess of War," perhaps a precursor to Pallas Athena, and the figure offering sheaves, identifying her as a deity that represents fertility and agriculture.

It is written as "si-to-po-ti-ni-ja" (Sito Potnia), which means "Lady of the Wheat," in an inscription in Mycenaean Greek (linear B) that has been discovered. This is most likely another name or surname for the goddess Demeter or one of her forebears in the Bronze Age. Her gestures are similarly similar to those of the "Goddess of the Snakes," the primary fertility goddess of Minoan Crete, who held two snakes in each hand.

House of Frescoes. Presentation Scene (photo by AlMare)

The Significance of the Inclusion

The inclusion of Mycenaean frescoes in 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey' serves multiple purposes. Firstly, it introduces players to a lesser-known aspect of ancient Greek civilization, shedding light on the profound role of religion in the daily lives of the Mycenaean people. By interacting with these artworks, players gain a deeper understanding of the spiritual beliefs and rituals that shaped Mycenaean society.

Secondly, it showcases the dedication of game developers to historical authenticity. By painstakingly recreating these frescoes, Ubisoft demonstrates their commitment to creating an immersive and educational experience for players. The inclusion of Mycenaean religious frescoes aligns with the overall goal of 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey," which is to transport players to an accurate depiction of ancient Greece.

Lastly, the game's inclusion of Mycenaean frescoes encourages players to explore the broader cultural and historical context of the Mycenaean civilization. It sparks curiosity and serves as a gateway for further research, inspiring players to delve deeper into the fascinating world of ancient Greece and its rich artistic heritage.

The appearance of Mycenaean religious frescoes in 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey' marks a significant milestone in the portrayal of ancient civilizations in video games. By weaving together history, art, and interactive gameplay, the inclusion of these artworks offers players a unique opportunity to engage with the Mycenaean culture on a visual and emotional level.

As we traverse the virtual landscapes of 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey,' we find ourselves not only embarking on a thrilling adventure but also uncovering the profound religious beliefs and artistic expressions of a civilization that has long faded into the annals of history. The game's dedication to historical accuracy and its celebration of the Mycenaean civilization through their religious frescoes contribute to a richer appreciation of ancient Greece and its lasting influence on our world today.

God Dionysus in Mycenaean Linear B Script: Confirmation of Dionysus's early worship in Mycenean Greece

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Emerging from the shadows of antiquity, the Mycenaean Linear B script serves as the oldest deciphered form of Greek, dating back to approximately 1450 BCE. Its origins trace back to the enigmatic Linear A of the Minoan civilization, but unlike its predecessor, Linear B’s code was cracked in the mid-20th century by the indefatigable efforts of British architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris. Primarily an administrative tool, Linear B was used for managing transactions and inventory, offering an illuminating lens into the economic, societal, and religious aspects of the Mycenaean civilization during the Late Bronze Age.

The first half of the 20th century saw the "orthodoxy" of the belief that Dionysus was a superfluous non-Greek god placed "very recently" (about 750 BC) into the Greek pantheon due to Erwin Rohde's book Psyche. This "orthodoxy" was somewhat contested by a number of fascinating archaeological finds made between the 1920s and 1970s. The first was the reaction to the word "Di-wo-nu-so" on three Linear B tablets with Pylos dates (about 1300 BC).

John L. Caskey uncovered a significant archaeological discovery at the shrine of St. Irene of Kea, which demonstrates continued religious activity extending back to the 13th century BC. The earliest known dedication to this shrine names Dionysus as the worshipped deity. Another Linear B inscription (KH Gq 5) discovered during the Agia Aikaterini square excavation on Chania's Kastelli hill is a noteworthy illustration of Late Minoan III B1 Zeus and Dionysus worship. It describes the sacrifice of honey to the gods Zeus and Dionysus as well as the existence of a Zeus sanctuary at Kydonia.

These findings showed that Dionysus was not a new god when the Iliad was composed around 750 BC, and that the practice of Dionysian worship was probably previously known to the Greek-speaking population of the Mycenaean Period. Even so, it seems as though he was familiar with the Greek-speaking populations, despite our insistence that he wasn't Greek.

Etymology

Throughout antiquity, Zeus (genitive Dios) has been associated with the dio- prefix in Ancient Greek, and the name's variations appear to refer to an initial *Dios-nysos.

The origin of the second element, -nūsos, is unknown. Although Pherecydes of Syros had proposed nũsa as an archaic term meaning "tree" by the sixth century BC, it is possibly connected to Mount Nysa, the birthplace of the deity in Greek mythology, where he was nursed by nymphs (the Nysiads). The Nysiads are given their names on a vase made by Sophilos (nusae). According to Kretschmer, the word "nusē" (daughter in law or bride, I-E *snusós, Sanskr. snus) is a Thracian word with the same meaning as "nýmphē," a word related to "nuos" (daughter in law or bride). He proposed that Dionysus is the "son of Zeus" because the male form is (nūsos). Dionysus, according to Jane Ellen Harrison, means "little Zeus." The name's pre-Greek origin has been proposed by Robert S. P. Beekes since all efforts to determine its Indo-European origins have been met with skepticism.

Detail View of Sophilos Dinos Depicting Dionysus, this is the oldest known image of the God. (around 570 BC)

Recent research suggests that Dionysus was one of the first gods to be named in mainland Greek culture. Nothing is known about the particular religion that Dionysus may have practiced at the time, and the majority of available material focuses only on his name. In addition to the connotations of Zeus and oxen, the names Eleuther and Eleutheros have etymological ties to the Latin term Liber Pater, suggesting that this may have been another name for Dionysus. According to Károly Kerényi, these cues suggest that the main worship of Dionysus and important stories persisted even in the thirteenth century BC.

At Knossos in Minoan Crete, men were regularly given the name "Pentheus," which refers to a figure from later Dionysian myth and also means "suffering." Kerényi asserted that giving a child such a name suggests a profound religious connection—possibly as an epithet of Dionysus himself, whose mythology represents a god who must experience suffering before conquering it. Pentheus suffers at the hands of Dionysus' followers in later stories, and according to Kerényi, this suggests a deep religious connection. According to Kerényi, the expression "man who suffers" presumably first applied to the god and then, as the story progressed, just to certain individuals. Sophilos, an Attic potter, uncovered the earliest known image of Dionysus and his name in about 570 BC.

Dionysus was already regarded as more than merely a wine-related god, as evidenced by the iconography found on ceramics from the seventh century. He was associated with marriage, death, sacrifice, and sexuality, and he had a well-established retinue of dancers and satyrs. A frequent motif in these early portrayals was the transformation of the god's worshipers into hybrid creatures, generally represented by both domesticated and wild satyrs, representing the end of civilizational life and the return to nature.

The Sophilos Dinos, British Museum.

3D Video of the Acropolis of Mycenae in Prehistoric Greece

The Mycenaean palace has been digitally recreated in all its splendor by the Mycenae Foundation and Professor Nikolaos Lianos, who teaches architecture at the Democritus University of Thrace. The reconstruction is based on the findings of Professor Christos Maggidis, the director of the excavations of Mycenae’s Lower Town.

Along with the architecture of the palace, video shows also the throne room. A piece of stone that was recovered in the excavations is part of the original throne on which the Mycenaean rulers sat, from which they would look down on a fire that was placed in the middle of the room.

Mycenae (Ancient Greek: Μυκῆναι or Μυκήνη, Mykē̂nai or Mykḗnē) is an archaeological site near Mykines in Argolis, north-eastern Peloponnese, Greece.

In the second millennium BC, Mycenae was one of the major centres of Greek civilization, a military stronghold which dominated much of southern Greece, Crete, the Cyclades and parts of southwest Anatolia. The period of Greek history from about 1600 BC to about 1100 BC is called Mycenaean in reference to Mycenae. At its peak in 1350 BC, the citadel and lower town had a population of 30,000 and an area of 32 hectares.

The first correct identification of Mycenae in modern literature was during a survey conducted by Francesco Grimani, commissioned by the Provveditore Generale of the Kingdom of the Morea in 1700, who used Pausanias's description of the Lion Gate to identify the ruins of Mycenae.

'Wanax': The Mycenaean Greek Word for Supreme (Military-Religious) Ruler-King of the Palace

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Mycenaean Linear B script, a precious linguistic legacy dating back to around 1450 BCE, provides a rich historical record of the Late Bronze Age Mycenaean civilization in ancient Greece. This intriguing syllabic writing system, an evolution of the enigmatic Linear A used by the Minoan civilization, represents the earliest deciphered form of Greek. Thanks to the groundbreaking work of British architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris in the 1950s, Linear B opened up a hitherto unknown window into the intricacies of Mycenaean administrative, economic, and socio-religious practices. Its complexity and the important role it played in documenting everyday affairs attest to the advanced nature of the civilization that created and utilized it.

An ancient Greek word for "tribe chief, lord, or (military) leader" is anax (Greek: ἄvαξ; from earlier ϝάναξ, wánax). It was also carried over from Mycenaean Greece and is one of the two Greek names that are generally interpreted as "king," the other being Basileus. Homeric Greek makes notable use of it, including for Agamemnon. Anassa, or "queen," is the feminine form (from wánassa, which comes from *wánakt-ja).

Archaic inscription [...]Ι ϜΑΝΑΚΤΙ ([...]i wanakti, "to the king") on ceramic fragment, here shown upside down; a warrior bearing a spear and mounted on a horse is also depicted.

The word anax, which is represented in Linear B script in Mycenaean Greek as wa-na-ka and in the feminine form as wa-na-sa (later ἄνασσα, ánassa), derives from the stem wanakt- (nominative *ϝάνακτς, genitive ϝάνακτος). Eastern Greek dialects (such as Ionic Greek) deleted the digamma, which was pronounced /w/, fairly early on, even before the Phoenician script was adopted. Other dialects kept the digamma until well after the classical era.

The Sanskrit word vanij, which means "trader," has been used to equate the Greek title to that of Indra, but it was originally employed as a title in the Rigveda. If so, the word might have sprung from Proto-Indo-European *wen-a-, which roughly translates as "carrier of spoils" (compare the etymology of lord, "giver of bread"). Robert Beekes contends that the phrase is most likely from the pre-Greek substrate and that there isn't a clear IE derivation.

Mycenaean civilization was distinguished by the construction of palaces and walled villages during the Mediterranean Bronze Age. It is generally acknowledged that the wanax in the Mycenaean social structure serves as a king, although he has a number of tasks that go beyond administrative responsibilities. With the decline of Mycenaean society during the Late Bronze Age Collapse, the name "wanax" is thought to have finally changed into the homeric term "anax." Basileus would take on the Greek title of king, which is thought to have been a subordinate position during the Mycenaean era, comparable to chieftains and regional authorities.

As the pinnacle of Mycenaean culture, the wanax presided over a powerful hierarchical state government that was centralized, a pattern that was widespread in the Bronze Age Mediterranean and Near East. Because of this hierarchical comparison to a king, many of the wanax's responsibilities had to do with governance, conflict resolution, diplomacy, economics, and religion.

Herodotus' Error: Misreading the Hittite 'Karabel Rock Relief' as Egyptian

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The monument may have been mentioned by Herodotus in his history, where he identified the carved figure as the Egyptian pharaoh Sesostris and the hieroglyphics as Egyptian

The Hittite "Karabel" Relief, also known as the Karabel Hittite Rock Relief, is a rock-cut relief located in the Turkish province of Izmir, near the town of Torbal. This monument is known for its historical significance and the detailed depiction of a Hittite warrior, a powerful symbol of the Hittite Empire that flourished during the Late Bronze Age in Anatolia and the Levant, from approximately 1600 to 1200 BC.

On the southern slope of a mountain, on the left side of the road, in the Karabel Pass of the Kemalpaşa-Torbal highway, is the location of substantial relief. It is 2.5 meters tall and around 1.5 meters broad. A man figure is shown standing, holding a bow and a spear in his right and left hands, respectively. The person is dressed in a tunic and a cone-shaped hat. Among experts, this alleviation is known as Karabel A. Three lines of an extremely worn-out Hieroglyphic Luwian inscription can just about be made out between the warrior's head and the spear. The lowest half of the relief sustained significant damage from the treasure hunters in 2017 and 2019.

The Karabel Relief, sketch of Charles Texier.

A Hittite Mystery Misinterpreted by Herodotus

The figure on the relief is believed to be the Hittite King Tarkasnawa (also known as Tarkondemos), based on an inscription in the Luwian language that was found near the relief. The figure is shown wearing a pointed hat and a short skirt, both characteristic of Hittite depictions of their rulers. In one hand, he holds a spear, while the other hand is raised in a gesture of worship or salute.

However, the Karabel relief has a curious connection with the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who lived in the 5th century BC. In his "Histories", Herodotus described a monument that he encountered on his travels through what is now western Turkey. He wrote that this monument depicted an armed warrior and was inscribed with Egyptian hieroglyphics.

This statement by Herodotus has caused some confusion among scholars, as the Karabel relief is clearly not Egyptian in style or script but Hittite. It appears that Herodotus made a mistake in his identification. This mistake may be due to his unfamiliarity with the Hittite Empire and its language, as it had already collapsed several centuries before his time and its history and culture were not yet widely known or studied.

Moreover, the script on the Karabel relief is not hieroglyphic but rather in a form known as Luwian hieroglyphs or Anatolian hieroglyphs, which is quite distinct from Egyptian hieroglyphics. Luwian hieroglyphs were used in the region during the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE, notably by the Hittite and Luwian civilizations. Therefore, Herodotus might have confused this with the more famous Egyptian hieroglyphs.

Thus, Herodotus's mistake provides us with an interesting example of the limitations and challenges of historical and archaeological interpretation, especially in times when knowledge about ancient cultures was still limited or obscured by time. It also reminds us of the often complex and nuanced nature of ancient interactions and influences and the role of modern archaeological and linguistic studies in helping to shed light on these historical riddles.

Herodotus may have made reference to the monument in his history, identifying the carved figure as Egyptian pharaoh Sesostris as follows:

"... in Ionia there are two figures of this man carved upon rocks, one on the road by which one goes from the land of Ephesus to Phocaia, and the other on the road from Sardis to Smyrna. In each place there is a figure of a man cut in the rock, of four cubits and a span in height, holding in his right hand a spear and in his left a bow and arrows, ... and from the one shoulder to the other across the breast runs an inscription carved in Egyptian hieroglyphics, saying, 'This land with my shoulders I won for myself."

(Herodotus II.106)

The Sardis-Ephesus route passes via Karabel Pass instead of the historic Sardis-Smyrna road, and it is important to take into account that the Ephesus-Phocai road is located much to the south. Herodotus' description was either inaccurate, or it's possible he was referring to a separate but related relief. The Torbal relief's recent discovery suggests that the area may have housed a number of other monuments of a similar nature. It goes without saying that the figure in the relief is not a ruler of Egypt. David Hawkins published the reading of the Karabel A inscription in 1998. Hawkins reads the inscription's three lines as follows:

Tarkasnawa, King of Mira (land).
[Son of] Alantalli, King of Mira land.
Grandson of ..., King of Mira land.

The reading of Alantalli is uncertain. In addition, even though the grandfather's name cannot be read, it has been hypothesized that it is Kupanta-Kuruntiya. Tarkondemos, who is seen in a few Boazköy seals, is also identified as Tarkasnawa by Hawkins reading. The Tarkasnawa reading has received widespread support from academics. The Hittite domain's vassal kingship of Mira was led by Alantalli, who is known to have lived during Tudhaliya IV's reign. As a result, his son Tarkasnawa should have lived during the reigns of Tudhaliya IV and/or Suppiluliuma II, placing the monument around the end of the 13th century BC.

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The Surrounding Area of the Misread Monument

North of the Karabel, a few hundred meters A relief included a related relief, two distinct hieroglyphic inscriptions, and another relief. Karabel B, Karabel C1, and Karabel C2 were the names given to the three of them, respectively. Sadly, between 1977 and 1982, when the adjoining road was being widened, these three engravings were completely obliterated. A standing male figure with a spear in his outstretched left hand and perhaps a bow on his right shoulder was likewise depicted on Karabel B. With the exception of the first character, which was possibly "King," the worn-out writing on the relief was unintelligible.

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Only a few meters to the north of Karabel B, the inscriptions C1 and C2 were found on the perpendicular surfaces of the same rock. The C1 inscription, which contained five Egyptian letters, was the best preserved. Hawkins' interpretation of Karabel A suggests that C1 could be partially translated as "King Tarkasnawa" (ASINUS-wa REX). The C2 inscription proved more difficult to read, but it may have contained the names of the kings Tarkasnawa and Alantalli on the first line of the three-line inscription.

The Parian Chronicle: The Oldest Chronology of Ancient Greece

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Parian Chronicle: A Glimpse into Greek Myth and History

The Parian Chronicle, or Parian Marble, is a fascinating testament to how the ancient Greeks viewed their past—a blend of the mythic and the historic. This article delves deep into this unique artifact, its history, and the tales it tells.

The Marble and Its Journey

The Parian Chronicle, inscribed on a stele, is a chronological table that charts the years from 1582 BC to 299 BC. It was discovered on the island of Paros in two main fragments. Sold in Smyrna in the early 17th century, the inscription made its way to Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, and was deciphered and published in the Arundel Marbles, Marmora Arundelliana, by John Selden in London (1628–9). Notably, one of these sections has vanished, believed to have been lost during the tumult of the English Civil War.

Part of the Parian Marble, a chronicle of mythological and historical events in Greece from 1580 BC to 263 BC. There are 3 parts, one was lost in London during the English Civil war, one is kept the Ashmolean Museum, and one in the Archaelogical Museum of Paros, Greece.

Another fragment, the base of the stele containing the end of the text, surfaced in 1897. This portion of the inscription details events from 336/35 to 299/98 BC. The two prior fragments chronicled events spanning 1582/81–355/54 BC.

The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford houses one of these upper fragments, preserving events from the mythical, like the Flood of Deucalion, to the historical, such as the Trojan War. The shorter fragment from 1897 resides in the Archaeological Museum of Paros in Greece.

What's striking about the Parian Chronicle is its seamless integration of myths and legends with events that modern historians recognize as factual. To the Greeks, these stories were history; their myths were not mere tales but a representation of their past. As Peter Green once noted regarding the Parian Marble, the chronicle "uses chronological specificity as a guarantee of truth" and anchors the mythical past in historical time.

Chronicles of a Bygone Era: Tales from the Marble

1581 BC, Cecrops and the Birth of Athens: Before it was Athens, it was Cecropia, named after King Cecrops. The famous contest between Poseidon and Athena for the city’s favor, a defining moment in Athenian mythology, is curiously omitted from the Parian Chronicle.

1528 BC, Great Flood of Deucalion: The Great Flood of Deucalion recorded on the marble is a testament to the universal nature of flood myths. Much like Noah's Flood in the Bible, Deucalion’s Flood serves as a reminder of a divine reset—a cataclysmic event that reshapes civilization.

1520 BC, The Birth of 'Hellenes': Hellen, son of Deucalion, ascends to the throne of Phthiotis. From him, the name 'Hellenes' is born. While neighboring populations adopted this name, the Romans held on to the older term, "Graikos." Thus, in the West, the Greeks are still referred to as Greeks.

1294 and 1259 BC, Rise of Heroes: A period that witnessed the rule of legendary figures like King Minos of Crete and King Aegeas of Athens, Theseus, another iconic figure, assumed the Athenian throne in 1259 BC, laying the groundwork for democracy.

1256 BC, The Amazonian Invasion of Athens: A dramatic event sees the Amazons marching on Athens, only to be repelled by Theseus at the Hill of the Muses.

1218 BC, The Trojan War Starts: A decade-long war encapsulated love, heroism, and tragedy, culminating in the fall of Troy.

1209 BC: Troy is conquered

907 and 895 BC, The Dawn of Literature and Commerce: The appearance of the epic poet Homer was followed closely by Aegina minting silver coins, indicating the dawning of a historic age well-recorded and corroborated by multiple sources.

Detail from the shorter fragment base of the stele, found in 1897, that is in a museum on Paros. It contains chronicle entries for the years 336–299 BC.

The Parian Chronicle's Significance

While the Parian Chronicle bridges mythic tales and historical events, its precision from 895 BC onwards lends credibility to its earlier records. Whether one views the marble's earlier dates with skepticism or belief, its significance is undeniable. It provides invaluable insights into how the Greeks viewed their past, underscoring the interplay of myth, legend, and history in shaping a civilization's identity.

The journey of the Parian Marble—from its discovery to its current homes in the Ashmolean Museum and the Archaeological Museum of Paros—is symbolic of the enduring allure of ancient Greece. Its tales continue to captivate, offering a window into an era where heroes walked the earth, gods meddled in mortal affairs, and history was as much about epic tales as it was about kings and wars.