Throughout their history, Thais have been known for their ability to absorb foreign impacts and translate them into something uniquely Thai. The culture, customs, and cuisine of modern Thailand represent a happy synthesis of many influences remaining at the same time faithful the core Thai values.
In the following less than 5 minutes long video we will be explaining the history of Thailand. Enjoy!
Dig into the history of the elite mercenaries known as condottieri, who were soldiers for hire for Italy's rich and powerful.
During the 14th and 15th centuries, mercenaries known as condottieri dominated Italian warfare, profiting from— and encouraging— the region’s intense political rivalries. As rulers competed for power and prestige, their disputes often played out in military conflicts, fought almost entirely by the condottieri. So who were these elite and conniving warriors? Stephanie Honchell Smith investigates.
The incredible true story of the Bulgar Khan Krum the fearsome, who defeated his enemy the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros I at Pliska in 811 AD, and made a wine chalice from his fallen foes skull. Watch the video for more!
In Granada, a significant city in the Andalusia area of southern Spain, excavations carried out as part of a building's repair uncovered a centuries-old Muslim graveyard.
An archeologist works on human remains, presumably belonging to Muslims Cemetery from the Andalusian Islamic era (711-1492) found during an excavation in Granada, Spain on September 16, 2023.
The almost 700-year Andalusian Islamic dominion, which was eradicated during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs that followed, left behind traces that are currently being sought in and around Granada, the former capital of an emirate that ruled between the 13th and the 15th centuries and was the last known Muslim state in the Iberian Peninsula.
One of the eight Muslim cemeteries in the city was discovered during excavations on the property of a building in the ancient city center of Granada, in the region known as "Bab al-Fukhareen," or Potters' Quarter, according to archaeologist Amjad Suliman, who is researching the Andalusian Islamic civilization.
Suliman stated that two further cemeteries had also been discovered and that a total of roughly 150 Muslims were believed to be interred in the constrained space, adding that they had so far discovered the bones of more than 40 Muslims in the Potters' cemetery.
"Granada was the last place of refuge for Muslims in Andalusia, and the density of burials in the ancient graves unearthed here shows us how high the number of Muslims living at that time was," Suliman explained.
Suliman claimed they discovered three underground layers of graves and numerous pieces of pottery with Arabic inscriptions similar to those found in the Alhambra Palace, which was constructed in the middle of the 13th century in Granada. He also said they were able to determine the human remains belonged to Muslims by examining the manner in which they were buried and the objects around them.
Suliman said that Andalusia has required consulting archaeologists for construction and restoration projects since 1995.
"In the past, human remains found during construction works were either buried again in the ground and built on top of them, or thrown away. Especially in the last 20 years, these works have become much more organized ... done in a controlled manner."
"In the excavations carried out so far, when we count only the documented ones, the remains of more than 10,000 Muslims have been unearthed," he added.
Once their anthropological research is finished, the bones that have been excavated from floors of buildings or from pieces of land are interred in the region's present Muslim cemeteries.
The most recent Cromarty History Society discussion was focused on the work of a trailblazing Black Isle archaeology project that involved the larger community and produced some exciting discoveries.
Tarradale Through Time excavating a Bronze Age landscape.
The Cromarty History Society's new season was inaugurated by Eric Grant's talk. He has been researching the potential for archaeology at the western end of the Black Isle, around Tarradale and Muir of Ord, since he moved to Ross-hire about 20 years ago.
His presentation painted a brief picture of how the region's archaeological legacy was discovered through six community digs, which revolutionized knowledge of the archaeology of the Black Isle and beyond.
Many members of the community participated in the Tarradale Through Time project and got to see how archaeology is conducted, from walking through fields that have been ploughed to find artifacts from ancient times to digging test pits and excavations that turn up unexpected findings and then interpreting the results.
Part of an antler harpoon found in an excavated shell midden.
Eric gave an example of how the project purposefully encompassed 8000 years of history and archaeology, beginning in the Neolithic with the entrance of the first farmers and continuing through the Bronze, Iron, Pictish, Medieval, and Post-Medieval abandoned communities. Good soil and relatively level terrain have historically made Tarradale an agricultural region, with rougher and less farmed country rising to the north.
This has affected how it was settled, how it was used, and what kinds of archaeological evidence were discovered. Axes, flints, arrowheads, pottery, stones, and shell middens are the principal "hard" objects that archaeology discovers that have survived. Since the soil at Tarradale is acidic, all traces of bones will be lost.
Tarradale landscape.
Eric's presentation was illustrated by aerial photos of crop markings, archaeology-related features, plans for rebuilding, and images of artifacts. There was a wealth of knowledge to absorb, and I also realized how mysterious some locations may be, leaving interpretation always up for debate. The area's continued habitation and land use are both obvious. Locals have been acknowledged with becoming more enthusiastic and interested thanks to the community effort.
Eric still has additional plans to carry out even though it is over. "We feel sure that we will be inviting him back again for further updates," a CHS spokeswoman said.
The next gathering will take place on Tuesday, October 17. Professor David Worthington will be the speaker. He will present a fresh interpretation of the Highlands before to Culloden based on the writings of Rev. James Fraser (1634-1709). The presentation will take place at the Victoria Hall in Cromarty and will begin at 7.30 p.m. Everyone is welcome.
According to the Shaanxi Academy of Archaeology on Tuesday 19th of September, archaeologists in northwest China's Shaanxi Province have unearthed the tomb of the Northern Zhou Dynasty's founder monarch (557–581) in the city of Xianyang.
This undated file photo shows a relic unearthed at the tomb of Yuwen Jue, the founding emperor of the Northern Zhou Dynasty (557-581), in Beihe Village, Weicheng District of Xianyang, northwest China's Shaanxi Province. Archaeologists in northwest China's Shaanxi Province have discovered the tomb of the founding emperor of the Northern Zhou Dynasty (557-581) in the city of Xianyang, according to the Shaanxi Academy of Archaeology on Tuesday.(Shaanxi Academy of Archaeology/Handout via Xinhua)
Yuwen Jue was the name of the emperor. In Weicheng District, Xianyang's Beihe Village is home to his grave. High-quality tombs from the Northern Dynasties (439–581) to the Sui and Tang dynasties (581–907) are found in this area.
The single-chamber earth cave tomb has four patios in the sloped tomb corridor and is facing south. The tomb's length from north to south is 56.84 meters, and its bottom is 10 meters below the present ground level. The tomb is a medium-sized example of Northern Zhou architecture.
Archaeologists have discovered 146 burial objects—mostly porcelain figurines—from the once-plunder of the tomb.
Archaeologists have established that the owner of the tomb was the emperor Yuwen Jue (542–557) based on the epitaph on the eastern side of the tomb's entrance.
According to Zhao Zhanrui, an assistant researcher at the school, the tomb's finding is extremely significant for historical studies on Northern Dynasty emperors.
According to Mexican physicians, the two reported "non-human" alien corpses each belonged to a single skeleton and were not assembled.
'Alien corpses' shown to politicians
After academics, scientists, and archaeologists said the remains were a fraud, the doctors conducted a number of scientific tests on them.
Professor Brian Cox, a physicist and television host, was one of several who criticized them, saying they were "way too humanoid" to be real.
In a hearing that sparked excitement among UFO enthusiasts, the mummified specimens were on display in glass cases as part of an official reveal last week in Mexico's Congress.
Politicians were informed that the remains were thought to be 1,000 years old and had been discovered in Cusco, Peru.
Jaime Maussan, a journalist and UFO researcher, organized the event in Mexico City. According to Mexican media, he testified under oath that the specimens' about one-third of their DNA is "unknown" and that they are not products of "our terrestrial evolution."
"These specimens are not part of our evolutionary history on Earth," he said in his presentation to Mexican government officials and representatives from the US.
"They are not beings recovered from a UFO crash. Instead, they were found in diatom (algae) mines and subsequently became fossilised."
Mexican doctors have carried out tests on the remains
Prof. Cox has advocated sending a sample to the biotechnology firm 23andme for impartial confirmation that the samples aren't extraterrestrial.
"It's very unlikely that an intelligent species that evolved on another planet would look like us," he said last week.
Mr. Maussan has made claims of having discovered extraterrestrial life before.
He asserted in 2015 that a mummified body discovered in Peru's Nazca region belonged to an alien, but it was ultimately determined to be the remains of a human infant.
The mummified remains that UFO enthusiasts allege are aliens are typically modified human bodies, according to academics, archaeologists, and scientists.
They claim that the remainder, especially the smaller ones like those displayed in Mexico last week, are bodies put together from the bones of both animals and people.
The examinations performed on Monday by Mexican medical professionals, however, imply that they were not built but rather were taken from a single skeleton.
Speaking to the delegation from Mexico City about his supposed discovery from last week, Mr. Maussan said that the specimens had previously undergone examination at the Autonomous National University of Mexico.
He claimed that one had "eggs" within, as revealed by X-rays, and that experts had used radiocarbon dating to acquire DNA proof.
Politicians in Mexico said last week that they will "continue talking about this" because the material had given them "thoughts" and "concerns."
On Tuesday morning (19/9), a 36-year-old Romanian lady who was visiting the Acropolis archeological site attempted to steal some marbles. According Greek sources, the traveler chose to bring home two marbles as a "memory" after being inspired by the Acropolis.
However, a 42-year-old lady who was also present during the incident spotted her and called the police. After a short while, patrol division officers noticed the 36-year-old lady, who was then detained for aggravated theft.
Archaeologists have discovered evidence of horse movement close to a mountain pass, not far from Galdhpiggen, the highest mountain in Norway.
The fact that both the bit and the leather straps that have been fastened to the horse's head are preserved makes it possible to determine how old the bridle is. (Photo: Espen Finstad / Secrets of The Ice / Innlandet County Municipality)
From beneath the ice, a metal bit and some of the leather straps that secure around the horse's head have been seen.
“The bridle has a shape that suggests it could be from the Viking Age,” Espen Finstad says to sciencenorway.no.
He works for the Innlandet County Municipality as a glacial archaeologist.
During the Viking Age, traffic through a mountain pass on Lomseggen was at its busiest.
Numerous ancient artifacts have already been discovered in the area as a result of snow and ice melting. The usage of this mountain route by Norwegians for more than 1,200 years has been made known (link in Norwegian).
However, the bridle discovered by archaeologists this year implies that other animals also walked here.
The journey, which took place over 2,000 meters above sea level, also involved horses.
The recent expedition took place on a smaller snow patch south of Lendbreen. (Photo: Espen Finstad / Secrets of The Ice / Innlandet County Municipality)
“We have never made such a discovery before. It essentially completes the picture that this is an ancient travel route,” Finstad says.
According to the archaeologists who work on the Secrets of the Ice conservation program's social media posts about the discovery,
We just made an incredibly discovery on the south side of the Lendbreen pass: An iron horse bit, with parts of the leather bridle preserved!❤️ It could well be from the Viking Age, when traffic through the pass was at its peak. But let's see what the radiocarbon date says. pic.twitter.com/cIRNXsZD9Y
— Secrets Of The Ice (@brearkeologi) September 7, 2023
A few months before they learn the solution
The archaeologists are particularly intrigued by the strap, or halter, that is fastened to the bit.
The horse bridle can actually be dated thanks to this.
The archaeologists will use carbon-14 dating to determine whether the find indeed dates to the Viking Age.
The definitive answer will likely take a few months, but Finstad is confident that it dates to the Iron Age or the early Middle Ages.
The archaeologists also found part of an old horseshoe that has been lying under the ice. (Photo: Espen Finstad / Secrets of The Ice / Innlandet County Municipality)
Horseshoes and horse manure
One of the many finds made by archaeologists on this year's expedition is a horse bridle.
In addition, they discovered horse excrement, linens, horseshoes, leaf food, a piece of a horse snowshoe, a knife, and other little wooden artifacts. approximately 150 things in all.
Finnes notes that although the mountain pass is like a gold mine for archaeologists, the discoveries are relatively uncommon in the overall scheme of things.
The preservation of organic stuff including wood, leather, fabrics, and feces is what makes this find so unique.
For centuries, the ice has used as a freezer. But it's melting now.
“The fact that the ice is now melting due to man-made climate change is tragic. The paradox is that new and exciting knowledge about our common past is emerging,” Finnes says.
A group of archaeologists led by Franck Goddio discovered temples for the Greek goddess Aphrodite and the Egyptian god Amun off the shore of Egypt, according to CNN on September 19.
The god Amun protecting Tutankhamun is pictured during a press visit of the Tutankhamun, Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh exhibition, displaying more than 150 original artefacts, at the Grande Halle de la Villette in Paris, France, March 21, 2019.
The study team investigated the ancient port city of Thonis-Heracleion in the Bay of Aboukir and found the temple ruins in the southern canal of the city.
Although the buried metropolis was discovered in 2000, many of the hidden treasures are still being discovered.
The temple in Egypt
The temple, which was devoted to Amun, the Egyptian god of air, is thought to have fallen "during a cataclysmic event dated to the mid-second century BC," according to the European Institute for Underwater Archaeology (IEASM) institute. The city of Thonis-Heracleion completely vanished under the sea in a 110 square kilometer area of the Nile delta as a result of rising sea levels, earthquakes followed by tidal waves, and land liquefaction events.
"The ancient temple was once the site where pharaohs went to receive the titles of their power as universal kings from the supreme god of the ancient Egyptian pantheon,” IEASM explained.
“Precious objects belonging to the temple treasury have been unearthed, such as silver ritual instruments, gold jewelry and fragile alabaster containers for perfumes or unguents,” IEASM said. “They bear witness to the wealth of this sanctuary and the piety of the former inhabitants of the port city.”
Sep 8, 2023; Paris, FRA; The Venus de Milo or Aphrodite of Melos is an ancient Greek sculpture unearthed on the island of Milos that was created during the Hellenistic period. (credit: MICHAEL MADRID/USA TODAY SPORTS VIA REUTERS)
“It is extremely moving to discover such delicate objects, which survived intact despite the violence and magnitude of the cataclysm,” mentioned Goddio, president of IEASM and director of excavations.
The Greek temple of antiquity
Numerous metal and ceramic idols discovered helped to pinpoint the temple that was dedicated to the Greek goddess of love Aphrodite.
Because it "illustrates that Greeks who were allowed to trade and settle in the city during the time of the Pharaohs of the Saïte dynasty (664 - 525 BC) had their sanctuaries to their own gods," IEASM added, this discovery is regarded to have been especially significant.
A number of weapons belonging to Greek mercenaries were also found. “They were defending the access to the Kingdom at the mouth of the Canopic Branch of the Nile. This branch was the largest and the best navigable one in antiquity,” IEASM explained.
In Simanya Cave in Sant Llorenc Savall Natural Park, close to Barcelona, researchers discovered the remains of Neanderthals, early humans who lived between 250,000 and 40,000 years ago.
The 50,000-year-old remains, which are made up of 54 parts, were shown at a press conference held on Tuesday the 19th of September at the Archaeological Museum of Catalonia. The remains are those of an adult, most likely female, as well as those of a kid between the ages of 7-8 and an 11–12-year–old teen.
According to the press conference, the remains are some of the most significant Neanderthal remains discovered in the Iberian Peninsula and offer information about the dispersion of Neanderthal populations throughout Europe.
Current excavations in the cave are being carried out in collaboration with other colleges in Italy and Spain.
In Austria, a child's shoe from more than 2,000 years ago was discovered with its laces still attached.
The size of the shoe, which is leather, roughly corresponds to EU 30 (US 12).
According to the German Mining Museum Bochum-Leibniz Research Museum for Geo-resources, the leather shoe, which is around an EU 30 (US 12) size, was probably created in the second century BC.
According to a recent news release, the shoe was discovered by archaeologists in the western community of Dürrnberg, where rock salt mining dates back to the Iron Age.
The shoe is believed to have been kept in exceptionally good condition by the salt, which is particularly effective at preserving organic residues.
“Our research activities at Dürrnberg have been providing us with valuable finds for decades in order to scientifically explore the earliest mining activities. The condition of the shoe found is outstanding,” Professor Thomas Stoellner, head of the Research Department at the German Mining Museum, said in the news release.
According to the museum, excavation work is being done at Dürrnberg to learn more about the life and work of Iron age miners.
Other archeological hints
Along with other biological remnants, such as a piece of a wooden shovel blade and some fur that may have been from a fur hood, archaeologists also found the shoe.
According to the press statement, the lacing from the shoe's remains that were discovered preserved was probably composed of flax or linen.
Finding a child's shoe is "always something special," according to the museum, as it proves that kids were present underground.
Stoellner added, “Organic materials generally decompose over time. Finds like this child’s shoe, but also textile remains or excrement like those found on Dürrnberg, offer an extremely rare insight into the life of Iron Age miners.”
One of the most important ancient sites in the nation was submerged by the same floods that claimed hundreds of lives in the Libyan city of Derna, endangering the collapse of its UNESCO-listed monuments, according to a recent visitor and a renowned archaeologist.
Floodwaters remain trapped amid the ruins of ancient Cyrene, raising fears for the UNESCO-listed monuments of one of Libya's premier ancient sites
The Temple of Zeus from the second century AD, which was larger than the Parthenon in Athens, sustained relatively minor immediate damage, but the water circling around their foundations poses a threat for future collapses, according to Vincent Michel, the head of the French archaeological mission in Libya.
Cyrene, which was founded from the Greek island of Santorini approximately 600 BC, was one of the major Classical centers for almost a thousand years before it was largely abandoned in 365 AD due to a significant earthquake.
Floodwater remains trapped around some of Kyrene's main monuments raising concerns for the integrity of their foundations
Cyrenaica, the old name for eastern Libya, bears its name.
In 1982, UNESCO designated the area's remaining monuments as a World Heritage Site. In 2016, after years of strife and neglect following the NATO-backed rebellion that toppled longtime ruler Moamer Kadhafi, UNESCO listed the location as part of its World Heritage in Danger list.
A large portion of the area is still flooded days after the massive rains brought on by Storm Daniel on September 10–11, according to Claudia Gazzini, a Libya expert with the International Crisis Group think tank, who recently visited the location.
Fallen boulders block the main street connecting the upper and lowers levels of the ancient city down which rainwater would normally drain off
The enormous site, which also has a necropolis outside its walls that is as large as the city itself, has some ancient walls that have collapsed, obstructing the water courses that would typically drain the area.
"There's a street lined by ancient walls that connects the upper and lower levels down which rainwater would normally escape but large boulders have fallen in, blocking the flow", Gazzini told AFP by telephone from Libya's main eastern city of Benghazi.
"On the lower level, there's also dirty water continuously bubbling out of the ground in the middle of the ruins," she added, adding that neither locals from the nearby village of Shahat nor a representative from the local antiquities division, whom she met there, could explain where it was coming from.
Blocks of marble that formed part of the auditorium of Cyrene's ancient amphitheatre lie strewn on the gound after being dislodged by the torrential rains that accompanied Storm Daniel
"If water continues to flow in and remains trapped in the site, the retaining wall could collapse, taking with it a large chunk of the ruins," she said.
Weakened foundations
The French archaeologist Michel, who has spent ten years working in another section of the region and is quite familiar with the location, claimed to have been able to analyze photographs of the monuments taken after the floods.
"For the moment, there's no major destruction at Cyrene -- the monuments are still standing," he said.
"But the torrents of water, earth and rock have created gullies in the ancient streets, particularly the Royal Road, and the main damage is still to come as the water has spread over a wide area and has weakened the foundations of the monuments. Since the stone in the region is of poor quality, the monuments risk falling apart due to lack of good foundations," he added.
He continued, "hundreds of cubic metres of water which has shifted and submerged some of the tombs" in the nearby necropolis.
The accumulation of water behind the site's ancient retaining wall has raised fears it may give way, triggering the collapse of monuments in a landslide
Following the floods, which claimed the lives of more than 3,000 people and left tens of thousands homeless, Michel said he was especially concerned about the risks of looting.
Visitors frequently come to this location in the Jebel al-Ahkdar mountains, inland from the Mediterranean shore, for its expansive views. But in the wake of the devastating floods, Libyans are more concerned than ever.
The quick mobilization of Libya's antiquities department, which had already enlisted assistance from the Italian archaeological mission to save Cyrene and the French mission he leads to safeguard two nearby sites, Michel added, had somewhat allayed his fears.
The aim is to "join forces with the local authorities in coordination with UNESCO to raise the main points of weakness in the monuments and record any deterioration," Michel said.
The site's drainage should then be fixed, and the monuments' foundations should be strengthened.
Approximately 2,000 years ago, a group of graves containing cremated human remains were discovered by archaeologists. One of the graves included a very remarkable discovery.
The burials were discovered by researchers with the Regional Association of Westphalia-Lippe (LWL) in western Germany, next to Fröndenberg and just outside of Dortmund.
Recent clay mining operations in the area have found proof of prehistoric human habitation, mainly during the Iron Age. But the LWL archaeologists were shocked by the most recent discoveries.
"When a few remains of corpses were uncovered, it quickly became clear that we had found a small burial ground here," Eva Cichy of LWL Archeaology said in a press release.
The researchers discovered the remains of containers used as burial urns for cremated remains in several of the sites.
The team discovered a number of minor pits in addition to one very significant larger one. This larger pit is about three feet across and oval in shape. The researchers discovered numerous, especially huge ceramic pieces at the pit's edge. Some of these included embellishments, including finger prints.
Similar pottery objects from the third and second century B.C. have been discovered in different regions of Germany in the past.
In addition to burnt bone fragments, the pit also had many loom weights and a painted spindle whorl, a disk-shaped object with a hole in the middle. These discoveries suggest that the person buried there was most likely a woman because weaving was done with the use of the loom weights and spindle whorls.
A very well-preserved flint arrowhead and Iron Age ceramic fragments were discovered by the researchers in another hole.
The arrowhead was produced by people of the Bell Beaker culture, who lived in Europe about 4,500 years ago, and thus looks to be far older than the burial site, according to the researchers.
The individuals who dug the graves may have discovered the artifact and purposefully buried it among the deceased. Alternatively, it might have accidentally fallen into the pit as it was being excavated or filled in.
The discovery of a mummy believed to be around 1,000 years old that was buried in a burial at the summit of a sizable pyramid building in Peru was disclosed by archaeologists earlier this month.
Local media outlets also reported in July on the finding of a pre-Hispanic cemetery in Colombia.
Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis
Golden Fleece to Golden Sands: Unearthing the True Story of the Argonautic Expedition - A Historical Exploration of Myth, Gold, and Ancient Metallurgy
The Argonautic Expedition represents a crucial event in the ancient Greek heroic tradition. According to legend, the story revolves around the quest of Jason and the Argonauts for the Golden Fleece, a symbol of authority and kingship, which was held in Colchis. This pursuit has been immortalized in various works of literature, including the epic poem Argonautica. While the tale is steeped in mythology, historians and archaeologists have made intriguing attempts to identify a historical core behind the myth, exploring possible correlations with ancient metallurgy practices, trade routes, and cultural interactions.
The Golden Fleece, the central object of the Argonautic quest, has been interpreted in many ways. The famous geographer Strabo argued that the Golden Fleece reflects the abundant gold of the Phasis River in Colchis. According to him, the fleece was a metaphorical representation of the gold-bearing sand collected by the local residents. This interpretation provides a plausible economic explanation for the myth, linking it to the extensive gold deposits in the region.
These gold nuggets, Strabo posited, were collected from the river using ox hides. After the hide was loaded with gold-bearing sand, it was then processed through a method known as cupellation. This was an ancient process of refining gold and other precious metals in which the metal was heated to a high temperature to separate it from its impurities. The impurities would oxidize, leaving behind pure gold.
Thus, the Golden Fleece could symbolize this ancient practice of gold extraction and processing, providing a link between the myth and the metallurgical techniques of the time. This method of gold extraction was not exclusive to the Colchis region; it was a well-known practice among many ancient civilizations. It was simple, required minimal equipment, and was quite effective in regions with abundant alluvial gold deposits, such as those found in the Phasis River.
Strabo, one of the most renowned geographers of the ancient world, made a significant contribution to the discourse surrounding the Argonautic Expedition's historical core. Born in 64 or 63 BC in Amaseia, today's Amasya, Turkey, he traveled extensively, gathering a wealth of geographical and historical knowledge, which he compiled in his magnum opus, "Geographica."
While it's impossible to definitively prove Strabo's interpretation of the Golden Fleece, his explanation offers a rich insight into the economic practices of the time and the intricate ways these practices may have been woven into the fabric of myth and legend. Moreover, it emphasizes the significance of interdisciplinary research in understanding the complex interplay between history, geography, and mythology.
Recent archaeological surveys have further bolstered the argument for a historical core to the Argonautic Expedition. Sophisticated objects dating back to the Bronze Age, made of precious metals, have been unearthed, revealing a thriving metallurgy based on rich local ores deposits in the Colchis area.
A significant find was made near Iolkos at the Mycenaean tholos tomb of Kazanaki, which dates back to 1350 BC. Among the items found were gold foils and discs, necklaces, and necklace beads. Intriguingly, the gold used in their manufacture was found to be alluvial gold, similar to that which would have been collected from the Phasis River. This suggests a direct connection between the gold of Colchis and the Mycenaean Greeks, particularly those in the palace elite of Iolkos, who resided in the Megaron of the Citadel of Dimini.
Roasting gold ore in order to recover the precious metal. From 1683 English edition of Lazarus Ercker Beschreibung allerfurnemisten mineralischen Ertzt- und Berckwercksarten originally published in Prague in 1574. Copperplate engraving. Credit UNIVERSAL HISTORY ARCHIVE / UIG / SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
The archaeological data demonstrates that the Mycenaean Greeks had extensive knowledge of the Colchis area. This is especially true for the elite of Iolkos, who enjoyed great prosperity during the 14th and 13th centuries BC. But if the gold of the Tholos tomb in Kazanaki indeed came from Colchis, is there any evidence to suggest a Mycenaean trade presence in the area?
The reality is that the existence of Mycenaean artifacts and pottery in the Black Sea region is quite limited. However, a few key items have been discovered that suggest a possible Mycenaean presence. These include swords and spearheads found at Georgian sites that bear striking similarities to their Mycenaean counterparts. This could suggest that, while not abundant, there was some degree of Mycenaean presence or influence in the area.
From the Mycenaean Tholos tomb at the site "Kazanaki" of Volos, 1500-1300 BC., Archaeological Museum of Volos, Thessaly, Greece
By MARIA KRITA
The mention of the term "ko-ki-da" in the Linear B texts (specifically tablet Kn Sd 4403) from Knossos, Crete, has sparked intriguing debates among researchers. Some scholars initially proposed that "ko-ki-da" represented an early reference to "Colchida," the Mycenaean Greek term for Colchis. This interpretation was primarily based on phonetic similarities between the two words.
If this interpretation were accurate, it would establish a direct link between the Mycenaean civilization and the distant region of Colchis during the Late Bronze Age, further supporting the historicity behind the myth of the Argonautic Expedition. It would also suggest that the Mycenaeans had an extensive knowledge of the geography of the Black Sea region.
However, this interpretation has been met with considerable skepticism. A significant counterargument is that the context in which "ko-ki-da" appears in the Linear B texts contradicts its identification with Colchis. The texts in question refer to chariot repairs, making it unlikely that "ko-ki-da" would denote a geographical location.
Instead, it has been suggested that "Kokidas" might have been the name of a chariot repairer. This interpretation aligns more closely with the context of the texts and the conventions of Linear B inscriptions, which often include the names of individuals associated with specific tasks or professions. It's worth noting that Linear B was primarily used for administrative records, so mentions of occupations were common.
As with much of the study of ancient languages and scripts, the interpretation of "ko-ki-da" remains a subject of debate. While the prospect of a direct reference to Colchis in the Linear B texts is tantalizing for historians and archaeologists, the evidence, as it currently stands, leans more towards the term denoting an individual involved in chariot repairs rather than the far-off land of the Golden Fleece.
Colchis, known to the ancient Greeks as the land at the edge of the known world, was a significant region located on the south-eastern coastline of the Black Sea. Its territory encompassed the western part of modern-day Georgia and the southern parts of Russia and Turkey. This region was notable for its fertile lands, rich mineral resources, and strategic location on the crossroads between Europe and Asia, making it a key area for trade and cultural exchange.
The earliest reports of Colchis come from Assyrian sources dating back to the reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I, around the 13th century BC. The Assyrians referred to this region as "Kilakku’", a term that denoted the lands to the north of Assyria. Assyrian accounts, such as those from Tukulti-Ninurta I, suggest that Colchis was home to a diverse and heterogeneous population, likely due to its location on major trade routes.
The Urartians, who inhabited the neighboring kingdom of Urartu (approximately corresponding to modern-day Armenia and eastern Turkey), referred to this region as "Qulḫa", as seen in their cuneiform inscriptions (cun. 𒆳𒄣𒌌𒄩). During the 8th century BC, relations between Urartu and Colchis became hostile, leading to a series of military campaigns. The Urartian king Sarduris II, known for his ambitious expansionist policies, led two major campaigns against Colchis, capturing significant portions of its territory. This conflict illustrates the geopolitical importance of Colchis during this period.
Despite these invasions, Colchis retained its distinctive culture and identity. In terms of its cultural heritage, Colchis was known for its unique metallurgical techniques and advanced agricultural practices. Its inhabitants were skilled in the working of gold, silver, and bronze, with many artifacts attesting to their craftsmanship. They also cultivated various crops, including cereals, grapes, and fruits, and were among the first people to cultivate the vine and produce wine.
Colchis would later come under the influence of the Achaemenid Persian Empire and eventually become a part of the Kingdom of Pontus before being incorporated into the Roman Empire as the province of Lazicum. Today, the ancient region of Colchis corresponds primarily to the western part of Georgia, where its rich history and cultural heritage are still evident in the local traditions, archaeological sites, and folklore.
In conclusion, while the Argonautic Expedition is primarily a tale of heroic myth and legend, a careful examination of historical, geographical, and archaeological evidence suggests a possible kernel of truth within this ancient narrative. While the Golden Fleece may not have been a literal object, it could represent the economic wealth derived from the gold-rich sands of the Phasis River and the advanced metallurgical practices of the time.
Archaeological findings, especially those from the Tholos tomb in Kazanaki, provide compelling evidence of a connection between the Mycenaean Greeks and the Colchis region. The alluvial gold used in the manufacture of precious objects found in the tomb is strikingly similar to the gold that would have been collected from the Phasis River. This suggests that the Mycenaeans had not only knowledge of the gold-rich region of Colchis but also likely had some form of interaction or trade with the area.
Furthermore, the few Mycenaean artifacts discovered in the Black Sea region, such as swords and spearheads, point to a limited yet significant presence of the Mycenaeans in the area. It suggests that, despite the scarcity of direct archaeological evidence, there were cultural exchanges and interactions between these two regions during the Bronze Age.
The search for historical truth behind myths like the Argonautic Expedition is not only fascinating but also significantly enriches our understanding of ancient societies. It allows us to appreciate the complexity of their economic systems, their technological capabilities, and their far-reaching trade networks. Moreover, it underscores the value of interdisciplinary research, combining history, archaeology, geography, and literature to unravel the threads of our shared human past.
Ultimately, while we may never fully separate fact from fiction in the story of Jason and the Argonauts, the quest for the Golden Fleece continues to yield golden nuggets of historical and archaeological insight. In this sense, the journey of exploration and discovery encapsulated in the Argonautic Expedition continues today, not on mythical seas aboard the Argo but in the field of research, where every new piece of evidence brings us closer to understanding the intricate tapestry of our ancient past.
Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis
The Mycenaean civilization, flourishing between 1600 and 1100 BC on the Greek mainland, was well-known for its opulence, notably evident in the vast amounts of gold objects discovered in its archaeological sites. Many scholars and enthusiasts alike have pondered the source of this immense wealth, asking, "Where did the Mycenaeans get their gold?" This article explores some prominent theories, focusing on the regions of Thrace and Egypt, as well as other potential sources.
Thrace, the ancient region spanning parts of modern-day Greece, Bulgaria, and Turkey, has long been speculated to be a primary source of Mycenaean gold. The abundance of gold and other precious metals in the region is historically established.
Gold artifacts from the Bronze Age, contemporary to the Mycenaean era, have been unearthed in Thracian lands, indicating local utilization and appreciation of the metal.
The proximity of Thrace to the Mycenaean centers would have facilitated trade. The Mycenaeans were known to engage in extensive trade networks, and it's plausible that they procured gold from the Thracians, either through direct trade or as loot from conquests.
Varna gold treasure
While geographically farther away than Thrace, Egypt's significance in the ancient world and its diplomatic ties with the Mycenaean civilization make it a noteworthy contender.
Ample Sources of Gold: Egypt was known for its gold mines, especially in areas like the Eastern Desert and Nubia. The ancient Egyptians held gold in high regard, associating it with the sun god Ra and immortality.
Diplomatic Exchanges: The Amarna letters, a series of clay tablets from the 14th century BC, showcase diplomatic correspondence between the Egyptian Pharaoh and various rulers, including those from the Mycenaean world. Such connections indicate that high-value exchanges, possibly involving gold, could have taken place.
Mercenary Services: There's speculation, though not conclusive proof, that the Mycenaeans might have served as mercenaries for the Egyptians. In such scenarios, they might have been paid in gold, contributing to the wealth accumulated back on the Greek mainland.
While Thrace and Egypt are often highlighted due to their historic prominence and connections to the Mycenaean world, other regions should not be overlooked.
Ancient Anatolia, primarily modern-day Turkey, was rich in mineral resources, including gold. The Mycenaeans had connections with the Hittite Empire, which dominated Anatolia during this period.
The possibility of local sources of gold within or near the Mycenaean territories shouldn't be dismissed. While not as abundant as the previously mentioned regions, local sources could have supplemented imported gold.
Trade and exchange between the Aegean world (including the Mycenaean Greeks) and Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) is an integral aspect of the Bronze Age and Iron Age history of the eastern Mediterranean. Anatolia has been home to numerous civilizations, such as the Hittites, Luwians, and Phrygians, and has served as a bridge between the East and the West.
Early Connections: The foundation for Aegean-Anatolian connections was likely laid during the Early Bronze Age, with both regions participating in a broader network that included the Cycladic islands and Minoan Crete. Goods like obsidian from the Aegean would have made their way to Anatolian shores, and vice versa.
Mycenaean-Hittite Relations: The Mycenaean civilization and the Hittite Empire, two dominant powers during the Late Bronze Age, had significant interactions. Hittite texts have made reference to a place named "Ahhiyawa," which many scholars believe refers to the Mycenaean Greek world.
The Hittite archives from Hattusa, the capital, contain letters exchanged between Hittite kings and rulers of Ahhiyawa. These letters hint at both cooperation and conflict, illustrating the complexity of their relationship.
Gary Todd, flickr, Hittite Gold Necklace, Ancient Anatolia Gallery, British Museum, London, England, UK.
Goods such as oils, textiles, metals (including gold and tin, essential for bronze production), ceramics, and luxury items would have been exchanged between the two civilizations. The Mycenaeans were particularly renowned for their pottery, which has been found in Hittite contexts.
Troy's Strategic Position: Located at the entrance to the Dardanelles Strait, the city of Troy held a strategic position in controlling maritime traffic between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. This location made it an essential trade hub, facilitating exchange between the Aegean world and Anatolia.
End of the Bronze Age and Continued Interactions: As the Bronze Age transitioned into the Iron Age, both Anatolia and the Aegean world underwent significant changes. The collapse of the Hittite Empire and the decline of the Mycenaean palatial centers in the late 12th century BC shifted the nature of interactions, but trade and exchange continued. The emergence of new Anatolian kingdoms, like Phrygia, and the rise of city-states in the Aegean ensured continued trade ties.
Trade and exchange with Anatolia were instrumental in shaping the cultural, economic, and political landscape of the Aegean during the Bronze and Iron Ages. The intricate web of interactions, from trade goods to diplomacy and conflicts, highlights the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations and underscores the importance of Anatolia as a nexus of ancient trade routes and cultural interactions.
Colchis, located in the region of modern-day western Georgia, plays a significant role in both mythological and historical accounts of the ancient world, especially in the famous Greek tale of the Argonauts and the Golden Fleece. Beyond its legendary status, the historical Colchis was a prosperous land with a reputation for wealth and, particularly, gold.
In discussions about the sources of Mycenaean gold, Colchis should indeed not be forgotten. As a significant hub for gold in the prehistoric Black Sea region and given its connections with the larger ancient world, there's every reason to consider that Colchis played a role in supplying the Mycenaean civilization with gold, either directly or indirectly. The mix of historical facts, archaeological finds, and enduring myths makes the question of gold from Colchis even more intriguing.
James Blake Wiener / World History Encyclopedia
Alluvial Gold: Colchis was famous for its alluvial gold—that is, gold deposits transported by rivers and deposited in riverbeds. The ancient Greeks wrote of local inhabitants using sheepskins to trap these small particles of gold from the rivers, an image that likely contributed to the myth of the Golden Fleece.
Recent archaeological excavations in Georgia have unearthed rich golden artifacts, indicating the long tradition of gold mining and crafting in the region, which dates back to the prehistoric era.
Trade Relations with the Mycenaean World: Given the Mycenaean civilization's vast trading networks and their love for gold, it is plausible that they would have sought trade relations with regions known for the precious metal. Colchis, with its gold resources, would have been a likely trade partner. The acquisition of Colchian gold might have further added to the wealth of the Mycenaean world.
The Mythological Connection: The tale of Jason and the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece showcases the allure of Colchian gold. While the story is rooted in mythology, it reflects the ancient Greek knowledge of Colchis's wealth.
Colchis's geographic location made it a crucial intersection between the steppes of southern Russia, the civilizations of Anatolia, and the ancient Near East. Its gold, combined with its strategic position, made Colchis an influential player in regional politics and trade.
The wealth of the Mycenaean world, manifested in its golden treasures, is a testament to the civilization's power, reach, and economic prowess. While it's challenging to pinpoint the exact sources of this gold, it's clear that their extensive trade and diplomatic networks across the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond played a pivotal role. Whether it was the rich mines of Thrace, the splendid treasures of Egypt, or the distant lands of Anatolia, the Mycenaeans managed to tap into these resources, creating a legacy that continues to captivate us today.
Ministero Della Cultura
A painted chamber tomb with a travertine block structure and a double-sloping roof has been discovered in a recently developed urban area of Pontecagnano (Salerno, Italy), where more than 10,000 burials dating between the Iron Age and the Imperial Roman period have already been discovered.
The find was announced by Salerno and Avellino's Soprintendenza Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio, which considers it to be "of great value."
A narrow travertine bench has a steep stairway built into it that leads to the grave. In harmony with the other ornamental elements, a scene showing the return of the warrior is painted on the back wall. Festoons and pomegranates are painted on the side walls. The tomb's entrance, which is similarly decorated, stands out.
The Superintendency notes that although the person buried in the tomb had no burial goods, some of its gold foil crown's remnants have survived. The only method of dating used at the moment is iconographic comparisons, which place the deceased among the Italic elites of the late 4th century BC.
T. 10043, the number given to the recently discovered tomb, is one of a relatively limited number of painted graves out of more than ten thousand total tombs.
There are actually only four, and one of them was discovered in the same location and is now housed in the National Archaeological Museum "The Etruscans of the Border" in Pontecagnano, where objects from the ancient Etruscan-Campanian site close to the city are gathered.
Thonis-Heracleion, a city that was formerly Egypt's largest port, is where the discovery was made.
In the city of Alexandria, the Mediterranean Sea has revealed the remains of two ancient temples: one to the Egyptian deity Amun and the other to the Greek goddess Aphrodite.
A joint Egyptian-French archaeological effort discovered the find in the ancient city of Thonis-Heracleion, which is submerged and located seven kilometers from the Bay of Abou Qir.
The European Institute for Underwater Archaeology (IEASM), which has been conducting research at the location since its head Franck Goddio first discovered it there in 2000, reported the discovery.
The team has assigned a mid-second century BC date to the cataclysmic catastrophe that is thought to have caused the enormous stone slabs that make up the Amun temple's ruins to fall.
(Christoph Gerigk ©Franck Goddio/Hilti Foundation)
There were priceless treasures from the temple's treasury discovered, including gold jewelry, alabaster vessels used to store perfumes, and silver ritual instruments.
The institution claimed that they "give witness to the wealth of this sanctuary and the piety of the previous residents of the port city."
Underground buildings from the fifth century were discovered a few meters below the temple's ruins. These buildings were still supported by their original wooden supports and beams.
The mission's discovery was facilitated by modern exploration technologies that made it possible to locate artifacts buried beneath several meters of clay.
The discovery of such exquisite items that were unharmed despite the fury and severity of the cataclysm, according to Dr. Goddio, is extraordinarily moving.
Bronze and ceramic artifacts were found at the site, which was a sanctuary dedicated to the Greek goddess Aphrodite.
It is thought that the artifacts discovered at the Amun temple were transported from Greece.
Before Alexandria was established in 331 BC, Thonis-Heracleion served as Egypt's principal port on the Mediterranean Sea for many years.
Following earthquakes that generated tidal waves and land liquefaction that buried 110 square kilometers of the Nile Delta, the city was submerged.
Franck Goddio / Hilti Foundation
Rising sea levels also played a role in the submersion.
The Aphrodie Sanctuary temple's presence implies that Greeks were permitted to settle, dwell, and practice their religion in the ancient city.
Due to the fact that both Egypt and Greece were significant Mediterranean civilizations, Thonis-Heracleion saw the start of major trade between them that lasted for millennia.
The team has also concluded that Greek mercenaries had been stationed in the city as a result of the discovery of Greek weapons at the scene.
They were guarding the entrance to the kingdom at the Canopic Branch of the Nile's mouth. According to the institute, this branch was the largest and most easily navigable in antiquity.
Since the buried city's discovery, numerous artifacts have been uncovered there, including 64 ships, 700 anchors, a hoard of gold coins, five-meter-tall statues, and—perhaps most significantly—the ruins of a sizable temple to the god Amun-Gereb.
Thonis-Heracleion, once a prominent and bustling port city of ancient Egypt, now lies submerged under the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, near the modern city of Alexandria. Its rediscovery in recent times has provided invaluable insights into the rich tapestry of ancient Egyptian history, commerce, and cultural interactions with other Mediterranean civilizations.
The city had dual names due to its significance for both Egyptian and Greek cultures. The Egyptians called it "Thonis," while the Greeks named it "Heracleion" after the legendary hero Heracles (Hercules), who, according to their legends, once visited the city.
Thonis-Heracleion was a major trading port around the 1st millennium BC, serving as a vital commercial hub for the Mediterranean world and the Nile Delta.
The city had a grand temple dedicated to the god Amun. It played a pivotal role in certain religious ceremonies, including the annual celebration where statues of gods were taken on boats from the Nile to the temple.
The ruins of Thonis-Heracleion were rediscovered in 2001 by a team led by French underwater archaeologist Dr. Franck Goddio. The city was found submerged under approximately 30 feet of water in the Bay of Aboukir.
Since its rediscovery, numerous statues, inscriptions, and architectural elements have been excavated from the site. Notable finds include massive statues of Egyptian deities, steles (stone or wooden slabs), gold coins, and remnants of the city's grand temples.
The exact reasons for Thonis-Heracleion's descent into the depths remain a matter of research and debate. Several theories exist:
Natural Disasters: Geological evidence suggests that the city might have suffered from a series of natural disasters, such as earthquakes or tsunamis. These events might have liquefied the clay and silt the city was built upon, causing buildings to collapse and the city to sink.
Gradual Subsidence: The weight of large buildings, combined with the local geology of waterlogged clays and rising sea levels, could have resulted in the city slowly sinking over time.
Thonis-Heracleion's story is a testament to the ever-changing landscapes and the impermanence of even the grandest of human cities. Its submerged ruins serve as a time capsule, offering a rare and untouched glimpse into the political, religious, and social life of the ancient Mediterranean world. It also stands as a reminder of the rich cross-cultural interactions that took place along the busy maritime trade routes of the ancient world.
In conclusion, Thonis-Heracleion, once lost to time and waters, is a resurrected beacon from antiquity. With each artifact brought to the surface and each section of the city mapped, we come closer to understanding a chapter of ancient history that once lay hidden beneath the waves.
Explorers aboard the E/V Nautilus successfully performed the first deep-water visual dive to revisit the Imperial Japanese Navy ship, Akagi, in a momentous occasion for marine archaeology and world history. A Japanese and American-led expedition team saw the debris for the first time since it sank to the deep ocean seafloor 81 years ago at a depth of 18,000 feet (5.5 kilometers). They conducted the first visual inspection of the wreckage.
The first look at the WWII Vessel Akagi.
The Akagi, or 赤城 in Japanese, was regarded as the Japanese naval fleet's flagship at the time. The Battle of Midway, which took place close to the U.S. Hawaiian Islands, was won or lost as a result of the bombing of that ship and the subsequent sinking by American forces.
A dive was made by a group of deep-sea explorers and researchers using an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) with sonar. The long-lost Akagi aircraft carrier was later discovered, for the first time since it sank, at 18,000 feet of water in the Papahnaumokukea Marine National Monument (PMNM), some 1,300 miles (2,092 kilometers) northwest of Pearl Harbor.
Remote-operated vehicles (ROVs) were used by Nautilus researchers to descend to the seafloor in 2023, nearly four years later. It is the first time since its sinking in 1942 that people have actually seen the wreckage.
It was successful.
The study team, which included archaeologists from Japan and the U.S., carried out the historic, non-invasive dive in September 2023 to record the wreck's historical significance, assess its condition, and pay tribute to the victims lost on both sides of the conflict.
"As we are indeed on the carrier Akagi, let’s take a moment of silence, please, to remember the type of site that we are on – an important site – for great service and sacrifice and the loss of lives," mentioned James Delgado, an archaeologist associated with the expedition.
Surveying the Akagi and the other ships destroyed in the Battle of Midway has proven to be a difficult undertaking because to its distant location and exceptional depth. The Akagi marks one of the deepest, most remote cemeteries in the world with its dark, icy, high-pressure waters of the deep Pacific Ocean.
"We can understand this as Native Hawaiians and the depth and the reverence that we hold for this place, and for those who lay in the realm of Po Kanaloa, the god of the sea," said Malia Evans, a monument resource monitor at the O’ahu Education Coordinator PMNM. "We are in reverence as we view the Akagi."
Battle damage, including a section of the carrier's deck that had been turned upside down due to accumulated explosive pressure, was visible from the ROV cameras.
"The survival of this structure, even in its damaged state, is something we hadn’t been expecting. It’s rather amazing to see and even though it has deteriorated and fallen in, there are identifiable elements that clearly connect us back to that time and that point in the battle," said Delgado.
The battle of Midway, which lasted four days, saw the sinking of four Japanese carriers, including the Akagi. It began on June 4, 1942, after American intelligence agents gathered information from Japanese communications revealing the imperial navy's plans to set up a defensive perimeter of islands, including the remote Midway Atoll.
Both Japanese and American forces viewed Midway, a shallow reef halfway between Honolulu, Hawaii, and Tokyo, Japan, as a key location for establishing a military base. Nearly 3,400 sailors and airmen were lost at the Battle of Midway, which marked a change in military dominance between Japan and the United States in the Pacific War theater.
"It was a tough four days 81 years ago. A lot of pain, a lot of sorrow, and we hope that some healing has happened to so many men and women that were involved," said Delgado. "From the study of these sites, a lot of good can come and we’ve already seen that with the collaboration of people coming together."
Because it altered "the balance for the Pacific War, and with that, the future of the Pacific," the Battle of Midway is now regarded as one of the "ten most significant naval battles in human history," according to Delgado.
"Overall, the Battle of Midway claimed the lives of nearly 3,400 sailors and airmen with US losses in excess of 350 and Japanese losses in excess of 3,000. Five major aircraft carriers (Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū, and Yorktown), as well two other surface units (heavy cruiser Mikuma and the destroyer USS Hammann), and over 390 aircraft were also destroyed," wrote the Ocean Exploration Trust, a nonprofit that oversees operations of the exploration vessel and is headed by Robert Ballard, who found the Titanic in 1985.
The naval battleground is currently protected by PMNM, one of the world's largest maritime protected areas and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In the eastern North Atlantic, two species of whale may have been hunted to extinction by medieval European hunters, according to a recent examination of ancient whale bones.
The North Atlantic right whale is considered functionally extinct in Europe, and only a small number can be found elsewhere.
The activity of whaling is believed to have existed in coastal communities for thousands of years, despite taking place on an industrial scale during the 19th and 20th centuries. Researchers have analyzed ancient whale bones in an effort to better understand how previous whaling practices might influence current whale management.
“Mediaeval cultures are especially associated with the early growth of whaling, but the targets and scale of these activities are poorly understood given the limitations of pre-modern historical records,” wrote the authors of a new study investigating ancient whaling.
Their study attempted to identify the primary species that were targets of early whaling and how frequently those species were recorded in archaeological records in comparison to other species, both at the time and during subsequent industrial whaling.
The research examined 719 whalebone fragments from sites in northern and western Europe, dating from roughly 3500 BCE to the 18th century. The composition of a protein called collagen in the bone was examined by the researchers to identify the species to which each fragment belonged. Since collagen composition varies among whale species, it serves as a reliable identification.
They found some pretty illogical results.
Rarely were the dominant targets of industrial whaling, such the blue and humpback whales, as well as today's common minke whales, to be detected among the bone fragments. Instead, they discovered that the North Atlantic right whale and the Atlantic grey whale were the two species most frequently encountered in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and are now extinct.
The researchers deduced from this that, in accordance with the scant number of pre-modern historical sources mentioning whales, right whales may have been often targeted by medieval hunters. The discovery that grey whales were also frequent prey was unexpected because their mention in the documents is less frequent.
The study's authors put out the following theories as to why the two species were hunted to extinction:
“Both the grey whale and the North Atlantic right whale may have fallen victim to a perception of limitless natural abundance, due to ease of hunting and initially high numbers in coastal waters during the inception and early development of European whaling.”
Regardless of whether they detected a fall in population, once they were a fixed part of whaling technique, hunters may have continued to hunt them until they were extinct.
It's uncertain if right and gray whales were hunted because they were simpler to catch or because they were the species that were more prevalent at the time. The study came to the conclusion that the answer to this question is crucial to understanding both the ecology of whales now and, potentially, the oceans of the distant past.
