New genetic data reveal a strong Greek genetic footprint in Carthage

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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How and when did the first populations move into North Africa? What is the significance of the detected "Aegean/Greek DNA"? How did the Carthaginians maintain their cultural dominance? (9-minute read)

Carthage was founded in the late 9th century BCE (traditionally 814 BCE) as a colony of Tyre, at a time when Tyre was a thriving commercial center. Therefore, the first inhabitants were Phoenician settlers — Semitic populations from the Levantine coasts, descendants of the ancient Canaanites. However, from the very foundation of the city, it is likely that local Berber (Libyan) populations of North Africa coexisted in the area, with whom the Phoenician settlers interacted and possibly intermarried. The very name of the city (Qart-Ḥadašt, meaning "New City") denotes a new settlement in foreign territory, but its development was closely tied to the local environment. Archaeological and historical evidence suggests that Carthage quickly evolved from a small trading post into a prosperous city-state with its own "Carthaginian" civilization. This civilization was clearly Phoenician (Semitic language, religion, customs), but the ancestry of the city's population was not purely Phoenician.

A recent paleogenetic study shed the first light on the biological composition of the early Carthaginians. The so-called "Young Man of Byrsa"—a man from the late 6th century BCE discovered in a burial chamber at Byrsa Hill in Carthage—revealed through ancient DNA analysis a maternal lineage (mitochondrial haplogroup U5b2c1) that is rare and European, originating from prehistoric populations in the northern Mediterranean. Specifically, this mtDNA links the individual's ancestry to regions such as the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, or the northern Mediterranean coasts. The discovery constitutes the first direct evidence suggesting that even the early inhabitants of Carthage could have mixed ancestry, including European elements. In other words, the presence of such an ancient European genetic marker (U5b2c1) in North Africa indicates that Phoenician settlers had incorporated individuals from earlier Mediterranean populations (e.g., from Sicily, Sardinia, or Iberia) into their communities. This initial genetic diversity aligns with the historical image of a port city open to various ethnic groups. Although Carthage may have been founded by a few dozen or hundreds of Phoenician settlers, within a few generations its population expanded through admixture with local and other northern Mediterranean peoples. Truthfully, we have long understood that the Phoenicians' cultural dominance in Carthage did not imply absolute demographic dominance. Many ancient Greek colonies also observed the same phenomenon.

This reality became even clearer in a recent large-scale study of 103 ancient genomes from Carthage itself and other Phoenician/Carthaginian sites. Researchers identified a recognizable "Carthaginian" genetic profile, but it bore minimal relation to the populations of ancient Phoenicia. Instead, it was primarily composed of European (Greek/Aegean and Sicilian) and North African genotypes.

The First Neolithic Expansions—Prehistoric Population Flows into North Africa

To understand how European genetic elements appeared in North Africa long before Carthage's founding, we must examine population movements during the Neolithic period. The transition from hunter-gatherer economies to farming and animal husbandry occurred in North Africa approximately 7,500 years ago. Two main theories exist: either that local Mesolithic populations gradually adopted Neolithic innovations or that incoming farmers migrated into the area, bringing their way of life. Ancient DNA now clarifies this process. Furthermore, recent genome studies of prehistoric skeletons in the Maghreb revealed clear ancestry shifts during the Neolithic transition: the earliest Neolithic burials in Northwest Africa primarily show European Neolithic ancestry. The evidence implies that the initial farmers who emerged in Morocco and Algeria were predominantly descended from Neolithic populations from southern Europe. Researchers conclude that migrant European farmers introduced agriculture to Northwest Africa, which then rapidly disseminated among local groups.

This pattern fits into the broader wave of Neolithic farmer expansions from the Near East into Greece and Europe. It is well known that early farmers began in Anatolia and the Levant, spreading gradually westward via coastal Mediterranean routes to the Balkans, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia, and Iberia. Archaeologically, the spread of Impressa/Cardial pottery along coastal zones reflects the so-called "Mediterranean route" of Neolithic expansion. Notably, the appearance of agriculture in northeast Africa (e.g., the eastern Rif in Morocco) is nearly synchronous with its emergence in southern Spain, around 5500 BCE, suggesting maritime transfer of people and ideas. Thus, the wider agricultural dissemination led to a significant expansion of Neolithic populations from Europe into North Africa.

Note that a single migratory stream did not limit the genetic history of North Africa during the Neolithic. In addition to the European Neolithic influx, later contributions from the Near East are detectable. During the Middle Neolithic period, around 5000 BCE, the Maghreb genetic profile shows the introduction of a Levantine element, coinciding with the arrival of pastoralism (cattle, sheep, goats) in the region. This finding suggests that groups of herders possibly migrated westward from the eastern Mediterranean or the Nile Valley, bringing new genetic influences. Ultimately, by the end of the Neolithic, populations of the Maghreb exhibited a mixed genetic profile, combining local Paleolithic/Mesolithic heritage, European Neolithic farmer ancestry, and Near Eastern admixture. This prolonged prehistoric admixture explains why certain ancient European haplogroups (such as U5) or "Sardinian-type" genetic elements later appear among North African populations.

Regarding specifically Mycenaean, Sicilian, or Sardinian populations and their connection to North Africa, the data are fragmentary but indicative. There is no documented direct mass migration of Mycenaeans into North Africa during the Bronze Age. However, the presence of Mycenaean artifacts in Egypt and possible contacts with Libya suggest some level of interaction. After the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization (~1200 BCE), groups from the Aegean participated in the so-called "Sea Peoples," who reached as far as Egypt. Among them were the Sherden (possibly from Sardinia) and the Shekelesh (perhaps from Sicily). Although these groups clashed with Egypt, some may have settled in Libya or Canaan. These late-Chalcolithic or early Iron Age movements may have had a limited impact on western North Africa, though a minor genetic contribution from Aegean/European Bronze Age populations cannot be ruled out.

Moreover, the genetic landscape of the Carthaginians later exhibits strong affinities with ancient Greek populations, possibly linked to these early European movements or to Greek colonies established in Africa.

As for Sicily and Sardinia, these two major Mediterranean islands acted as bridges for population movements. Especially Sicily, due to its proximity to the Tunisian coast, served as a natural channel: early Neolithic settlers could have crossed in either direction between Tunisia and Sicily. During the 3rd millennium BCE (the Bronze Age), Sicily received influences from the Aegean world (e.g., Mycenaean finds) and later from Phoenician and Greek settlers. Sardinia, on the other hand, remained relatively genetically isolated for millennia (modern Sardinians preserve a high proportion of ancient Neolithic ancestry). Nonetheless, the Sherden people's history suggests some early contact with the eastern Mediterranean. In historic times, Carthaginian expansion led to the establishment of Phoenician colonies in Sardinia (e.g., Tharros), prompting some local population movements. Overall, we can say that the genetic impact of Sicilian and Sardinian populations on North Africa is detectable indirectly: either through early Neolithic dissemination (European farmers reaching the Maghreb) or through later historical interactions (e.g., integration of Sicilians into the Carthaginian network).

Phoenician Expansion and Genetic Interactions in the Western Mediterranean

During the Iron Age (1st millennium BCE), the Phoenicians expanded their maritime trading network, establishing numerous outposts and colonies throughout the western Mediterranean. By the 11th–10th century BCE, Phoenician settlements appeared in Spain (e.g., Cádiz), the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, Sardinia, and beyond. The genetic contribution of these Semitic settlers to local populations had long been an open question. Traditionally, it was believed that the "Punic" populations (i.e., the western Phoenician colonies such as Carthage) would exhibit a strong Phoenician (Levantine) genetic signature. However, large-scale ancient DNA analyses have overturned this assumption. Researchers discovered that populations in the western Mediterranean received limited direct genetic input from Phoenician mother cities (Tyre, Sidon, etc.).

Despite their intense cultural, economic, and linguistic influence, the original Phoenician cities contributed minimal direct DNA to the Punic populations of the central and western Mediterranean. The spread of Phoenician culture thus occurred not through mass migration but primarily through the diffusion of cultural models and the integration of local communities.

Specifically, every Phoenician-Carthaginian site studied shows remarkable heterogeneity regarding its inhabitants' origins. Researchers detected an "extremely heterogeneous" genetic profile in ancient skeletons from these sites. In almost all Punic communities — from Carthage itself to colonies in Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa — the majority of individuals exhibited ancestries similar to those of ancient Sicilian and Aegean populations (southern Europe), while a significant portion had North African ancestry. In contrast, direct Near Eastern/Semitic genetic input was minimal. This practically means that in Phoenician colonies, people of diverse backgrounds lived together: individuals of local North African descent alongside others of predominantly European (Sicilian/Greek) origin. The different Punic communities were connected via maritime "kinship networks." For instance, a pair of distant relatives (approximately second cousins) were found: one buried in a Phoenician city in North Africa, the other in a Phoenician settlement in Sicily. Such findings illustrate the cosmopolitan character of the Carthaginian network, where movement and intermarriage across different regions were common.

This theory also explains how Phoenician settlers, initially a demographic minority, eventually genetically assimilated local populations rather than replacing them. As geneticist Pierre Zalloua aptly put it, "The Phoenicians were a civilization of integration and assimilation — they settled wherever they traveled." Despite their broad and diverse biological ancestry, these mixed populations transmitted their cultural identity (language, religion, and technical knowledge).

The case of Carthage shows that a group can be very influential in trade and culture even if they are not the largest population, similar to some theories about how Indo-European languages spread, but the history, society, and population of northern Africa at that time were quite different.

In summary, the Carthaginian rulers spoke the Phoenician language and worshipped Phoenician gods, but their subjects and allies came from various Mediterranean nations. In the end, the genetic background of the Carthaginians in the western Mediterranean is spread out and varied, showing a blend of European and African genes with some small Semitic influences, instead of a clear "Phoenician" genetic identity. This conclusion aligns perfectly with historical accounts of the multiethnic societies of the western Mediterranean and highlights how population movements are inextricably linked to cultural interactions.

2,500-Year-Old Tombs Discovered in the Most Unexpected Place — A Rare Glimpse into Ancient Burial Practices

During routine roadworks in northern Poland, a remarkable archaeological discovery took everyone by surprise: 2,500-year-old prehistoric tombs unearthed just outside the city of Gdynia. What was meant to be the construction of a bypass road turned into a significant dig site, revealing three burial mounds containing seven tombs linked to the Lusatian and Pomeranian cultures.

An Accidental Find Turns into a Historic Breakthrough

The discovery was made near the Witomino district, where construction workers called in archaeologists after encountering unusual earth formations. Upon excavation, experts uncovered three burial mounds (known as kurhany), shedding light on human activity in the region during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age.

This marks the first systematic study of such burial structures within Gdynia's urban boundaries, offering rare insights into the city’s prehistoric past. The find came as part of a rescue excavation effort prompted by construction intersecting with known archaeological zones. The team uncovered a variety of burial types, including stone cist graves, cremation pits, and stone-lined tombs.

Inside the Mounds

One of the burial mounds contained a stone-built tomb with a unique urn burial believed to be linked to the Lusatian culture, which flourished from around 1300 to 500 BCE. This culture is known for its urnfield cemeteries and fortified settlements. Fascinatingly, a second cremation burial was found above the primary tomb, suggesting that the site was reused centuries later by another community.

The second mound revealed additional burials attributed to the Pomeranian culture, which succeeded the Lusatians and was active during the 7th to 5th centuries BCE. Among the grave goods, archaeologists discovered a face urn — a ceramic vessel with human facial features, a hallmark of Pomeranian funerary traditions.

The third mound yielded more ceramic fragments and cremated human remains, and excavation efforts are ongoing.

In the surrounding area, archaeologists also found a bronze axe, likely part of a ritual offering, further enriching the site’s significance.

Cultural Context and Spiritual Continuity

Experts believe these burial mounds reflect the spiritual continuity of sacred practices across different cultural periods. The reuse of the same sacred space by successive groups suggests a long-standing reverence for the site.

Dr. Maciej Stromski, the lead archaeologist overseeing the excavations, stated:

“The overlapping burials from different time periods reveal the deep respect these communities had for the site. These were not just graves — they were sacred spaces tied to collective memory and ancestral connection.”

The Lusatian culture, which spanned much of modern-day Poland, Germany, and the Czech Republic, is renowned for its advanced metalworking and well-structured societies. Its successor, the Pomeranian culture, preserved many burial traditions but introduced new symbolic forms, such as anthropomorphic urns.

Balancing Infrastructure and Heritage

Construction on the portion of the bypass road crossing the burial site has been temporarily halted to allow archaeologists time to fully document and analyze the findings. Work is expected to continue for another two to three weeks, and the area is currently under protection to prevent any disturbance.

City officials have expressed full support for the excavation efforts. A Gdynia municipal spokesperson confirmed that key artifacts may be put on display in local museums or incorporated into educational programs to highlight the region’s ancient heritage.

Construction on other parts of the bypass — which is intended to ease traffic congestion — will proceed as planned.

A Glimpse into Poland’s Prehistoric Past

This discovery adds to a growing list of prehistoric sites uncovered in northern Poland — a region known for its rich archaeology. However, ongoing urban development often limits access to untouched land, making finds like this increasingly rare and valuable.

The burial mounds of Gdynia offer a unique window into the funerary customs of early Northern European cultures. The artifacts unearthed, from urns to ritual tools, not only reflect spiritual continuity but also establish tangible links to a distant past.

With further analysis and conservation efforts underway, researchers hope to gain a deeper understanding of the beliefs, traditions, and social practices of the people who once lived in this land — and how their legacy shapes the cultural landscape we see today.

The 444-Million-Year-Old “Inside-Out” Fossil Mystery — The Shell Vanished, the Guts Remain Intact

A bizarre fossilized creature from 444 million years ago has left scientists scratching their heads for over two decades. Discovered north of Cape Town in South Africa, this ancient arthropod stood out for a strange reason: it was preserved inside out.

Nicknamed “Sue” (officially Keurbos susanae), the newly identified species baffled paleontologists until Dr. Sarah Gabbott from the University of Leicester uncovered its secret — a discovery she details in a study published in the journal Paleontology.

“Sue’s innards are like a fossilized time capsule — muscles, tendons, even intestines preserved in astonishing detail. And yet, her tough outer shell, legs, and head are completely gone, lost to decay some 440 million years ago,” Gabbott explains.

The fossil was found in a low-oxygen (anoxic) marine environment — a crucial condition for fossilization. However, the surrounding water also contained hydrogen sulfide, which scientists believe may have dissolved the exoskeleton, as reported by Popular Mechanics.

Ironically, while Sue’s tough outer shell decomposed, her internal organs were preserved in extraordinary detail by calcium phosphate — the same mineral that makes up human bones and teeth. Gabbott is still working to unravel the exact chemical process that allowed this “inside-out” fossilization to occur.

A Place in the Tree of Life?

Paleontologist Sarah Gabbott at the site where she discovered the fossil
University of Leicester

The site where Sue was found was once the floor of a prehistoric sea, dating back to a time when a mass glaciation wiped out around 85% of all species on Earth. Although the fossil offers an unprecedented glimpse into the soft anatomy of an ancient marine arthropod, placing Sue within the evolutionary tree has proved challenging — even 25 years after Gabbott’s initial discovery.

“This has been a research ultramarathon. Because the fossil is so beautifully preserved, there’s a vast amount of anatomy to interpret — layers of intricate detail stacked on top of each other.”

Today, arthropods make up about 85% of all animal species on the planet, from shrimp and spiders to mites and centipedes. But Sue’s unusual anatomy and unique preservation continue to set her apart, offering scientists a rare and valuable puzzle piece in the story of life on Earth.

Artificial Intelligence Solves One of Archaeology’s Greatest Mysteries

AI Unlocks the Secrets of the Nazca Lines, Revealing 303 New Geoglyphs in Just Six Months—and Reshaping the Future of Archaeology

For over a century, the mysterious Nazca Lines in Peru have puzzled archaeologists. These vast geoglyphs—crafted by the Nazca people between 200 BCE and 650 CE—stretch across the desert, forming intricate images of animals, plants, and tools. Many are so large and precise, they can only be fully appreciated from the air, and their purpose has long remained elusive.

Now, thanks to a groundbreaking collaboration between archaeologists and artificial intelligence, researchers have identified 303 previously unknown geoglyphs in just six months—effectively doubling the number of known figures. As reported by Science Focus, this remarkable achievement marks a major leap forward in solving one of archaeology’s most enduring enigmas.

The Power of AI in Archaeological Discovery

The project brought together researchers from the Nazca Institute at Yamagata University in Peru—led by Professor Masato Sakai—and IBM scientists. Their mission: to train AI systems to analyze vast aerial images and detect geoglyphs that had remained hidden to the human eye.

This AI-assisted approach drastically accelerated the process. As Sakai explains, “The ability to carry out this research in such a short time was only possible thanks to artificial intelligence.”

But the implications go far beyond the Nazca desert. AI is not only helping archaeologists find more geoglyphs—it’s transforming how ancient cultures are studied. By processing massive sets of aerial photographs, AI can detect patterns that humans might miss, offering a faster, more precise method of mapping and interpreting historical sites.

This success in Nazca is just the beginning. The same technology is already being applied to burial mounds, shipwrecks, and other archaeological locations around the globe.

Revolutionizing the Study of Ancient Civilizations

The Nazca Lines are among the first archaeological sites where AI has made such a significant impact. These figures—created by scraping away the top layer of soil to expose lighter-colored sediment beneath—demonstrate the Nazca people’s sophisticated understanding of geometry and spatial design.

German mathematician and astronomer Maria Reiche spent decades studying the lines, marveling at their near-perfect proportions. Now, artificial intelligence is helping uncover even more of these figures, offering new insights into their meaning and purpose.

Traditionally, archaeologists relied on manual surveys, ground photography, and mapping to study ancient sites. But as Dr. João Fonte of ERA Arqueologia notes, “Archaeology is now at the forefront of innovation” thanks to its adoption of digital tools.

In addition to AI, technologies like photogrammetry and remote sensing are enabling researchers to explore large areas more efficiently and with greater accuracy.

Shedding Light on Sacred Rituals

One of the most fascinating aspects of this AI-led discovery is the growing understanding of why the Nazca people created these figures. Sakai’s team suggests that many of the newly identified geoglyphs were part of ritual walkways—paths along which individuals would move in ceremonial processions to connect with the landscape and communicate with the divine.

The AI’s ability to locate and contextualize these figures supports the idea that the Nazca Lines were not just artistic expressions, but deeply symbolic and spiritual landmarks.

By analyzing the layout and distribution of the geoglyphs, researchers are also uncovering evidence of the Nazca culture’s advanced knowledge of spatial planning and possibly astronomy—clues that deepen our understanding of their connection to the land and cosmos.

AI and the Future of Archaeology

While its role in the Nazca project is already groundbreaking, artificial intelligence holds even greater potential for the future of archaeology. Dr. Alexandra Karamitrou, an AI and archaeology expert at the University of Southampton, is developing tools that could help locate a broader range of historical sites.

Her work shows that AI can do more than detect visible patterns like geoglyphs—it can also interpret complex relationships between ancient sites and environmental factors, such as proximity to water or elevation.

Beyond ancient art, AI has already proven useful in other fields of archaeological research. In 2023, researchers in the United Arab Emirates used AI to analyze satellite data from Saruq Al Hadid, a major copper-smelting center dating to 1270–800 BCE. The system revealed artifact distribution patterns and helped prioritize excavation zones.

AI also has the potential to aid in studying submerged shipwrecks, buried cities, and even tracking the impact of climate change on ancient settlements.

Challenges and Cautions

Despite its promise, AI is not infallible. Sakai’s team had to manually verify the AI’s predictions—reviewing dozens of candidate locations for each newly suggested geoglyph. “AI is not perfect, especially in archaeology,” notes Dr. Karamitrou. “But within a few years, we may have algorithms with impressive accuracy—saving researchers time, energy, and resources.”

As AI technology advances, its precision will continue to improve, allowing archaeologists to explore more ground with fewer resources. Automating the identification of archaeological features could dramatically accelerate research, unlocking secrets of ancient civilizations that have been buried for centuries.

While we still rely on human expertise to interpret and verify discoveries, artificial intelligence is proving to be a powerful ally—pushing the boundaries of what’s possible in archaeology and helping us see the past with fresh eyes.

Sealing the Past: A 4,000-Year-Old Funeral Rite Unearthed in Crete

Archaeologists working at the Sissi site in northern Crete have uncovered compelling evidence of a 4,000-year-old ritual that marked the symbolic end of a burial ground—and possibly, the community’s way of life as they knew it.

The discovery comes from a section known as Zone 9, where researchers found signs of an elaborate ceremony involving the final burials, destruction of tombs, and a massive communal feast. This ceremony, archaeologists believe, wasn’t just about honoring the dead—it was about closing a chapter of collective memory.

A Last Celebration in the Cemetery

In this final act of funerary ritual, the people of Sissi buried their last dead in small pits and ceramic vessels. Then, in what appears to be a deliberate and symbolic gesture, they dismantled the walls of the tombs, broke some bones to level the remains with the earth, and hosted what can only be described as a large communal feast.

The evidence? A thick layer of soil littered with thousands of ceramic fragments, including cup and plate shards, all dated to around 1700 BCE. According to researchers, these weren’t trash or random refuse. They were remnants of a carefully staged ritual meal, a way for the community to say farewell—not just to their dead, but to the era of communal burials itself.

After the celebration, the area was sealed with a layer of earth and stones, effectively closing the cemetery. Interestingly, when burials resumed in the area centuries later, the space was treated with unusual reverence, almost as if it had become sacred or forbidden.

Why Were the Tombs Destroyed?

Room 9.6, containing clay vessels FE147, FE148, and FE149 (left), and details of the clay vessels during excavation (right). Photo: N. Kress, A. Schmitt / Belgian School at Athens.

This wasn’t an act of neglect or vandalism—it was a response to profound social and cultural shifts, say archaeologists. Around the same time, the first Minoan palaces, like that of Knossos, began to rise, signaling a transition to more centralized political and religious systems.

Traditional communal tombs, often tied to clans or extended families, began to lose their significance. In their place, new ceremonial spaces emerged, such as mountain sanctuaries and sacred caves.

By ritually “burying” their own cemetery, the people of Sissi weren’t rejecting their past—they were honoring it, embedding it in collective memory. As the researchers put it, their message was clear: “This way of burial no longer defines us—but we won’t forget it.”

A Broader Minoan Practice?

Sissi isn’t the only site where similar practices have been found. In southern Crete, at Moni Odigitria, a circular tomb was emptied, its contents reburied in a pit alongside hundreds of broken cups. At Kefala Petras, some tombs were filled with stones, a practice archaeologists interpret as a symbolic ‘killing’ of the tomb.

However, not all Minoan cemeteries were closed this way. Some simply fell out of use, while others remained active as ritual spaces rather than burial sites. This variation suggests that each community responded differently to the same sweeping cultural changes.

A Ritual for the Living, Too

What makes the Sissi discovery so exceptional is the level of detail preserved. Using modern techniques—such as bone analysis and stratigraphy—archaeologists were able to reconstruct the sequence of events: from the last burials, to the final feast, to the moment the cemetery was sealed forever.

In the past, many Minoan cemeteries were excavated quickly, with limited documentation. Now, thanks to meticulous fieldwork, it’s becoming clear that farewell rituals were likely far more common than once thought.

These ceremonies weren’t only for the deceased. As archaeologists point out, they were also deeply meaningful for the living—a way to come together in times of uncertainty and declare:
“This is who we are now.”

Treasure of an Ancient Nomadic Elite Unearthed in Chechnya: Who Were the Alans?

A remarkable archaeological discovery has come to light in the Alkhan-Kala necropolis, located west of Grozny, Chechnya. Excavations revealed an intact burial mound belonging to a high-ranking member of the Alanian aristocracy, shedding new light on a powerful yet little-understood ancient culture.

The dig was conducted under the supervision of Dr. Azamat Akhmarov of the Academy of Sciences of the Chechen Republic, and it offers valuable insight into a group whose historical influence far outweighed the limited documentation left behind.

Who Were the Alans?

The Alans were an Iranic-speaking nomadic people, descendants of the Sarmatians, who gradually settled in the North Caucasus and later spread across parts of Europe and Africa. First mentioned in Roman sources during the 1st century AD, they eventually became integrated into Attila the Hun’s army, and some even allied with the Vandals in Gaul and the Iberian Peninsula.

The Alkhan-Kala Burial Mound

The archaeological site of Alkhan-Kala has been known since the 19th century, when Count A. Bobrinsky, then president of the Imperial Archaeological Commission, led the first excavations in the area.

The recently uncovered burial mound dates from between the 2nd and 5th centuries BC, marking the early phase of Alanian presence in the region. The tomb contained a range of grave goods that not only highlight the social status of the deceased—likely a tribal elite—but also demonstrate the artistic and technical sophistication of the time.

Grave Goods: Symbols of Wealth and Power

Among the findings were:

• Elaborate horse harnesses adorned with tourmalines

• Three swords

• Imported metal vessels

• Garnets and other valuable items

According to archaeologists, the wealth and craftsmanship of these objects point to active trade networks reaching well beyond the Caucasus and reflect a highly stratified society with a strong warrior class and aristocratic elite.

A Rare and Valuable Find

Dr. Akhmarov emphasized the rarity of such a discovery, noting that most elite Alanian tombs have been looted over time. “This undisturbed burial offers a unique window into an era we know very little about,” he explained. “It allows us to better understand the social structure, burial practices, and cultural connections of the Alans.”

The discovery is expected to advance research into the Alans’ historical presence and cultural influence across Eurasia, and to contribute significantly to our understanding of the development of Iranic nomadic civilizations.

Unearthed Legacy: Rare Elite Alanian Tomb Discovered in Chechnya

Archaeologists excavating near the village of Alkhan-Kala, west of Grozny in Chechnya, have uncovered a remarkable and undisturbed burial mound believed to contain the remains of an elite figure from the ancient Alanian culture. This rare find offers a captivating glimpse into the craftsmanship, hierarchy, and burial practices of a once-powerful nomadic people.

The Alani were Iranic-speaking pastoralists, originally part of the broader Sarmatian tribal confederation that roamed the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Emerging as a dominant group in the 1st century AD, they appear in Roman records and the inscriptions of Vologases. Over time, many Alani were absorbed into Attila’s Hunnic Empire, while others migrated westward into Gaul and Spain, integrating with tribes such as the Vandals.

Image Credit : Academy of Sciences of the Chechen Republic

The Alkhan-Kala necropolis, a burial ground comprised of ancient kurgans (mounds), was first excavated in the 19th century by Count A. Bobrinsky, then chairman of the Imperial Archaeological Commission. More than a century later, a new archaeological mission—led by Azamat Akhmarov of the Academy of Sciences of the Chechen Republic—has revealed one of the most significant Alanian finds to date.

The recently excavated tomb, dating to the early Alanian period (2nd–5th century BC), was found completely intact. Inside, archaeologists discovered a lavish collection of grave goods, including decorative horse harnesses inlaid with tourmalines, an intricately crafted bridle, three bladed weapons, garnets, and several imported metal vessels—all indicative of the high status of the individual buried there.

According to experts, the exquisite quality of the objects highlights the advanced metalworking and decorative skills of Alanian artisans. The richness of the tomb further suggests that the deceased held a significant social or military position within their community.

Akhmarov emphasized the rarity of such discoveries, noting that most Alanian tombs in the region have been looted over the centuries. The preservation of this site offers an unprecedented opportunity to better understand Alanian society, its structure, and its ceremonial practices.

This extraordinary find not only enriches our knowledge of nomadic cultures of the ancient Caucasus but also reinforces the Alani’s place in the broader story of Eurasian history and migration.

Ancient Garden Discovered at Jesus Christ’s Burial Site, Supporting Biblical Account

Archaeologists excavating beneath the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem have uncovered compelling evidence that supports a key detail from the New Testament: the presence of a garden near the site of Jesus Christ’s crucifixion and burial. The discovery offers strong validation of John 19:41, which reads:

“Now in the place where he was crucified there was a garden, and in the garden a new tomb in which no one had yet been laid.”

Led by Professor Francesca Romana Stasolla from Sapienza University of Rome, the excavation team unearthed botanical remains—olive trees and grapevines—dating back roughly 2,000 years. These remains, identified through archaeobotanical analysis of soil samples taken from beneath the church’s stone floor, provide rare physical evidence of cultivated land at the site.

Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Credit: Gerd Eichmann

“The archaeobotanical findings have been especially interesting for us, in light of what is mentioned in the Gospel of John,” Stasolla told the Times of Israel. “The Gospel mentions a green area between Calvary and the tomb, and we identified these cultivated fields.”

A Rare Glimpse Into First-Century Jerusalem

The alleged tomb of Jesus, inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Credit: adriatikus

The excavation, which began in 2022, is the most extensive archaeological exploration at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in nearly two centuries. It forms part of a larger restoration project authorized by the Orthodox Patriarchate, the Custody of the Holy Land, and the Armenian Patriarchate, with oversight from the Israel Antiquities Authority.

According to Stasolla, the site where the church stands today evolved over time: once a quarry, it became cultivated land, and by the 1st century CE, was used as a burial ground.

In addition to botanical evidence, archaeologists uncovered pottery shards, oil lamps, fragments of glass, and stone garden walls, some of which date as far back as the Iron Age. These findings point to continuous human activity and pilgrimage in the area across multiple historical periods.

Technology Meets Theology

The tomb of Jesus Christ with the rotunda is seen in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Credit: Jlascar

While early evidence suggests the garden dates to the early Roman period, radiocarbon dating is still in progress to confirm the exact age of the remains. The excavation has temporarily paused to accommodate the arrival of Christian pilgrims during Holy Week and Easter, but will resume shortly after the celebrations. The team is also using advanced techniques like 3D mapping and ground-penetrating radar to digitally reconstruct the ancient landscape beneath the church.

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre: A Sacred Landmark

Built in 335 CE by Roman Emperor Constantine I, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is traditionally believed to be the site of both Golgotha—where Jesus was crucified—and the tomb where he was laid to rest. Historical records from Constantine’s era mention the discovery of an ancient tomb during construction, which many identified as Jesus’ burial place.

Adding another layer of mystery, archaeologists recently found a circular marble base beneath the Edicule—the small shrine that houses the tomb—which is currently being studied to determine its origin and significance.

While theological debates continue regarding the exact location of Jesus’ burial, this latest archaeological discovery marks a significant step forward in confirming the physical setting described in the Gospels.

What Lion Bite Marks Revealed About Roman-Era Gladiators

Bite marks found on the remains of a man buried near the ancient Roman city of Eboracum — now known as York — are shedding new light on the brutal reality of life (and death) in the Roman Empire.

The marks, made by a lion, were discovered on the skeleton of a man estimated to be between 26 and 35 years old at the time of his death, around the 3rd century AD. At that time, Eboracum was a major Roman military base and urban center in what is now northern England.

These bite marks — uncovered during excavations just outside modern-day York — represent the first physical evidence of man-versus-beast combat in Roman Britain, according to a new study published in PLOS One.

A Rare Glimpse Into Gladiatorial Combat

While ancient texts and mosaics have long depicted dramatic battles between humans and wild animals like lions and bears, until now, no direct archaeological evidence had ever confirmed these events actually took place in the Roman provinces.

“This is the first time we have tangible proof of gladiators fighting large animals like lions in the Roman Empire,” said Tim Thompson, a biological anthropologist and lead author of the study.

Upon examining the man's injuries, Thompson described clear signs of “puncture wounds” from “large teeth piercing the bone.” However, he added, “We don’t believe this was the fatal injury. It more likely indicates that the individual was already incapacitated when the animal attacked.”

He noted that big cats typically kill by biting the head or neck, suggesting the man may have already been dying — or dead — when he was mauled.

Gladiator Graveyard

Reuters

Excavations in the area began more than 20 years ago and have since uncovered around 80 decapitated skeletons. Most of the remains belonged to young men who showed clear signs of brutal violence, leading researchers to believe they had stumbled upon a gladiator cemetery.

Historical records suggest that wild animals were sometimes used not only for combat spectacles but also for the execution of prisoners and criminals — adding a layer of grim reality to this new evidence.

The lion-inflicted wounds on this individual now serve as a haunting reminder of the savage entertainment culture that thrived under the Roman Empire — and the real human cost behind the spectacle.

Iron Age Necropolis Unearthed: Intricate Swords and Jewelry Found, But No Human Remains

Why weren’t any skeletons preserved? The soil holds the answer.

Archaeologists have uncovered a large Iron Age necropolis, rich in swords, jewelry, and other artifacts that reveal the burial customs and social hierarchies of the time — despite the complete absence of human remains.

The discovery was made at the archaeological site of Creuzier-le-Neuf, in France’s Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, by a team from the French National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research (Inrap).

A Burial Ground Without Bones

One of the tombs contained a sword (Photo: V. Georges / Inrap).

Spanning approximately 650 square meters, the burial site is enclosed by a wide, square-shaped ditch. Inside, archaeologists documented more than 100 graves, most aligned along a north-south axis. While the acidic soil has completely destroyed all skeletal remains, the site still offers a wealth of information thanks to the exceptional preservation of metal grave goods and ceremonial objects.

The layout and structure of the necropolis mirror similar Iron Age burial grounds found in Champagne, the Paris Basin, and Burgundy, suggesting shared cultural practices and social structures among Gallic communities prior to the Roman conquest.

Objects of Power and Prestige

Although human remains are absent, the funerary objects found — ranging from weapons to finely crafted jewelry — provide insights into the status and roles of those buried.

One standout grave contained a cremation burial, distinguishable by its ritual practices and elaborate offerings. Among the ashes, archaeologists found a small, intricately decorated vessel, adorned with perforated patterns alternating with painted bands — a sign of the community’s ritualistic sophistication and the diversity of funerary customs practiced at the site.

Nearly half the graves contained decorative metal items, highlighting the importance of status symbols in Iron Age burial rites. Bracelets made of bronze alloy were found in abundance — some simple and spiral-shaped, others finely crafted with concentric circles, “eye” motifs, and concealed fastenings that speak to the artisan’s high skill level.

One grave yielded a perfectly preserved pair of bracelets decorated with classic Celtic designs — repeating curved lines and concentric eye-shaped marks.

Brooches and Jewelry Set With Gemstones

Archaeologists also recovered 18 brooches and pins, once used to fasten garments. Though heavily corroded at the time of discovery, careful restoration at the CREAM lab in Vienna brought them back to life. One brooch features a design similar to that on the bracelets, indicating stylistic continuity.

Another piece stands out for its luxurious craftsmanship — a brooch set with a gemstone resembling a polished pebble, and decorated with a repoussé silver disk in low relief. Based on its features, this brooch dates to between the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BCE.

The Swords: Symbols of Warrior Elites

Short sword, fully decorated, with an antenna hilt, found in burial 782. (Source: Flore Giraud / Inrap).

The most spectacular finds, however, are two fully preserved swords, still encased in their scabbards. The first, found in Grave 782, is a remarkable weapon. Its scabbard is richly adorned with spiral patterns and eye motifs, and was designed to be worn at the side. The handle and front plate, made from bronze alloy, feature embedded stones and decorations — including swastika-like motifs and possibly fragments of glass paste.

X-ray analysis revealed additional symbols on the blade tip — a circle and a crescent moon, separated by fine details — suggesting the sword was crafted in the early 4th century BCE.

The second sword, found in Grave 990, features straps designed for close-body wear. While less elaborate, with only a pair of eye motifs at the top of the scabbard, it preserves traces of textile fibers fused to the oxidized metal — possibly remains of the deceased’s clothing or a burial shroud. Its shape and construction also place it firmly in the 4th century BCE.

The excavation was conducted under the scientific direction of Benjamin Oury and Vincent Georges of Inrap, as part of a broader archaeological initiative led by Vichy Communauté and overseen by the regional archaeological authority.

How Do Archaeologists Know Where to Dig Without GPS?

Before the days of GPS, satellite imagery, and ground-penetrating radar, archaeologists had to rely on something a little less scientific — myths, local legends, intuition, and sometimes a good chat at the village café.

When we hear about the discovery of Troy, Pompeii, or Mycenae, it’s easy to overlook a fundamental question: How did they know where to dig? There were no maps, no coordinates — often not even ruins visible above ground. And yet, some people set out with little more than a dream, a story, and a stubborn obsession.

Archaeologists: The Original History Detectives

The earliest archaeologists were less like scientists and more like detectives. They pieced together clues from ancient myths, village lore, and the travel notes of explorers who had passed through “somewhere around here” a few centuries earlier. Then, with a mixture of boldness and gut instinct, they launched full-scale expeditions based on educated guesses.

Take Heinrich Schliemann, the man who set out to find the legendary city of Troy. He carried Homer’s Iliad in his pocket like a guidebook, using its poetic descriptions to match the landscape of Asia Minor. When he came across a hill that matched Homer’s clues — near the sea and overlooking a plain — he dug. And he struck gold. Literally.

Names, Memories, and Serendipity

Sometimes, the clues were hidden in plain sight. If a modern village bore a name like “Ancient Corinth,” there was a good chance that, beneath it, you’d find… Ancient Corinth. But the savviest archaeologists also considered how ancient names might have changed over centuries, tracing linguistic transformations to uncover forgotten cities.

Monks, travelers, and early explorers of the 18th and 19th centuries left behind diaries, sketches, and notes — the breadcrumbs of history. These relics were tracked down in libraries, archives, and monasteries and became a kind of primitive GPS for the archaeologists who followed.

And then there were the locals — the living memory of the land. They were the Google Maps of the past. Grandfathers in villages would say, “There are some old stones over there,” or “When we dug a well, we found broken pots.” One casual comment over coffee could launch an entire excavation.

Today’s Tools and Yesterday’s Instincts

Today, technology plays a vital role in archaeology. Satellite images, LIDAR scans, and geophysical surveys can pinpoint promising dig sites with incredible precision. But even with all the tools at their disposal, the first step in every excavation remains the same: someone gazes across a landscape and wonders aloud —
“What if it’s there?”

Because sometimes, the most powerful archaeological tool of all… is curiosity.

Scientists Propose New Theory About the Antikythera Mechanism — Was It Actually a Toy?

The Antikythera Mechanism, long regarded as the world’s first computer and a marvel of ancient Greek engineering, may not have been the precise astronomical tool we thought it was. A new study suggests it might have served a very different purpose — perhaps even as a sophisticated toy.

A Mysterious Masterpiece From Antiquity

Discovered in 1900 in a Roman-era shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, the mechanism was found inside a wooden box and composed of intricate bronze gears. Over time, 81 fragments of the device have been recovered, revealing a total of 40 handmade gears.

Believed to date back to around 100 BCE, the Antikythera Mechanism is often hailed as the earliest known analog computer. Previous research has shown it could track planetary movements, mark the passage of days and years, and even predict eclipses. Scans conducted in 2008 also suggested it recorded major events in the ancient Greek calendar — including the Olympic Games.

Despite over a century of study, the device continues to puzzle scientists and historians, inspiring both serious scholarship and far-fetched theories — including claims that it’s proof of alien intervention in human history, as the Daily Mail wryly notes.

A Radical New Perspective

Now, researchers from the National University of Mar del Plata in Argentina have introduced a fresh perspective. Their analysis suggests the mechanism might not have been a reliable scientific instrument at all. Instead, they argue, it could have been something far simpler — a toy.

Using computer simulations, the Argentine team studied the triangular teeth of the device’s gears, a feature previously believed to be essential to its operation. They found that imprecisions in the gear construction would have caused frequent jamming, making the device impractical for accurate astronomical use.

According to their findings, the gears would likely get stuck while turning the crank — now lost — that powered the system. The uneven movement of the triangular gear teeth would also cause inconsistent motion, leading to acceleration and deceleration with every turn.

Such flaws, the team argues, would have made the mechanism unreliable. This led them to propose a provocative idea: what if it was never meant to be a precision instrument at all, but rather a clever object designed for amusement — possibly even a child’s toy?

A Paradox of Precision and Play

Despite their theory, the researchers are quick to acknowledge the device’s exceptional craftsmanship. The time, effort, and skill required to build the Antikythera Mechanism seem far beyond what one would expect for a mere toy.

“It seems unlikely that someone would go to such lengths to construct such a complex yet non-functional device,” the team noted.

Still, they emphasize that only about one-third of the original mechanism survives today. This means that some of the most critical components may be missing, making it difficult to judge the mechanism’s original precision based solely on the current fragments. The Daily Mail points out that the actual device may have been much more reliable than this recent simulation suggests.

Not the Final Word

The study, published on the preprint server arXiv, has not yet undergone peer review and joins a long list of hypotheses surrounding this ancient enigma.

In the past, British astrophysicist Mike Edmunds concluded that the Antikythera Mechanism was likely created for educational demonstrations rather than practical astronomical predictions. The Argentine researchers support this view, noting that the errors observed in the mechanism exceed acceptable margins for functional use.

They call for more refined research techniques to truly understand the device’s accuracy and capabilities, reminding us that the Antikythera Mechanism, more than 2,000 years after its creation, still holds secrets waiting to be unlocked.

Whether an ancient scientific calculator, an educational model, or even a high-end toy, the Antikythera Mechanism remains one of history’s most fascinating technological relics — a testament to the brilliance and curiosity of the ancient Greek mind.

Harvard Scientists Say Ancient Carthaginians Were Genetically Closer to Greeks Than Phoenicians

New research from Harvard University challenges long-held assumptions about the origins of the ancient Carthaginians. According to a study led by renowned geneticist David Reich, the people of Carthage—one of the most powerful cities of the ancient Mediterranean—were genetically more similar to Greeks than to Phoenicians.

In a report published in Nature and highlighted by The Economist, the research team analyzed DNA from 17 skeletons unearthed in Carthage (modern-day Tunisia), along with 86 others from Carthaginian settlements across North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain. They also included 25 individuals buried at Achziv and Beirut, major Phoenician sites near Tyre in present-day Lebanon.

A Greek Connection Hidden in DNA

Although Carthage was founded in the 9th century BCE as a Phoenician trading post and colony of Tyre—a major Semitic port city—the genetic data paints a more complex picture. While Carthage developed its own empire and distinct Semitic culture, the study reveals that its population did not share strong genetic ties with the Phoenicians as previously assumed.

Instead, Reich and his team discovered a unique genetic profile they classified as “Carthaginian,” composed predominantly of Greek, North African, and Sicilian ancestry, with only minimal Phoenician genetic input.

Surprising Insights into Ancient Carthage

The Carthaginian Empire shown in grey before the outbreak of the First Punic War.

The presence of North African and Sicilian DNA is understandable, given Carthage's extensive colonies in those regions. However, the significant Greek genetic influence came as a surprise, particularly since Greeks and Carthaginians were often rivals, especially during their overlapping efforts to colonize Sicily. Their frequent military clashes in that region would suggest separation rather than intermingling.

Even more intriguing is the relative lack of genetic material from Spain and Sardinia, despite both regions having hosted major Carthaginian colonies. This raises the question: did Carthaginian settlers intentionally avoid mixing with local populations, perhaps due to cultural or social biases? The study doesn’t offer a definitive answer, leaving this as one of the enduring mysteries.

From Hannibal to Roman Ruins

Carthage produced some of the most notable figures of the ancient world, including Hannibal, widely regarded as one of history’s greatest military commanders. In 218 BCE, during the Second Punic War, he famously led his army—including African war elephants—across the Alps to invade Roman territory. For 15 years, he ravaged Roman lands but ultimately failed to capture the city itself, retreating to North Africa.

Carthage was eventually destroyed by Rome in 146 BCE at the end of the Punic Wars. However, the Romans later rebuilt the city, transforming it into a major hub of the Roman Empire. It remained a key center until its second destruction during the Muslim conquest in 698 CE.

This groundbreaking genetic study not only reshapes our understanding of Carthaginian heritage but also highlights the intricate web of cultural and genetic exchange in the ancient Mediterranean—where even enemies left a lasting imprint on one another.

Leonardo da Vinci: The Greatest Mind of the Renaissance

Leonardo da Vinci stands as one of the most iconic figures of the Renaissance and one of the greatest artists and thinkers in history. Painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, scientist, anatomist, inventor, and philosopher—Leonardo embodied the ideal of the homo universalis, the “universal man.”

A Genius is Born

Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452, in the village of Vinci, near Florence, Italy. He was the illegitimate son of a prominent notary, Piero da Vinci, and a peasant woman named Caterina. From a young age, Leonardo displayed a remarkable talent for both painting and engineering.

At around age 14, he began an apprenticeship in the workshop of the renowned Florentine artist Andrea del Verrocchio, where he was introduced to painting, sculpture, and the fundamentals of mechanical design.

Master of the Brush

Leonardo’s painting is known for its exquisite detail, realism, and masterful use of perspective. He developed and refined techniques such as sfumato—the soft blending of light and shadow—and chiaroscuro, the dramatic contrast between light and dark.

Notable Works:

• Mona Lisa (La Gioconda): Possibly the most famous portrait in art history. Her enigmatic smile continues to captivate and inspire countless interpretations. The painting is housed at the Louvre in Paris.

• The Last Supper (Il Cenacolo): A mural in Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, depicting the moment Jesus reveals his impending betrayal. The composition, expression, and dynamism of the figures are masterpieces of Renaissance art.

• The Virgin of the Rocks: Painted in two versions (housed in the Louvre and the National Gallery, London), it portrays the Virgin Mary with Jesus and John the Baptist in a rocky grotto.

More Than an Artist

Leonardo’s brilliance extended far beyond the canvas. His notebooks, totaling over 13,000 pages, reveal a scientific mind with a wide range of interests—anatomy, hydrodynamics, mechanics, botany, geology, aerodynamics, and physics.

Key Achievements and Ideas:

• Anatomy: He conducted detailed dissections of human and animal bodies, producing astonishingly accurate drawings of muscles, organs, and skeletal structures.

• Engineering: Leonardo sketched designs for flying machines, early helicopters, tanks, cranes, and even a rudimentary bicycle.

• Hydrodynamics: He studied the movement of water and proposed ideas for irrigation systems and defensive infrastructure.

Although most of his inventions were never built in his lifetime, many of his ideas anticipated technologies by centuries.

A Philosophy of Wonder

Leonardo championed observation and empirical study. He believed that art and science were two expressions of the same truth, seeking to understand the world through reason, nature, and beauty. His famous quote, “La pittura è una cosa mentale” (“Painting is a mental thing”), captures his belief in the intellectual power of art.

Final Years and Legacy

Leonardo spent his final years in France, at the court of King Francis I, who held him in great esteem. He died on May 2, 1519, in the town of Amboise, leaving behind a vast legacy and an enduring aura of mystery that continues to inspire artists, scientists, and inventors.

An Enduring Inspiration

Leonardo da Vinci remains the ultimate symbol of Renaissance spirit. His multifaceted genius shows how curiosity, creativity, and perseverance can transcend the limits of time. Even today, his work is studied, admired, and celebrated—reminding us of the boundless potential of the human mind.

First-Ever Sighting of a Live Colossal Squid in Antarctic Waters

In a landmark moment for marine science, a live colossal squid has been observed in the depths of the Antarctic Ocean for the very first time. The groundbreaking footage was captured in March by a deep-sea exploration mission led by Dr. Kat Bolstad, a marine biologist specializing in cephalopods at the Auckland University of Technology in New Zealand.

Although Dr. Bolstad herself did not initially spot the creature during her expedition, a surprising revelation awaited her upon her return. A video recorded on March 9 by the SuBastian submersible, operated by the Schmidt Ocean Institute, captured a transparent, juvenile cephalopod gliding gracefully at a depth of 600 meters near the South Sandwich Islands.

“It didn’t take long to realize what we were looking at,” said Bolstad. “As soon as I saw the footage, I knew it was highly likely we had captured a juvenile colossal squid on camera.”

What Is the Colossal Squid?

The colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni) holds the title of the largest invertebrate on the planet—surpassing even the better-known giant squid. It can grow to lengths of 6 to 7 meters (about 20 to 23 feet) and has eyes larger than a basketball—the largest eyes in the animal kingdom.

The first evidence of this elusive species dates back to 1925, when tentacle fragments were found in the stomach of a sperm whale. Since then, only dead or partially consumed specimens have been recovered. Never before has a living colossal squid been observed in its natural environment—until now.

Why Is the Colossal Squid So Rare?

Colossal squids inhabit the abyssal depths of Antarctic waters and are notoriously evasive, steering well clear of human activity. They are extremely sensitive to environmental disturbances—any unexpected movement could signal danger, particularly from their primary predator, the sperm whale.

The young squid filmed by SuBastian was found in shallower waters (around 600 meters deep), compared to the even greater depths where adults are believed to reside. Its nearly transparent body may serve as camouflage, helping it evade predators in the ocean’s twilight zone.

Technology Opens a Window to the Deep

The SuBastian submersible is part of the Nippon Foundation–Nekton Ocean Census, a global initiative dedicated to discovering previously unknown marine species. Advanced underwater camera systems enabled real-time transmission of deep-sea footage—offering scientists and the public alike a rare glimpse into Earth’s most remote ecosystems.

“It’s amazing that we can now participate in deep-sea exploration from anywhere in the world, as it happens,” said Bolstad. “The technology is truly transformative.”

What This Means for Ocean Science

This extraordinary footage could mark a turning point for marine conservation. According to experts, direct observation of such rare creatures could influence future decisions on deep-sea mining regulations and the management of human activity in remote oceanic regions.

Dr. Bolstad remains hopeful of one day encountering an adult specimen. “I can’t wait to see a fully grown colossal squid, alive in the environment where it truly belongs—the deep Antarctic sea,” she said. Yet she finds joy in this first sighting being of a juvenile. “It looks like a tiny glass sculpture. It’s mesmerizing.”

The first live recording of the colossal squid opens an exciting new chapter in ocean exploration—and reminds us how much there is still to discover about the planet we call home.

The Charioteer of Delphi: A Farewell to Archaic Art

Polyzalos, the tyrant of Gela and brother of Hieron of Syracuse, celebrated his chariot race victory by dedicating an elaborate monument to Apollo at Delphi. This grand offering—a quadriga (four-horse chariot) with Polyzalos himself aboard, accompanied by a charioteer—once stood proudly at the sacred site. But in 373 BCE, a devastating rockslide from the Phaedriades cliffs destroyed much of the sanctuary, crushing the bronze horses, the chariot, and the rider. Only the charioteer survived.

And yet, art has its own logic in destruction. While we lost a remarkable composition crafted by master bronze-workers—renowned for their depictions of athletic triumphs in Elis and Delphi—what remained became even more captivating. The charioteer, now alone without his horses, without his chariot which once concealed him up to the waist, and without the noble figure beside him, stands as one of the most intriguing and evocative figures in ancient sculpture. His very isolation stirs the imagination—of the lost companions, the unknown sculptor. The work was completed by two creators: the artist and time. And time, in this case, proved to be an inspired collaborator.

Mastery in the Details

What remains most striking are the charioteer’s lower limbs—bare feet that were never meant to be seen. Even knowing they would be hidden behind the chariot, the sculptor gave them meticulous attention, carving the feet and legs with such grace and anatomical precision that they remain among the finest examples in all of Greek sculpture. Each toe is individually rendered, the ankles defined, the shins rising in subtle curvature. The soles plant firmly, grounding the figure with calm assurance. These elements together create a distinct harmony—an archaic purity that resonates with timeless aesthetic appeal.

A Moment of Poise After the Storm

In the charioteer's stillness, we glimpse the frenzy that came before. There is a quiet grandeur—a body soothed by victory. This is the moment after the contest, during the slow ceremonial parade when the champion, motionless in his chariot, receives the jubilant applause of the crowd. The statue captures this pause, this reward. It stands straight, both feet flat, robed in a long, heavy chiton with deep, unbroken folds. His posture is disciplined, composed—an embodiment of dignity and triumph.

Two subtle motions give the figure its life. One is the slight lean of the body, and even more so of the head, to the right—a tilt that suggests introspection or calm elation. The expression on his face, eyes cast with a serene intensity, conveys a quiet pride. The lips, gently parted; the nostrils, flaring with the breath of exertion; the brows, arching in perfect curves—all contribute to a sense of vivid realism.

Most astonishing are the eyes: crafted with inlays of different metals set against a light-colored enamel base, they seem to shimmer with thought and emotion. They reflect victory—not as spectacle, but as lived experience. A triumph captured in bronze.

A Sculptural Mystery

The Charioteer is youth in sculpted form—youth touched by light, shaped by discipline and purpose, yet brimming with vitality. No other ancient work combines such poised stillness with freshness, such formal strength with human softness. The chiton reveals a powerful right arm, and the relaxed hand that holds the reins displays a musical elegance in its curves.

But who was the artist behind this marvel? Some suggest Pythagoras of Rhegion, others Kritios or Kalamis. We may never know. What we do know is that this masterpiece emerged in a pivotal moment—the end of the Archaic period, just before the dawn of Phidias. Like a tree bursting into bloom just before decline, archaic art gave us a few final works of concentrated beauty, full of mystery and emotional depth.

The Charioteer Rediscovered

The Charioteer, the most iconic piece in the Delphi Archaeological Museum, was unearthed on April 16 (28, New Style), 1896, during the “Grande Fouille”—the great excavation carried out by the French School at Athens between 1892 and 1901, under official license from the Greek government.

The statue was originally part of a larger dedication made by Polyzalos to commemorate (most likely) his victory at the Pythian Games, either in 478 or 474 BCE. The offering included the four-horse chariot, the charioteer, and two stable hands who likely walked beside the horses. It was all likely destroyed by the great earthquake of 373 BCE.

No surviving records definitively attribute the Charioteer to any known sculptor. Over the years, scholars have linked it with Pythagoras of Rhegion, Kritios, or Kalamis, but without consensus. What remains clear is that this bronze figure, both grounded and exalted, marks the final moment before the classical bloom—a "pre-Phidian" miracle in bronze.

Spain: Trapped in the Ceiling of a Cave – A Surprising Archaeological Discovery

In a nearly flooded cave in eastern Spain, archaeologists have uncovered a remarkable set of discoveries that shed light on ancient Roman ritual practices.

While exploring the Cova de les Dones—literally the “Cave of the Women”—a team of archaeologists stumbled upon objects dating back nearly 2,000 years. These unexpected finds offer a rare glimpse into spiritual customs from the Roman era.

The discovery was made when the team, carefully navigating the dark cave with flashlights, spotted a rusted coin wedged between the ceiling and a stalactite. Lab analysis revealed the coin dates from the reign of Roman Emperor Claudius, who ruled between 41 and 54 AD. Experts believe the coin was deliberately placed in the cave as an offering, likely tied to ancient rituals.

But the coin was just the beginning. The team also uncovered 15 inscriptions carved into the cave walls—likely etched during the Roman occupation of the region. Though their full meaning remains unclear, these engravings, along with the coin, suggest the cave may have once served as a sacred site or sanctuary.

The discovery has taken researchers by surprise, not only because of the cave’s challenging conditions but also due to the rare insight it provides into the spiritual life of Roman-era inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula. As analysis continues, the cave’s mysterious past is slowly being brought to light—one inscription at a time.

How Many Achaeans Were Inside the Trojan Horse According to Greek Mythology?

The legendary Trojan Horse is one of the most iconic stories in Greek mythology—a clever stratagem devised by the Achaeans (Greeks) to infiltrate and ultimately conquer the city of Troy. But one question has intrigued scholars and enthusiasts alike for centuries:

Just how many warriors were actually hidden inside the wooden horse?

The Numbers Behind the Myth

According to Homer’s Odyssey, the Trojan Horse concealed twelve of the Achaeans’ greatest heroes. Among them were familiar names like Diomedes, Agamemnon, Menelaus, Idomeneus, Philoctetes, Odysseus, and Neoptolemus (the son of Achilles). However, Homer doesn’t specify an exact number—just that they were the elite of the Greek forces.

Other ancient sources offer more specific figures:

• Apollodorus claims that the horse housed 50 warriors.

• John Tzetzes, a 12th-century Byzantine scholar, listed 23 soldiers by name.

• Quintus of Smyrna, a later epic poet, provides 29 names of warriors hidden inside the structure.

Interpreting the Variations

These differing accounts reflect the rich tapestry of interpretations that developed around this myth over time. As each author brought their own lens to the story—some focusing on drama, others on detail—the numbers and names of the men inside the horse naturally varied.

What remains consistent, though, is the enduring image of a small group of brave warriors concealed within a masterfully constructed wooden horse—one of the greatest deceptions in mythological history. The exact number may be debated, but the impact of the story is undisputed.

So, how many Achaeans were in the Trojan Horse? It depends on whom you ask. But whether it was 12, 23, 29, or 50, they all played their part in the fall of Troy—and in creating one of the most memorable tales of ancient Greek mythology.

What Was the Favorite Color of Ancient Greek Women?

While there are no surviving historical records explicitly stating the “favorite color” of women in ancient Greece—personal preferences weren’t something people documented at the time—we can still glean some insights. By examining archaeological finds, ancient artwork, literary references, and the cultural symbolism of colors, we get a vivid picture of how ancient Greek women might have used color to express identity, femininity, and status.

Color as Symbol and Statement

In ancient Greece, color was more than aesthetic—it carried meaning. Colors were used in clothing, art, decoration, and religious rituals, often signaling social status, gender roles, or the significance of an occasion.

Women typically wore garments such as chitons, peploi, and himatia, dyed with natural pigments extracted from plants, minerals, or insects. Among these colors, a few stood out for their frequency, symbolism, or prestige.

Purple: The Color of Prestige

Perhaps the most luxurious and coveted of all was purple, made from the costly Murex sea snail. This dye was labor-intensive to produce and, as a result, extremely expensive. It was associated with wealth, power, and nobility.

Upper-class women likely wore purple during special events—such as weddings or religious ceremonies. Homer, in the Iliad, refers to women wearing purple fabrics, indicating its desirability and elite status.

Given its rarity and beauty, it’s likely that purple was considered a desirable color among ancient Greek women.

Red and Saffron: Everyday Beauty and Symbolism

Red, made from plant-based dyes like madder root or saffron, was widely used for festive and everyday garments. It symbolized vitality and femininity. Figurines and frescoes—from places like Santorini and Knossos—depict women wearing garments with red accents.

Particularly notable is the saffron yellow, derived from the crocus plant. It was popular in women's clothing, especially during weddings, symbolizing fertility and prosperity.

According to mythology, Hera wore a saffron-colored veil, and the poet Sappho frequently described saffron and purple fabrics in her verses—linking them to beauty and femininity.

White: Purity and Piety

White, often from naturally bleached fabrics, was associated with purity and religious devotion. Priestesses and women participating in sacred ceremonies often wore white.

In art—such as marble statues of Korai—white is dominant. Though today we see these sculptures as monochrome, archaeological analysis has revealed they were originally painted with vibrant colors, combining white with hues like red and blue.

Blue: Calm and Coastal Connection

Blue, derived from indigo or lapis lazuli, appears in Minoan frescoes and ceramics. It was often used in women’s garments and associated with the sea, tranquility, and harmony—perhaps contributing to its appeal.

Frescoes from Thera (16th century BCE) and the Korai of the Acropolis (6th century BCE) depict women in colorful garments, prominently featuring red, yellow, blue, and white. These vivid colors remind us that ancient statues weren’t pure white, as commonly thought, but richly painted.

Status and Affordability

Vase paintings—especially on red-figure Attic pottery—often show women dressed in purple or saffron garments, hinting at the popularity of these colors. Sappho’s poetry reinforces this, linking luxurious fabrics with elegance and allure.

Homer’s epics also describe iconic women—Helen, Nausicaa—wearing brightly colored clothes, especially in purple and white.

However, access to color was also a matter of class. Women of the middle and lower classes likely favored more affordable hues like white or yellow, while aristocrats used purple to display their wealth. Dyes were expensive and time-consuming to produce, making vibrant fabrics a clear marker of social status.

In summary, while we may never know for certain what the “favorite color” of ancient Greek women was, the cultural evidence points to purple and saffron as highly prized, with red, white, and blue also playing important roles in daily and ceremonial life. Through color, women expressed identity, status, and beauty—leaving us a vibrant legacy that still fascinates today.

Ancient Mosaic of Mythical Medusa Reconstructed Using Rare Technique—Experts Call It One of a Kind

An ancient mosaic nearly 2,000 years old depicting the mythical Medusa has been unveiled once again to the public in the ancient city of Kibyra, located in the Gölhisar district of Burdur Province in southwestern Turkey.

During the winter months, the mosaic was carefully covered to protect it from harsh weather, but with the arrival of spring, it is now on display again for the 2025 summer season.

A Unique Technique and Architectural Setting

The Medusa mosaic was crafted using a rare technique known as opus sectile, which involves assembling precisely cut, multicolored marble pieces into intricate designs. This sophisticated method makes the mosaic one of the very few surviving examples of its kind anywhere in the world.

The artwork adorns the floor of the city’s odeon, a multifunctional venue in antiquity used for concerts, assemblies, theatrical performances, and even court proceedings. This structure stands as the central architectural element of ancient Kibyra—known in antiquity as the “City of Gladiators”—located approximately 108 kilometers from the city center of Burdur.

Protected Through the Winter

Throughout the winter, expert conservators carefully covered the mosaic to shield it from humidity and frost, both of which pose threats to its preservation. Now, with the protective layers removed, the site is open to visitors and will remain accessible until late November 2025.

Professor Şükrü Özüdoğru, an archaeologist leading the excavations at Kibyra and a faculty member at Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, announced the reopening of the site via his social media channels.

The Medusa Legend

Medusa, or Gorgo, was one of the three Gorgons in Greek mythology and the only one who was mortal. She was infamous for her deadly gaze, which could turn anyone who looked at her with ill intent into stone. This iconic trait is vividly captured in the mosaic, rendered with extraordinary detail.

Her presence in such a public space likely served an apotropaic purpose—intended to ward off evil and protect the building from harm, much like the concept of the “evil eye” in Mediterranean folklore.

A Masterpiece of Design and Preservation

Experts emphasize that what makes this piece truly unique is not only its artistic technique and stunning design but also its remarkable state of preservation after nearly two millennia. It stands as a rare and powerful testament to the skill of ancient artisans—and the enduring power of myth.