How Did Ancient Sparta Really Fall?

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

The Fall of Ancient Sparta: A Glimpse into Decline and Defeat

Ancient Sparta, renowned for its fearsome warriors and austere way of life, stood as a dominant power on the Peloponnesian Peninsula for several centuries. Known for its rigidly militaristic society, Sparta's influence peaked during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), when it successfully challenged the might of Athens. However, as with many great civilizations, a combination of internal challenges and external threats eventually led to its decline. But how did this once-mighty city-state truly meet its end?

Initial Successes and Challenges

Sparta's dominance in the Peloponnesian War, culminating in the defeat of Athens in 404 BC, was both a high point and the beginning of its challenges:

1. Internal Strife: The victory over Athens, while significant, didn't lead to lasting peace. Sparta's hegemony was challenged by its former allies, leading to the Corinthian War (395–387 BC). Though the war concluded with the King's Peace, which acknowledged Sparta's dominance, it also demonstrated Sparta's vulnerability.

2. Economic Issues: Sparta's economy heavily relied on the helot system, a class of serfs tied to the land who provided the Spartans with the resources to train as full-time soldiers. As Sparta expanded its territories, managing and controlling the Helot population became more challenging.

Major Defeats

1. Battle of Leuctra (371 BC): Perhaps the most significant blow to Sparta's military reputation was its defeat by the Theban-led Boeotian League at the Battle of Leuctra. The brilliant Theban general Epaminondas employed innovative tactics that not only defeated the Spartans but also shattered their image of invincibility.

2. Loss of Helot Territory: Following the Battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas invaded the Peloponnese and liberated the Messenian helots, a crucial economic pillar for Sparta. The loss of Messenia was a massive economic and strategic blow from which Sparta couldn't recover.

Internal Decay and External Threats

1. Decline in Spartiate Population: Over time, the number of full-citizen Spartiates, those who underwent the rigorous agoge training, dwindled due to various reasons, including warfare, economic challenges, and restrictive citizenship criteria.

2. Influx of Wealth and Corruption: With the conquests during the Peloponnesian War, a considerable amount of wealth flowed into Sparta, undermining the traditional austerity that had defined Spartan society. This led to increased corruption and a weakening of the communal ethos.

3. External Powers: As Sparta's influence waned, other powers like Macedonia under Philip II and his son Alexander the Great rose to prominence. The hegemony of Macedon further diminished Sparta's influence in Greek affairs.

The ancient theatre of Sparta and the modern city in the foothills of Taygetus mountain.

The Final Blow

Despite its reduced status, Sparta tried to maintain its independence and even challenged the rise of Macedon. However, at the Battle of Sellasia in 222 BC, the Spartans were defeated by the Achaean League and the Macedonians. While Sparta continued to exist, it did so as a shadow of its former self, and by the time of the Roman conquests, it was more of a tourist attraction than a significant polity.

The fall of Sparta wasn't the result of a single event but a culmination of internal decay and external pressures. Its decline serves as a reminder that even the mightiest of civilizations can be eroded by time, internal challenges, and the rise of new powers.

Roman Castra - How Legionaries Built and Lived in their Fortresses

THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

Fortress Construction and Life in the Imperial Period

The Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and martial prowess, were not only formidable warriors but also adept builders. During the Imperial Period (27 BC – 476 AD), the expanding boundaries of the Roman Empire necessitated the establishment of fortified bases across diverse terrains. These fortresses served as vital hubs for military, administrative, and logistical operations. Understanding how legionaries built and lived in these fortresses offers a glimpse into the Roman military's daily life and the Empire's broader strategic objectives.

Construction of the Fortress

1. Site Selection: Ideally, the Romans selected sites that offered natural defenses, like hills or river bends, while also ensuring proximity to vital transportation routes.

2. Standardized Layout: Roman military forts, known as "castra", typically followed a standardized rectangular plan. The size could vary based on the intended number of troops, but the general design remained consistent.

3. Fortifications: Walls, usually constructed initially from turf or wood and later replaced with stone, encircled the fortress. These walls were further reinforced by towers and a V-shaped ditch known as a fossa.

4. Interior Structures: Inside the fortress, roads were laid in a grid pattern, with the main road, the via praetoria, leading to the main entrance. Essential buildings included the principia (headquarters), horrea (granaries), valetudinarium (hospital), and barracks for the legionaries. There were also workshops, bathhouses, and temples.

5. Speed and Efficiency: Owing to their training and experience, legionaries could construct a basic fort in a matter of days, making it possible to establish a secure base even during active campaigns.

Life Within the Fortress Walls

1. Daily Routine: The life of a Roman soldier was highly regimented. Days began with the sounding of a bugle, followed by morning drills, weapon training, and other duties. Soldiers also engaged in construction projects, road building, and maintenance tasks.

2. Diet: Legionaries consumed a diet primarily consisting of wheat or barley, which they often made into porridge or bread. They also ate lentils, beans, vegetables, and occasionally meat. The horrea, or granaries, played a crucial role, ensuring that legions had a steady supply of grains.

3. Recreation: While their lives were rigorous, soldiers did have moments of leisure. They visited bathhouses, engaged in gambling or board games, and sometimes attended performances in makeshift theaters within the fort.

4. Religious Life: The Romans were deeply religious, and this extended to their military life. Temples within the fortress were dedicated to various deities, including the god of war, Mars, and the Imperial cult. Rituals and sacrifices were an integral part of the legionaries' lives.

5. Cohesion and Morale: The fortresses were not just military bases; they were tight-knit communities. The sense of brotherhood among the soldiers, combined with a rigorous daily routine and shared responsibilities, fostered unit cohesion and high morale.

Conclusion

The Roman legions' fortresses were marvels of strategic design, engineering prowess, and organizational skill. They were not just impenetrable strongholds but also thriving microcosms of Roman society. By delving into the intricacies of their construction and daily life, one gains a deeper appreciation for the legionaries' adaptability and the Roman Empire's expansive infrastructure.

How DNA reveals Vikings never left Scotland

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

In the 8th and 9th centuries, Vikings conquered many of Scotland's islands as well as the mainland. They came, they conquered, and they left, or so the story seemed to go. Now historians are reassessing the legacy the Vikings left on islands like Islay, a small island of about 3,000 inhabitants off the west coast of Scotland. Linguistic and DNA evidence now suggests that the Vikings never really left at all, as BBC Reel's Melissa Hogenboom reports.

DNA Revelations: The Lingering Viking Legacy in Scotland

The Viking invasions, spanning from the late 8th to early 11th centuries, left an indelible mark on the regions they touched. Scotland, with its close proximity to Scandinavia, bore witness to numerous Viking raids, settlements, and cultural exchanges. Over the centuries, historical records and archaeological findings have provided insights into the Viking presence in Scotland. However, recent advances in genetic studies have offered a more intimate understanding, suggesting that the Vikings didn't merely touch the Scottish shores and leave—tthey became an integral part of its genetic fabric.

Decoding the Genetic Evidence

The advent of sophisticated DNA testing technologies has enabled researchers to delve deeper into the genetic heritage of populations. By examining the Y-chromosomes (passed from father to son) of men in the UK, scientists have identified markers, or specific sequences of DNA, that are associated with Norse Viking ancestry.

1. Geographic Patterns: In regions of Scotland known historically for having strong Norse Viking settlements, such as the Shetland and Orkney islands, a significant proportion of the male population carries these Norse genetic markers. In Orkney, for instance, studies suggest that as many as 60% of the male lineage could be of Norse origin.

2. Continuity of Lineage: The sheer prevalence of Norse DNA markers in these regions indicates not just a fleeting presence but a sustained settlement and integration of the Vikings into local communities.

Reconciling with History

Historical records, sagas, and archaeological findings have long confirmed the Norse Viking influence in Scotland. From place names to artifacts, the Viking legacy has been evident. DNA studies further corroborate these historical accounts.

1. Settlement Over Raiding: While the Vikings initially arrived as raiders, they soon transitioned to settlers, particularly in the Northern Isles and along the west coast of Scotland. Over time, these Norse settlers intermarried with the local populace, leading to a genetic blending that is evident today.

2. Cultural Integration: The Norse didn't just leave their genetic footprint; they also influenced language, culture, and trade. The Norn language, a North Germanic language spoken in the Northern Isles until the 18th century, is a testament to this integration.

What This Means for Scotland

The DNA evidence underscores a vital facet of Scottish identity. While Scotland has its own unique cultural and historical narrative, it has always been a mosaic of influences, from the Romans and Picts to the Celts and Vikings.

The genetic legacy of the Vikings in Scotland reiterates the idea that histories are not just about conquests and kings; they are about everyday people, communities, and the intricate relationships they forge. The Vikings, once seen as foreign invaders, are now recognized as ancestors by many in Scotland, underscoring the fluidity of identity and the lasting ties that bind cultures together.

In unveiling the secrets embedded in our genes, DNA research has painted a nuanced picture of the Viking Age in Scotland. More than just raiders or traders, the Vikings were settlers, neighbors, and eventually family. Their legacy, intricately woven into Scotland's genetic tapestry, stands as a testament to the enduring connections forged in the crucible of history.

A Brief History Of Slavery In the Viking Era

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

Unveiling a Darker Side of Nordic History

In recent years, historians have established that slavery during the Viking era was far more common than once believed. And it was during this era that, for the first time, Scandinavians made the capture and use of slaves a key part of their economy and military campaigns. In fact, some historians now argue that the Vikings were responsible for more human trafficking in the period 750–1050 C.E. than any other civilization. Although slavery existed in some form in Scandinavia long before the Viking era, it was during this period that we saw a sharp uptake in the number of slaves.

When one thinks of Vikings, images of fearsome warriors, expert sailors, and legendary raids often come to mind. While these portrayals hold truth, there's a less explored facet of Viking society that remains essential to understanding their way of life: the institution of slavery. Just like other ancient civilizations, the Viking Age (circa 793–1066 AD) witnessed a thriving slave trade, providing vital insights into the socio-economic fabric of the Nordic world.

Origins of Viking Slavery

Slavery, or "thrall" (þræll in Old Norse), was deeply embedded in Norse society long before the Viking Age. Origin tales like the 'Rígsthula,' a poetic lay from the Old Norse 'Poetic Edda,' recounts the story of the god Ríg, who sires the classes of slaves, freemen, and nobles, indicating the age-old acceptance of this social hierarchy.

Sources of Slaves

Viking raids, which remain infamous for their ferocity and scale, were significant sources of slaves. Monasteries, villages, and towns across Europe, particularly in the British Isles, were favorite targets. The inhabitants of these raided settlements were often captured and enslaved.

Another source was the internal economy of the Nordic regions. Poverty or debt could push individuals into slavery, either voluntarily or involuntarily. Furthermore, the children of slaves were automatically considered slaves, perpetuating the cycle across generations.

Roles and Living Conditions

Slaves in the Viking world were primarily used for manual labor. They tilled fields, tended livestock, and did household chores. Skilled slaves, although a minority, could be artisans, craftspeople, or even attendants.

Living conditions for slaves were understandably harsh. They were often subject to the whims of their masters, with little to no rights. Physical punishments were common, and their freedom of movement was restricted. However, it's worth noting that the treatment of slaves varied widely, contingent on the disposition of their masters and the specific roles they played.

Economic Significance

Slaves were considered valuable commodities in Viking society. They were often traded in markets across Europe and Asia, forming an integral part of the Viking economy. Notable trading centers, like the one at Hedeby at the southern tip of the Jutland Peninsula, saw the exchange of slaves for various goods, from Arabic silver to exotic spices.

The End of Slavery in the Viking World

The decline of Viking raids and the increasing Christianization of Scandinavia in the late Viking Age played significant roles in curbing the slave trade. Christian doctrine, emphasizing the inherent value of all human beings, conflicted with the concept of slavery. By the late Middle Ages, as Scandinavian kingdoms centralized and legal systems evolved, the institution of slavery began its gradual decline, eventually fading into obscurity.

Slavery in the Viking era stands as a stark reminder that no civilization, no matter how advanced or formidable, is immune to the darker facets of human nature. While the Vikings are celebrated for their exploratory zeal, martial prowess, and cultural contributions, it's essential to view their history holistically, acknowledging the complexities and contradictions that define any society.

Who were the Vikings?

Today, Scandinavia is known as three separate countries: Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. But back in the 8th to 11th centuries, these three countries were more of a loose region known as Scandinavia. The people of Scandinavia were followers of the Old Norse religion and were recognized throughout Europe under the banner ‘Norsemen, or the now more popular Vikings.

Scandinavian society consisted of loosely connected tribes and petty kingdoms of Vikings scattered throughout the three regions amidst large areas of uninhabited land. As people most famous for their seafaring adventures and terrifying raids across Europe, it's no surprise that, like many other societies, the Vikings regularly took not only goods from the places they raided but people too, making them a slave-reliant society.

Forgotten History of the Ancient Picts

The Picts were a people of northern Scotland who are defined as a "confederation of tribal units whose political motivations derived from a need to ally against common enemies."

They were not a single tribe, nor necessarily a single people, although it is thought that they came originally from Scandinavia as a cohesive group. Since they left no written record of their history, what is known of them comes from later Roman and Scottish writers and from images the Picts themselves carved on stones.

They are first mentioned as "Picts" by the Roman writer Eumenius in 297 CE, who referred to the tribes of Northern Britain as "Picti" ("the painted ones"), ostensibly because of their habit of painting their bodies with dye. This origin of their name has been contested by modern scholarship, however, and it is probable they referred to themselves as some form of "Pecht", the word for "the ancestors". They were referenced earlier by Tacitus who referred to them as "Caledonians" which was the name of only one tribe.

The Picts held their territory against the invading Romans in a number of engagements and, although they were defeated in battle, they won the war; Scotland holds the distinction of never falling to the invading armies of Rome, even though the Romans attempted conquest numerous times. The Picts exist in the written record from their first mention in 297 CE until c. 900 CE, when no further mention is made of them. As modern scholars point out, their absence from written history does not mean that they mysteriously vanished or were conquered by the Scots and annihilated; it simply means no more was written about them as they merged with the southern Scots culture, who already had a written history by that time, and the two histories became one from then on.

Eridu Genesis: The Sumerian Epic of Creation

The Sumerian Flood Story (also known as the Eridu Genesis, Sumerian Creation Myth, and Sumerian Deluge Myth) is the oldest Mesopotamian text relating the tale of the Great Flood, which would appear in later works such as the Atrahasis (17th century BCE) and The Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2150–1400 BCE).

The tale is also, most famously, told as the story of Noah and his ark from the biblical Book of Genesis (earliest possible date, c. 1450 BCE; latest, c. 800-600 BCE). The story is dated to c. 2300 BCE in its written form but is thought to be much older, preserved by oral tradition until committed to writing.

The extant work is badly damaged, with a number of significant lines missing, but it can still be read and easily understood as an early Great Flood story. Scholars who have studied the text generally rely on the later Akkadian/Babylonian Atrahasis, which tells the same tale, to fill in the blanks of missing text from the broken tablet. The story most likely influenced the Egyptian “flood story” known as The Book of the Heavenly Cow (dated, in part, to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt, 2181–2040 BCE), but certainly was the inspiration for the later Mesopotamian works as well as the biblical narrative of Noah.

The story was first discovered in 1893, during the period of widespread expeditions and excavations throughout Mesopotamia funded by western institutions. The good man in this version of the tale, chosen to survive the flood and preserve life on earth, is the Priest-King Ziudsura of the city of Suruppak (whose name means “life of long days”). This same figure appears as Atrahasis (“exceedingly wise”) in the later work that bears his name, as Utnapishtim (“he found life”) in The Epic of Gilgamesh, and as Noah (“rest” or “peace”) in the Book of Genesis.

The Ainu: History of the Indigenous people of Japan

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

The Ainu: A Journey Through the History of Japan's Indigenous People

Deep within the intricate tapestry of Japan's history lies a lesser-known but deeply significant thread: the story of the Ainu. As Japan's indigenous inhabitants, the Ainu possess a rich cultural heritage, unique traditions, and a tumultuous history that has shaped their relationship with the broader Japanese narrative.

Origins of the Ainu

The Ainu are believed to have inhabited the Japanese archipelago long before the emergence of the Yamato Japanese, the ethnic majority in Japan today. Historically, they occupied the northern regions, mainly present-day Hokkaido, as well as parts of the Russian Far East, such as the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin.

Their physical appearance, characterized by lighter skin, wavy hair, and a distinct facial structure, sets them apart from their Japanese counterparts. This has led researchers to posit different theories regarding their ancestry, with some suggesting links to Caucasian or Siberian groups.

Culture and Spirituality

Central to Ainu culture is the reverence for nature and the spirits, known as *kamuy. These spirits reside in animals, plants, and natural phenomena. The bear, for example, holds a special place in Ainu spirituality and is celebrated through the 'bear sending' ritual, or *Iomante. This ceremony involves raising a bear cub in an Ainu village and then sending its spirit back to the divine world through a ritualistic offering.

Their traditional attire, the attus, woven from the inner bark of the indigenous ito- (Japanese False Nettle) tree, showcases intricate embroidery and patterns that signify different familial lineages and regions.

Historical Struggles

The Ainu's relationship with the ethnic Japanese has been fraught with challenges. Beginning in the 13th century, trade relationships between the Ainu and the Japanese were established. However, as Japan expanded northward during the subsequent centuries, these relations became increasingly imbalanced.

By the Meiji period (1868–1922), the Japanese government had initiated policies aimed at assimilating the Ainu, driven by a vision of a homogenous national identity. The Ainu were prohibited from practicing their customs or speaking their language, and even their traditional hunting and fishing activities were restricted. This period marked a significant loss of Ainu cultural heritage.

Recognition and Revival

It wasn't until the late 20th and early 21st centuries that efforts to recognize and revive Ainu culture gained momentum. In 1997, the Ainu Culture Promotion Act was enacted to preserve and promote Ainu heritage. More significantly, in 2008, the Japanese government officially recognized the Ainu as the indigenous people of Japan.

Today, there's a palpable effort to rekindle Ainu traditions. Institutions like the Ainu Museum in Shiraoi, Hokkaido, and cultural parks offer insights into their traditional ways of life. Efforts are also being made to revive the Ainu language, although it remains critically endangered.

The journey of the Ainu, from ancient inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago to a marginalized community and then to a recognized and celebrated part of Japanese culture, mirrors the complexities inherent in the histories of indigenous communities worldwide. As the modern world grapples with questions of identity and cultural preservation, the Ainu stand as a testament to resilience, endurance, and the indomitable spirit of a people deeply connected to their land and heritage.

Exploring the Most Famous Ancient Artifacts

In the dim light of history, certain artifacts shine like stars, illuminating the path to civilizations long past. These objects, crafted by ancient hands and preserved through centuries, hold stories that transcend time. Join us as we embark on a journey through the annals of history to explore some of the most famous ancient artifacts that continue to captivate our imagination.

1. The Rosetta Stone

Discovered in 1799 in Rosetta, Egypt, this stone tablet became the key to unlocking the mysteries of Egyptian hieroglyphs. Engraved with a decree in three scripts—Ancient Greek, hieroglyphs, and demotic—by Ptolemy V, the Rosetta Stone allowed scholars to decipher the enigmatic script of ancient Egypt, opening a window into its rich culture and history.

2. The Terracotta Army

An army of thousands, sculpted in terracotta, stands guard in the tomb of China's first emperor, Qin Shi Huang. Buried over two millennia ago to protect him in the afterlife, these life-sized statues reveal an incredible attention to detail and artistic mastery. Each warrior, horse, and chariot is unique, reflecting the diversity of ancient Chinese military might.

3. The Mask of Tutankhamun

One of the most iconic treasures from ancient Egypt, the gold death mask of King Tutankhamun is a masterpiece of artistry and craftsmanship. Found in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings, this mask covers the young pharaoh's mummified face, adorned with intricate detailing and precious stones, echoing the grandeur of ancient Egyptian royalty.

4. The Parthenon Marbles

Also known as the Elgin Marbles, these sculptures once adorned the Parthenon temple atop the Acropolis in Athens. Carved in the 5th century BCE, these classical Greek sculptures are a testament to the aesthetic ideals of the time. Though now dispersed across various museums, they remain symbols of the height of Athenian art and culture.

5. The Moai of Easter Island

Standing on the remote Easter Island, the Moai are colossal stone statues that embody the island's mysterious past. Carved from volcanic rock by the Rapa Nui people around 800 years ago, these monolithic figures stand as guardians of a vanished civilization, their presence a testament to human determination and creativity.

6. The Book of Kells

A masterpiece of medieval illumination, the Book of Kells is an ornate Gospel manuscript created around 800 CE in Ireland. Its intricate illustrations, vibrant colors, and intricate designs showcase the skill of the monks who dedicated years to its creation, serving as a dazzling example of the artistry of the Early Middle Ages.

7. The Sphinx of Giza

Guarding the Giza Plateau for over 4,500 years, the Great Sphinx of Giza stands as an enigmatic symbol of ancient Egypt's power and mystery. Carved from a single limestone block, this colossal creature with the body of a lion and the head of a pharaoh has intrigued and inspired generations, its significance and purpose still debated by historians.

Each of these ancient artifacts serves as a portal to the past, offering us glimpses into the creativity, beliefs, and achievements of ancient civilizations. These treasures, meticulously crafted by hands long gone, continue to whisper their stories, bridging the gap between then and now and reminding us of the timeless human quest for knowledge, beauty, and meaning.

Megalithic Foundations of Jerusalem | Natufian Origins at Temple Mount, Israel?

An exploration of the megalithic foundations of the Holy City of Jerusalem. Firstly, the Dome of the Rock contains a giant carved stone, once the top of a sacred mountain, now worshipped by Muslims, yet it has intricate niches, steps and carvings in the style of ancient Peru and even Karahan Tepe.

The 'Foundation Stone' is also known as the Pierced Stone, because it has a small hole on the southeastern corner that enters a cavern beneath the rock, known as the Well of Souls. The Western Wall (Waling Wall) stretches the length of Temple Mount with massive megalithic blocks in its lower levels, including one weighing 570 tons similar to Byblos and Baalbek in Lebanon.

We also visit the south side of what was once Solomons Temple finding more gigantic blocks and more features that could date back to the Natufian Culture. In tradition, giants constructed these sites, yet no one has explained why they are truly here, although officially they were constructed by Herod the Great c.19 BC.

The Brandiers Farm Roman Tile Kiln Mysteries Has Been Solved!

A recent show in New York is focused on Enheduanna, a little-known Mesopotamian poet and priestess. Diane Cole examines her impact and how she contributed to forging a shared set of values across the old kingdom.

The Mesopotamian poet, princess, and priestess Enheduanna was the first author to be referred to by name in all of recorded history. Surprised? She Who Wrote: Enheduanna and Women of Mesopotamia, ca. 3400–2000 BC, a recently launched exhibition at New York City's Morgan Library, is curated by Sidney Babcock. "When people ask who is the first author, they never guess anyone in Mesopotamia, and it's never a woman," Babcock adds. He claims that most of the time, they refer to an individual from ancient Greece; if they do, it's Sappho, a female author who lived more than a thousand years later and whose writing is less well-known than Enheduanna's.

You're not alone if you haven't heard of her. Up until 1927, Enheduanna was completely unknown to modern society. However, Sir Leonard Woolley, an archaeologist, discovered items that bear her name. We now know that her name means "Ornament of Heaven" in Sumerian, and that, as the high priestess of the moon deity Nanna-Suen, she wrote 42 temple hymns and three stand-alone poems that, like the Epic of Gilgamesh (which is not credited to a named author), scholars consider to be an important part of Mesopotamia's literary legacy.

Enheduanna was a political figure in addition to being a religious leader and priestess. She was also the daughter of Sargon the Great, who some historians believe to be the one who established the first empire in history. She was particularly important in bringing Akkad, the northern Mesopotamian region where Sargon initially attained power, together before he later conquered the southern Sumerian city-states. She did this by emphasizing the connections between the rituals and beliefs associated with the Akkadian goddess Ishtar and the Sumerian goddess Inanna in her literary and religious hymns and songs, thereby establishing a shared set of beliefs throughout the empire. Enheduanna composed 42 hymns for 42 temples in the southern portion of Mesopotamia; the hymns were transcribed by scribes at the temples for hundreds of years after her death. Each hymn emphasized the special qualities of the patron goddess to the devotees in those cities.

Enheduanna's writings are inscribed on to clay in cuneiform (Credit: The Yale Babylonian Collection/ Photo by Klaus Wagensonner)

On clay tablets with the wedge-shaped impressions known as cuneiform, rather than the manuscripts we are used to seeing in exhibitions highlighting, example, Jane Austen or Charlotte Bronte, are Enheduanna's works on display throughout the presentation. She recounts the creative process in the following passage from her poem The Exaltation of Inanna:

"I have given birth,

Oh exalted lady, (to this song) for you.

That which I recited to you at (mid)night

May the singer repeat it to you at noon!"

And at the conclusion of the Temple Hymns, she asserts her authorship by saying:

"The compiler of the tablet (is) Enheduanna. My lord, that which has been created (here) no one has created before."

In her 2009 book Princess, Priestess, Poet, Jungian analyst and Enheduanna translator Betty De Shong Meador claims, "The voice we hear in the hymns is that of a gifted poet." "She candidly portrays the daily activities, concerns, and fundamental character of the gods and their temples. She swarms the entire nearby cosmos with engaging, active, and unmanageable divine beings.

These songs may also allude to Enheduanna's strong mathematical background, which is probably not surprising given that historians attribute the origins of mathematics to Mesopotamia along with the invention of cuneiform and other early writing systems. In Mesopotamia's vibrant agricultural and textile economies, where the two systems grew entwined as farmers and merchants counted what was produced and recorded what was being sold and traded, writing and counting were likely forced to develop.

A scene of sacrifice is carved on to one side of this calcite disc; an inscription of Enheduanna appears on the other (Credit: The Penn Museum)

Babcock expects that the show would raise Enheduanna's profile. She is depicted in a calcite disc that was discovered in 1927 by Woolley and dates to around 2300 BC. The carving shows Enheduanna marching solemnly in line in front of a ziggurat-like temple while being escorted by three plainly clad attendants who are holding ritual goods. She can be recognized by her ornate circular headgear and flounced, tiered robe. Enheduanna's profiled face is visible when she lifts her eyes to Inanna, the goddess of war and love. For 40 years, up until her passing, she held onto her post.

Early feminism

Beyond Enheduanna, the exhibition's approximately 90 objects highlight the numerous ways in which women increasingly participated in different facets of Mesopotamian society. These objects range from different statuary and cuneiform tablets to wall plaques and a multitude of cylinder-shaped seals along with the images and impressions left when they were rolled on a clay or stone tablet. According to Babcock, by demonstrating women's increased prominence in the third millennium, "I wanted to set the stage for Enheduanna," noting that Mesopotamia at that time was less patriarchal than other societies. Indeed, he quips, "There would have been no Downton Abbey because in this era women could own property," and it could be passed down through the female line. This was true in Mesopotamia at that time.

Beginning around 3400 BC, this time saw a significant increase in Mesopotamia's urban centers as well as a persistent rise in the production and trade of products throughout the nation and the region. More personnel were required as a result of an increase in business orders, many of whom were women. These women took up positions in a wide range of trades, including as ceramics, weaving, baking, animal husbandry, brewing, and artisan work, going beyond their usual roles at home or taking on religious responsibilities. One photograph on exhibit shows a group of ladies weaving at the loom, one of whom is in full action with her hair flying behind her. Others depict women dining with males, seemingly on an equal footing, while another depicts women at what appears to be a pottery wheel. They are also shown playing musical instruments, either in ensembles or alone, as shown in a stunning shell inlay of a woman holding a flute to her mouth while wearing lovely ribbons in her curly hair.

The artefacts reveal a variety of Mesopotamian women engaged in different activities (Credit: Les frères Chuzeville)

And this is but one illustration of what might be seen as a fashion show showcasing the varying and frequently elaborate hair and attire preferences of Mesopotamian women. Ankle-length robes with tiered rows of hanging loops give the appearance of bird feathers. One particularly notable robe has a geometrically intertwined pattern that echoes thatched leaves or reeds. Statuettes, some as small as Barbie dolls, sport thick hair braids wound around the head like a coil. Most of these women are seated, barefoot, with hands joined and modest expressions, as if in prayer.

Royal opulence

The show's aesthetic centerpiece is Queen Puabi's spectacularly colorful burial costume, who lived roughly 150 years before Enheduanna. Puabi's magnificent headpiece is comprised of hammered leaves, gold ribbons, and round beads fashioned of lapis lazuli and carnelian, as befits a queen. A complex crown-like comb covered in star-shaped flowers is perched on top of those ornaments; it is made of the same material as the hair coils and the matching pair of enormous moon-shaped earrings and is also made of gold. The vibrant, waist-to-neck strands of gold and semi-precious stone beads, which are wound around a belt with gold ringlets, are just as impressive. In the late 1920s, these discoveries generated as much of a stir as the 1922 discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt, which was made possible by excavations directed by Woolley.

However, according to Babcock, "We know very little about Queen Puabi," who reigned circa 2500 BC. The only place we have her name is on a lapis lazuli cylinder seal that was discovered on her body. According to Babcock, cylinder seals, many of which were scarcely bigger than a spool of thread, were widely used in Mesopotamian civilization as both a form of personal identification and a means of authenticating communications or, for example, the contents of jars. The impressions left by the ornate designs and figures that were frequently carved onto the seals, whose impressions provided a wealth of precise information about every level of society, are particularly essential for those attempting to reconstruct Mesopotamian life today.

These cylinder seals display the evolving characteristics of the two important female deities, Inanna and Ishtar, as well as those of mortal women. Enheduanna assisted in the fusion of Inanna and Ishtar's distinct personas into one interchangeable deity. Inanna served as a symbol of the divine feminine principle prior to Sargon's invasion of Sumer. She was the kind mother and the queen of heaven, who oversaw and preserved the cycle of life. Her face was typically hidden, but rings of bunched reeds served as a symbol of her presence.

However, change was afoot because by 2400 BC, a vessel fragment depicts a female divinity in human form. She embodies the fertility and fecundity associated with Inanna, wearing a horned crown with leafy, vegetable-like material emerging from her shoulders, and holding a cluster of dates, but the animal-like crown also symbolizes fierceness.

Queen Puabi's funerary ensemble was made up of gold and semi-precious stones (Credit: The Penn Museum)

Ishtar, represented in the exhibition with weapons sprouting out of her shoulders and her foot atop a lion whose leash she holds, is portrayed as a female deity who is ever more warlike with the rise of Sargon and through Eneheduanna's hymns. Enheduanna similarly depicts Inanna/Ishtar in her poems as a strong goddess of war and conquering in addition to love and abundance. Additionally, according to Babcock, the exhibition's cylinder seals depict scenes from her poem Inanna and Ebih.

The narrative pits an aggrieved, indignant Inanna against her foe, a mountain range that will not submit to her or grant her any concessions. We witness the goddess murder the male deity of the mountain by causing the mountain's stones to fall from the sky.Her dagger's blade was polished on both sides. She grabbed Ebih's neck and began torn up the grass. She "presented the blade into its heart" and "yelled like thunder" such that "the stones that make up Ebih crashed down its back." She then joyfully stamps her foot on the stone fragments to mark her victory. Another first for Enheduanna's literary legacy is Babcock's observation that "This is the first time you have illustrations for a text, ever."

Which is another way of saying that Enheduanna is still relevant today in a variety of fields, including literature. She was a prominent person in ancient Sumer, women's history, and feminism, among other fields.

Source: https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/202210...

The History and Culture of Olmec Civilization

The Olmec civilization, located in ancient Mexico, prospered in Pre-Classical (Formative) Mesoamerica from c. 1200 BCE to c. 400 BCE. Monumental sacred complexes, massive stone sculptures, ball games, the drinking of chocolate, and animal gods were all features of Olmec culture passed on to those peoples who followed this first great Mesoamerican civilization.

With their heartlands in the Gulf of Mexico (now the states of Veracruz and Tabasco), Olmec influence and trade activity spread from 1200 BCE, even reaching as far south as present-day Nicaragua. Many Olmec sites suffered systematic and deliberate destruction of their monuments sometime between 400 and 300 BCE.

The Olmec civilization presents something of a mystery, indeed, we do not even know what they called themselves, as Olmec was their Aztec name and meant 'rubber people'. Due to a lack of archaeological evidence their ethnic origins and the location and extent of many of their settlements are not known. The Olmecs did, however, codify and record their gods and religious practices using symbols. The precise significance of this record is much debated but, at the very least, its complexity does suggest some sort of organised religion involving a priesthood. The Olmec religious practices of sacrifice, cave rituals, pilgrimages, offerings, ball-courts, pyramids and a seeming awe of mirrors, was also passed on to all subsequent civilizations in Mesoamerica until the Spanish Conquest in the 16th century CE.

Mystery of Jerusalem: The Temple of Solomon

The temple of Solomon in Jerusalem is a mystery of Israelic history.

The Bible describes King Solomon - in Jerusalem - as a powerful and wise ruler. But did King Solomon really live? For millennia, there were no facts to confirm his existence - until 2003, when a tablet of writing emerged in Israel that supposedly provided airtight proof. However, the find in Israel was soon linked to a worldwide forgery ring. "Secrets of the Bible" delves into the mysterious world of secret agents, scientists, fences and millionaire collectors in Jerusalem.

The Insane Wealth of the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire's Economy was Massive and Elusive. Through trade, markets, warfare, and finance The Roman Economy provided a standard of living for some that would not be matched again until the emergence of modern national economies in the 17th century. In this video we cover and overview the early empires economy, its workings and structure, compare it to other ancient and modern economies and discuss its major limitations and inequalities.

Mankind Rising - Where do Humans Come From

Follow mankind's journey of life from the first cell to the present day! Captured in a single, animated time lapsed shot, and based on archeological findings, we trace our epic journey from the first spark of life billions of years ago up to our present status as the most successful species on the planet. Humans are the pinnacle of a chain of species that has survived by way of evolution, natural selection, adaptation, and pure luck. From the formation of primordial genetic material to the development of speech, this is the improbable story of the incredible set of circumstances that led to human existence.

This documentary aims to answer such questions as: How did we get here? How did mutations create male and female sexes? And were we actually fish at one point during the evolutionary chain?

We are the most complex creature on this planet, a big brained, two-legged mammal. We’ve risen from the raw materials of the Earth to dominate and shape it. Wind the clock backwards and the story of how we got to be us is a puzzle that defies all logic. Through nearly 4 billion years of evolutionary twists and turns, disasters strike, predators threaten to wipe us out. From rodent to reptile, we face extinction at every turn, from the land into the water, fighting to survive every step of the way, from fish to worm, back to the very first spark of life, to a single simple cell. One change or predator along the way and this extraordinary story would have never been told.