The Divided Fragments of the Façade of the Tomb of Atreus: A Tale of Global Museums

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Tomb of Atreus, often referred to as the Treasury of Atreus or Agamemnon's Tomb, stands as a testament to Mycenaean architectural ingenuity. Located at the archaeological site of Mycenae, Greece, this tholos, or beehive tomb, is renowned for its exquisite craftsmanship and intricate details. Yet, for all its glory within its home nation, fragments of its facade are found scattered across museums in Europe. The dispersion of these fragments tells a story of colonialism, historical intrigue, and the ongoing debate over cultural heritage and repatriation.

Graphic reconstruction of the stone decoration of the facade indicating the suggested position of the fragments of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens (study by Maria Kontaki).

1. National Archaeological Museum of Athens, Greece

The National Archaeological Museum of Athens, being Greece's principal archaeological museum, rightfully possesses a significant portion of the Tomb's fragments. The museum's collection not only presents the facade fragments in their historical context but also tells the story of a nation's journey through time. Here, visitors can see the pieces in proximity to other Mycenaean treasures, painting a fuller picture of the era.

Reconstruction of one of the pillars from the façade, in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.

2. The British Museum, London

The British Empire's colonial history and its penchant for collecting treasures from its colonies and beyond resulted in the British Museum becoming one of the world's most comprehensive museums. Among its vast collection are fragments from the Tomb of Atreus. Their presence here speaks to the era of British archaeology and exploration in the 19th century, when artifacts from around the world were brought to London, often without the explicit consent of their home nations.

British Museum: Parts of two carved green marble half-columns that flanked the tomb at the Treasury of Atreus.

3. The Karlsruhe Museum, Germany

The Karlsruhe Museum in Germany, although lesser-known on the global stage compared to some other institutions, also houses fragments of the Tomb's facade. The German interest in archaeology and classical studies during the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to a myriad of excavations and acquisitions, including those from Mycenae.

4. Archaeological Collections in Munich and Berlin

Similarly, in Munich and Berlin, the storied history of German archaeology is reflected in their respective archaeological collections. Both cities possess fragments from the Tomb of Atreus, showcasing them alongside other ancient world artifacts and creating a narrative of interconnected ancient civilizations.

The Broader Implications of Fragmented Cultural Heritage

The fragmented dispersion of the Tomb of Atreus’s facade serves as a microcosm of a larger issue: the global distribution of cultural heritage artifacts. It raises pressing questions: Who truly 'owns' history? Where should these artifacts reside?

Such phenomena have broad and significant implications not just for the countries of origin and the museums that house them but also for global understandings of history, culture, and ethics.

• Identity and National Pride:

Artifacts are often tied to a nation's identity and historical narrative. When key artifacts are located outside their country of origin, it can feel as though a piece of the nation's soul and heritage is missing. For many, the return of these pieces is essential to complete the story of their ancestors, to connect with their past, and to bolster national pride.

• Colonial Legacies:

The dispersion of cultural treasures is often intrinsically linked with colonial histories. Many artifacts found their way to European and American museums during the age of colonialism and imperialism. This movement wasn’t just a mere exchange; it was often done without consent or under duress, making the artifacts symbolic of a painful era of exploitation.

• Economic Implications:

Cultural treasures attract tourism. Countries that have their artifacts returned can see an uptick in tourism revenue as visitors flock to see iconic pieces in their original or intended setting. Conversely, international museums, which have built reputations around their extensive collections, might experience a decline in visitors if significant artifacts are repatriated.

• Ethical and Moral Questions:

The debate about repatriating artifacts goes beyond legal ownership to deeper ethical questions. Even if a museum acquires an artifact legally, is it morally right for them to keep it if it was originally taken without consent? Should historical wrongs be corrected in the present?

• Conservation and Research:

Some argue that certain international museums have better resources and expertise to conserve and research artifacts. They contend that these institutions can ensure the preservation of the artifact for future generations and further academic understanding. However, with advancements in technology and growing expertise, many nations are now fully equipped to handle and care for their own cultural treasures.

• Shared Global Heritage vs. National Ownership:

While some argue for the national ownership and repatriation of artifacts, others see significant artifacts as part of a shared global heritage. They believe that such pieces should be accessible to as many people as possible, often in the context of other world artifacts, to promote a broader understanding of global histories and connections.

• Legal Battles and Diplomacy:

The debate over artifact repatriation often leads to legal battles and diplomatic tensions between countries. Some countries have passed laws demanding the return of their artifacts, leading to negotiations and, at times, strained relations with the countries housing these artifacts.

The debate over repatriation has grown louder in recent years. Many nations have called for the return of their cultural and historical artifacts. In some cases, there have been successes, and in others, the discussions are ongoing.

The story of the Tomb of Atreus’s facade also sheds light on our shared human history. While these artifacts originated in Greece, their presence in museums across Europe denotes interconnectedness, a shared appreciation for ancient cultures, and the historical ties that bind different civilizations.

The divided fragments of the facade of the Tomb of Atreus, spread across Europe's museums, serve as a reminder of our shared human history, the complexities of cultural heritage, and the ongoing discussions about ownership and repatriation. As we move forward, it remains to be seen how these debates will reshape museum collections worldwide. For now, they stand as a testament to the Mycenaean civilization's grandeur and the ever-evolving narrative of global history.

Machu Picchu: The Enigmas of the Inca Citadel

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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As incredible as it may be, not all of the mysteries surrounding the Inca citadel of Machu Picchu in Peru have been solved. Experts are still baffled by the site's purpose, construction, and seemingly abrupt abandonment, despite years of research and investigation.

For example, historians disagree as to whether or not it was meant to be a royal estate, while others believe it was a place of worship. Its perch high in the Andes Mountains makes it sound like the perfect place to relax, but the intricate design and elaborate water system suggest that it also played a significant role in the Inca Empire. Without any kind of written record and with only a few decades of occupation, the true nature of Machu Picchu's function remains a mystery.

The complex water system that kept the site alive is another mystery. The Incas built a complex system of fountains and channels to ensure a reliable supply of water despite the city's perilous mountaintop location, though no one knows where the water came from. There is speculation among experts as to whether or not the water was used for irrigation or whether or not it served a religious or spiritual purpose.

The walls of Machu Picchu are built of massive, precisely cut stones, many of which weigh multiple tons, and are held together without the use of mortar or cement, which continues to be a wonder and a testament to the Incas' engineering prowess. It is unknown how these massive stones were moved from the quarry to the construction site and then set into place. Ropes, rollers, and ramps have been proposed as possible tools, but the precise techniques have yet to be determined.

The complex system of terraces that surrounds Machu Picchu also remains a mystery to this day. Some have theorized that the terraces were used to grow crops on scarce arable land, while others have suggested that they were built to make a community independent of outside resources. Extensive investigation has not yet revealed the true function of these terraces.

Finally, the reason behind Machu Picchu's mysterious abandonment is still a mystery that intrigues people everywhere. A few decades of use followed by abandonment have left many to wonder what happened at the site. Others speculate that a natural disaster, like an earthquake or landslide, may have been the final straw that finally drove the Incas from their homeland. Yet, the reason for Machu Picchu's abandonment is still a fascinating mystery.

In conclusion, the many unanswered questions surrounding Machu Picchu continue to fascinate experts, historians, and visitors alike. Machu Picchu's mysteries will never cease to amaze and captivate visitors of all backgrounds and interests, be they archaeologists, historians, or simply those looking for a unique travel experience.

What Happened to the Vikings?

Welcome to our captivating video exploring the intriguing history of the Vikings and their legendary expeditions across Europe and beyond. In this informative presentation, we delve into the world of the Vikings, their culture, exploration, and their reputation as fierce raiders. Join us on a journey through time as we uncover the fascinating tales of these seafaring warriors.

Discover who the Vikings were, their origins, and the society they built. Gain insights into their advanced shipbuilding techniques, navigational skills, and the fearless spirit that drove them to explore uncharted territories. Explore their far-reaching expeditions, trading routes, and the impact they had on the regions they encountered.

Join us as we unravel the mysteries and stories of the Vikings, shedding light on their exploration, raiding, and their enduring impact on history.

Tracing the Roots of the Ainu People: Insights from Genetics and Linguistics

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The Ainu are among the oldest and most recognizable of Japan's native populations. There is much debate among archaeologists, linguists, and other scholars about the Ainu people's origin and history, despite the fact that they have lived in Japan for thousands of years.

The Ainu likely originated in what is now Manchuria or the Amur River basin in northern Asia. Migration of the Ainu to Hokkaido and the rest of Japan probably occurred between 12,000 and 13,000 years ago, during the late Pleistocene epoch when sea levels were lower and land bridges connected northern Asia and Japan.

The Ainu may have descended from the Jomon, an ancient Japanese culture that flourished between 14,000 and 300 BCE. The Jomon culture is well known for its distinctive pottery, which often features intricate patterns and designs.

According to proponents of the Jomon theory, the Ainu share many physical and cultural characteristics with the Jomon people, including their pottery, their reliance on fishing and hunting, and their distinctive physical features, such as thick hair and a tendency toward epicanthic eye folds.

But not every academic believes the Jomon theory. The Ainu may have descended from the Okhotsk culture, a nomadic people who lived in what is now the Russian Far East between c. 500 b.c.e. and c. 1200 a.d. The Okhotsk culture was well-known for its use of iron tools and its hunting of marine mammals like seals and walruses.

Okhotsk theory proponents use linguistic and genetic evidence to buttress their argument. The Ainu language is related to other northern Asian languages, including those spoken by natives in the Russian Far East, but only on a distant genetic level. Ainu and Okhotsk populations in northern Asia share some genetic markers, according to genetic studies.

The Ainu have played a significant role in Japanese history and culture, regardless of the controversy surrounding their genesis. The indigenous Ainu people of Japan established a distinct culture and way of life in the centuries following their arrival. They lived off the land and sea, subsisting on hunting, fishing, and gathering, and developed a profound spiritual tradition based on a recognition of the inherent value of all forms of life.

The Ainu also created their own unique fashions and architectural styles, as well as elaborate wood carvings, embroidery, and beadwork. The Ainu were especially admired for the complexity and symbolism of their textiles.

The Ainu people have endured many hardships over the centuries, despite their rich cultural heritage. The Japanese government colonized Hokkaido in the late 19th century and actively pursued the assimilation of the indigenous Ainu people. The Japanese government outlawed numerous aspects of Ainu culture, including their language, religion, and traditional clothing. Furthermore, many Ainu were compelled to take on Japanese given names and surnames.

In the decades that followed, the Ainu were the target of widespread prejudice and discrimination in Japan. Many Ainu were prevented from receiving healthcare, an education, and other fundamental necessities. After WWII, the Japanese government acknowledged the Ainu as an indigenous people and began taking measures to correct past wrongs.

The Ainu people still have a long way to go before they can rest easy. The Ainu language is endangered because it is not Japanese and is instead related to the languages spoken by natives in Russia and other parts of northern Asia. Attempts are being made to revive and preserve the Ainu language for future generations, as many younger Ainu no longer speak it.

The Ainu people of Japan and the rest of the world have seen a surge in interest in their culture and history in recent years. There has been a resurgence of interest in traditional Ainu textiles and artwork, spurred in part by the opening of museums and cultural centers in Hokkaido and elsewhere in Japan.

The mysteries of Ainu history and culture have been partially solved thanks to archaeological investigations. Ainu pottery, stone tools, and other artifacts, as well as their material culture as a whole, have been uncovered through archaeological excavations.

Despite this, there is still a lot about the Ainu and their history that we don't know. There may be more to learn about the origin and history of this fascinating and resilient indigenous group if archaeologists, geneticists, and linguists dig deeper into their past.

To sum up, the Ainu are an endearing and vital part of Japan's past and present. The Ainu have persisted through many hardships to preserve their unique culture and play a significant role in modern Japan. While archaeological investigations have shed light on previously unknown aspects of Ainu history and culture, much more remains to be discovered about this intriguing and resilient indigenous people.

The Muisca Civilization: Keepers of the Secret of El Dorado

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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For centuries, stories about El Dorado, the city of gold, have captivated and intrigued people. It is said to be an extremely wealthy metropolis, with residents who adorn themselves with gold and jewels. Numerous expeditions have set out in search of El Dorado, and the quest has captivated people from all walks of life. But what exactly is the reality behind this urban legend, and why has it persisted for so long?

When Spanish conquistadors first arrived in South America in the early 16th century, they also brought with them the legend of El Dorado. They had heard tales of a city made entirely of gold and were eager to investigate. The story developed and expanded over time, eventually becoming legendary.

The Muisca, a people who once lived in what is now Colombia, are famously associated with El Dorado legends. The Muisca, so the myth goes, had a ritual in which their leader, the "gilded one," would be showered in gold dust before setting sail on a raft made of the precious metal. The people believed that his practice of throwing gold and gemstones into the water would bring them prosperity.

The Muisca civilization collapsed after the Spanish conquest of South America, but the quest for El Dorado persisted. Many attempts were made throughout the years and centuries, but none were fruitful. Some explorers thought they were so close to discovering the city, but their efforts were always fruitless.

Sir Walter Raleigh's search for El Dorado is among the most well-known. In 1595, he led a group of men on a search for the city. Disease and hunger took a heavy toll on the expedition, and they were eventually forced to turn back from their foray deep into the Amazon rainforest. The legend of El Dorado died when Raleigh returned to England empty-handed.

The legend of El Dorado endured despite a lack of evidence. It was widely held that this city existed and that its discovery was imminent. In the early 20th century, a new group of explorers, equipped with cutting-edge equipment and scientific knowledge, set out to locate the city.

Some have speculated that El Dorado wasn't a city at all but rather a living, breathing individual. Historians are divided on whether or not the "gilded one" legend is based on a real-life Muisca leader who was ritualistically doused in gold dust. They contend that it was this ritual that gave rise to the legend of El Dorado, which in turn became the tale of a city of gold.

One alternative is to view El Dorado as a collection of interconnected, prosperous cities and towns. The idea behind this hypothesis is that before the arrival of the Spanish, South America was home to numerous advanced civilizations that were proficient in the use of gold and other precious metals.

The search for El Dorado has persisted to this day despite a lack of hard evidence. Satellite imagery and ground-penetrating radar are two examples of cutting-edge technology being used by modern explorers. Some people think they are getting closer to the truth behind the El Dorado legend after discovering artifacts from long-lost civilizations in the Amazonian jungle.

Finally, El Dorado is an intriguing mystery that has captivated people for centuries. Although the city of gold may only exist in legend, it has nonetheless sparked the interest of many would-be explorers and adventurers. The question of whether or not El Dorado will ever be discovered remains unanswered.

The Khmer Empire: A Mysterious Civilization That Built Angkor Wat

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EDITOR GROUP

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With its magnificent temple complexes, grand waterways, and ornate infrastructure, the city of Angkor Wat is one of the most spectacular ancient sites in Southeast Asia. During the height of the Khmer Empire, from the 9th to the 15th centuries, the city served as the empire's capital. The city's architecture, art, and religious symbolism continue to enthrall scholars and visitors today for the same reason: they are veiled in mystery. In this piece, we'll try to unravel some of Angkor Wat's mysteries and fathom its significance.

Angkor Wat, in modern-day Cambodia, was once the capital of an empire that ruled much of Southeast Asia and amassed vast wealth as a result. The Hindu god Vishnu was the focus of the city's construction, as it was erected around a massive temple complex. Construction on the temple began in the early 12th century and continued for more than 30 years. The temple's towers and spires are meant to symbolize Mount Meru, the cosmic mountain at the center of the Hindu universe, making the structure itself a miniature version of the Hindu cosmos.

The engineering and building of Angkor Wat are two of the temple's many mysteries. More than a million stone blocks, each weighing up to 1.5 tons, make up the temple complex. Stones for Angkor Wat were hauled from a quarry more than 50 kilometers away via a network of canals and waterways. In addition to requiring a sophisticated understanding of astronomy and mathematics for its construction, the temple complex is laid out to correspond with the motions of the sun, moon, and stars.

As if that weren't enough of a mystery, nobody seems to know what Angkor Wat means symbolically or religiously. Hindu mythological and everyday Khmer life scenes are depicted in the complex's intricate carvings and reliefs. Religious symbolism abounds in the carvings, such as the churning of the ocean of milk, which is said to represent the creation of the universe. Countless sanctuaries and shrines honoring various Hindu deities can also be found within the temple grounds.

The temple's decline is a mystery in and of itself. In the 15th century, the city's population left for other parts of Southeast Asia, and it was abandoned. Environmental degradation, climate change, and political instability are all factors that scholars believe may have contributed to Angkor Wat's decline, but the exact reasons for this are still unknown. When French explorers found it again in the 19th century, the city quickly rose to prominence as a tourist hotspot.

The Angkor Wat temple complex is also shrouded in mystery because of its many secret rooms and hallways. Numerous secret chambers and passageways serve as sacred spaces for religious and ceremonial activities within the temple complex. The discovery of some of these chambers continues to this day, and the mysteries they conceal continue to captivate researchers and tourists alike.

The true nature of the Khmer Empire is yet another enigma surrounding Angkor Wat. We know surprisingly little about the history and culture of the Khmer people, who constructed Angkor Wat and ruled over one of Southeast Asia's most powerful and influential empires. Though the Khmer language and script have endured, much of the Khmer people's history and mythology have been lost to the ages.

Angkor Wat may be shrouded in mystery, but that has not diminished the city's significance in Cambodian religion and culture. Cambodian art and architecture have been influenced by the Angkor Wat temple complex, a symbol of the ancient Khmer civilization, for centuries. Some of the temple's shrines and sanctuaries have been repurposed for use by Buddhists, making the entire complex a significant pilgrimage site for both religions. In sum, Angkor Wat's enigmas are just as alluring as they are difficult to unravel. Many mysteries remain about the city, such as its origins, the causes of its decline, and the significance of its art and architecture, despite decades of archaeological investigation. Can you imagine how many secret rooms and passages the temple has? Is there any limit to the mysteries and secrets that the Khmer civilization could hold? This ancient site is one of the most mysterious and impressive in the world, and the answers to these and other questions may not be known until much more research and exploration are done.

The Animated History of Argentina

The huge Rio de la Plata, the wild open Patagonia, and the high peaks of the Andes.. In the following video we will be exploring the land of Silver, Argentina! Enjoy!

The Nabatean City of Petra: A Masterpiece of Ancient Engineering

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Petra: A window into the Nabatean culture and civilization

Petra, a city founded by the Nabataeans and now in modern-day Jordan, is a stunning example of Nabatean architecture. Petra is known for its exceptional rock-cut architecture and sophisticated water management system, both of which were rediscovered in 1812 by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, who posed as a Muslim pilgrim to gain entry to the site. The city, which was once the Nabataean capital and a thriving commercial hub, is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site that draws tourists from all over the world.

The intricate rock-cut buildings in Petra are a major tourist attraction. Petra was constructed by the Nabataeans, an Arab tribe, who cut their buildings into the sandstone cliffs. The Treasury, a humongous building at the end of a short canyon called the Siq, is the most well-known of these structures. The Treasury is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of Nabatean architecture due to its elaborate facade and intricate carvings.

Petra's clever water system is another remarkable aspect of the city. Even in the dry climate of the desert, the Nabateans were able to collect and store water thanks to their complex system of cisterns, dams, and channels. Petra was able to flourish as a commercial hub thanks to this system, which made it possible to maintain a sizable population despite the city's desert setting.

Petra's status as a major trading post meant that it attracted businesspeople from all over the ancient world. The strategic location of the city at the intersection of multiple trade routes made it an important stop for the delivery of goods like spices, textiles, and incense. The Nabataeans' control over the trade of precious frankincense and myrrh contributed to Petra's status as one of the ancient world's wealthiest cities.

The Nabataeans' religious and cultural activities also revolved around Petra. Several religious structures, such as temples, tombs, and shrines, can be found in the city, and many of them were hewn out of the cliff faces. Probably the best-known of these buildings is the Monastery, a colossal structure with a layout not dissimilar to that of the Treasury. The Monastery, thought to have been used for religious and ceremonial purposes, is also regarded as one of the most impressive examples of Nabatean architecture.

A combination of factors, including a change in trade routes, earthquakes, and alterations to the water supply, led to the abandonment of Petra around the fourth century AD. But in 1812, it was rediscovered by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, and ever since then, archaeologists and historians have been studying and exploring it.

To sum up, the Nabataean city of Petra is an architectural marvel, distinguished by its extraordinary rock-cut buildings and sophisticated water distribution system. The city, which was once the Nabataean capital and a thriving commercial hub, is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site that draws tourists from all over the world. Petra is an incredible window into the past and a tribute to the Nabateans' creativity and expertise.

Marathon: The Battle that Gave Birth to Western Civilization

The Battle of Marathon: A Pivotal Moment in Western History

The Battle of Marathon, fought in 490 B.C., stands as one of the most consequential military engagements in the annals of Western history. This clash between the mighty Persian Empire and the fledgling city-state of Athens marked not only a decisive moment in the Greco-Persian Wars but also set the stage for the rise of classical Greek civilization, a cornerstone of Western culture.

Background: The Persian Expansion

To fully appreciate the significance of the marathon, one must understand the backdrop against which it was fought. The Persian Empire, under King Darius I, was an expanding colossus, stretching from Asia Minor to parts of India. Its ambition to extend its dominion into Greece was partly in retaliation against the Athenian and Eretrian support for the Ionian Revolt (499–494 B.C.), which was a rebellion of Greek cities in Asia Minor against Persian rule.

The Athenian Response

Athens, though politically and militarily nascent compared to the Persian behemoth, responded to the Persian threat with remarkable alacrity. Under the leadership of the strategos (generals), the Athenians decided to engage the Persians on their terms. A small force from Plataea joined them, displaying the developing sense of Greek unity against a common foreign foe.

The Stage of Battle: Marathon

The Persians landed at the plain of Marathon, a site chosen for its suitability for Persian cavalry. The Athenian force, though outnumbered (contemporary accounts suggest by at least two to one), was heavily armored and well-disciplined. The decision to meet the Persians at Marathon rather than waiting to defend Athens was a strategic gamble that underscored the Athenians' resolve.

The epic Battle

The battle itself was a showcase of tactical ingenuity. Miltiades thinned the center of his line, strengthening the flanks to envelop the Persian army. This tactic, combined with the ferocity of the Athenian hoplites, proved devastating. The Persians, more accustomed to missile warfare and cavalry charges, found themselves outmatched in close-quarters combat. The Greek forces achieved a stunning victory, driving the Persians back to their ships.

Aftermath and Legacy

The Battle of Marathon did not end the Persian threat to Greece, but it marked a turning point. It boosted the confidence of the Greek city-states, paving the way for future victories such as at Salamis and Plataea. Politically, it reinforced the Athenian belief in their democratic system, which had enabled such decisive action.

The legacy of Marathon extends far beyond its immediate military consequences. It symbolized the triumph of the Greek way of life over foreign domination, an ethos that would deeply influence Western thought. The concepts of democracy, individual rights, and civic duty, which were nascent in Athenian society, gained a new lease of life following this victory.

The Battle of Marathon, thus, was more than just a military victory; it was a cultural and ideological triumph. It underscored the capability of a unified, democratic society to overcome seemingly insurmountable odds. As such, it remains not just a significant historical event but a perennial source of inspiration, reminding us of the enduring power of collective action and democratic principles in the face of adversity.

How Did Ancient Rome Begin?

Today’s video covers the origins of Rome, from a small Latin settlement, to the Roman Kingdom under its Seven Legendary Kings. It then goes through the early Roman Republic until the Sack of Rome and its rebirth in the early 300s BCE.

The Roman Kingdom (also referred to as the Roman monarchy, or the regal period of ancient Rome) was the earliest period of Roman history when the city and its territory were ruled by kings. According to oral accounts, the Roman Kingdom began with the city's founding c. 753 BC, with settlements around the Palatine Hill along the river Tiber in central Italy, and ended with the overthrow of the kings and the establishment of the Republic c. 509 BC.

The Roman Republic was a state of the classical Roman civilization, run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire, Rome's control rapidly expanded during this period—from the city's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world.

Roman society under the Republic was primarily a cultural mix of Latin and Etruscan societies, as well as of Sabine, Oscan, and Greek cultural elements, which is especially visible in the Roman Pantheon. Its political organization developed, at around the same time as direct democracy in Ancient Greece, with collective and annual magistracies, overseen by a senate. The top magistrates were the two consuls, who had an extensive range of executive, legislative, judicial, military, and religious powers. Even though a small number of powerful families (called gentes) monopolised the main magistracies, the Roman Republic is generally considered one of the earliest examples of representative democracy. Roman institutions underwent considerable changes throughout the Republic to adapt to the difficulties it faced, such as the creation of promagistracies to rule its conquered provinces, or the composition of the senate.

Unlike the Pax Romana of the Roman Empire, the Republic was in a state of quasi-perpetual war throughout its existence. Its first enemies were its Latin and Etruscan neighbours as well as the Gauls, who even sacked the city in 387 BC. The Republic nonetheless demonstrated extreme resilience and always managed to overcome its losses, however catastrophic.

Little is certain about the kingdom's history as no records and few inscriptions from the time of the kings survive. The accounts of this period written during the Republic and the Empire are thought largely to be based on oral tradition.

Disgusting Things That Was Normal in Ancient Rome

We all know that the Roman Empire lasted many years and is one of the significant examples of the rise and fall of a civilization throughout human history. And while it's fascinating to learn about epic Roman emperors like Caligula or Commodus, in reality, living in the time of their reigns was probably not good at all.

Today you will get to know what daily reality was like in Ancient Rome. Enjoy!

Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece and Rome

Although the ancient Greeks and Romans believed that human sacrifice was barbaric, they occasionally practiced it themselves. Watch the video for more!

Divine Intimacy in Marble: Exploring the Hermes of Praxiteles

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Witnessing History Through Praxiteles’ Hermes: A Sculptural Marvel

The "Hermes of Praxiteles" is one of the most renowned sculptures of ancient Greece, believed to have been crafted around 330 BC by the acclaimed sculptor Praxiteles. This masterpiece of the classical era stands as an epitome of grace, showcasing the divine messenger and son of Zeus, Hermes, holding the infant Dionysus, the god of wine.

Hermes is portrayed as a young, athletic figure with harmonious proportions, embodying the idealized male form of the period. Standing at a height of over 2 meters, the statue exemplifies the perfect balance of movement and repose, a hallmark of Praxiteles' work. The detailed rendering of Hermes’ anatomy, with finely carved muscles and a relaxed posture, brings to life a figure that is both godly and naturalistic, capturing a moment of quiet intimacy between the two gods.

While the statue showcases Hermes holding the infant Dionysus, it is the depiction of Hermes that steals the limelight. His contemplative expression and the graceful curvature of his limbs showcase artistic brilliance, evoking a sense of dynamic yet serene energy.

Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis, Archaeological Museum of Olympia.

Dionysus is held safely in Hermes’ arm, depicted as a trusting and innocent infant, a stark contrast to the mature and graceful demeanor of Hermes. The intricate detailing in the rendering of the baby Dionysus is equally fascinating, offering a glimpse into the god's early life, which is seldom portrayed in Greek art.

The statue has stood the test of time, yet it shows signs of its age, with parts like Hermes' forearm and Dionysus' hand missing. Despite this, the statue continues to retain its enchanting beauty, offering a rich insight into the artistry of ancient Greek sculpture and standing as a testimony to Praxiteles’ unparalleled skill in capturing beauty and grace in marble.

Visitors to the Archaeological Museum of Olympia are graced with the opportunity to witness this magnificent piece, a convergence of mythology, artistic innovation, and unparalleled craftsmanship, offering a rare glimpse into the ancient world's aesthetic values and artistic heights.

The oldest shipboard cannon in Europe may have been discovered off the coast of Sweden

What may be Europe's earliest shipboard cannon has been researched by an international research team under the direction of maritime archaeologist Staffan von Arbin of the University of Gothenburg. The 14th-century cannon was discovered in the water near Marstrand on Sweden's west coast.

The Marstrand Cannon – a unique 14th century shipboard cannon.

The results of the interdisciplinary study add to our understanding of the early development of artillery on land and at sea, but they also shed light on a trying time for mariners and coastal residents.

The small, muzzle-loading cast copper-alloy cannon was discovered by a recreational diver off the coast of Marstrand at a depth of 20 meters. It is thought to have been recovered from a shipwreck. Because it still had some of a charge in its powder chamber when it was discovered, the researchers believe that the cannon is one that was mounted on a ship rather than one that was being transported as cargo. This indicates that when the cannon landed up on the ocean floor, it was loaded and prepared for use in battle.

“Thanks to the preserved remains of the charge, it has been possible to use radiocarbon dating to establish the age of the find,” says Staffan von Arbin, maritime archaeologist at the University of Gothenburg.

“The study’s findings show that the Marstrand cannon is probably from the 14th century, making it one of the oldest artillery pieces ever found in Europe.”

An examination of the metal's chemistry

The item was 3D scanned by the researchers, who also chemically analyzed the metal that was utilized to cast the cannon. According to the examination, it was a copper alloy with just trace levels of tin and around 14% weight lead.

According to the experts, this alloy is far from ideal for casting cannon, and it is possible that the cannon would have broken and been useless if used heavily for a longer period of time.

“Clearly, the person who cast the cannon did not have the necessary knowledge and understanding of the properties of various copper alloys,” says Staffan von Arbin.

“This shows that the noble art of cannon casting had not yet been fully mastered at that time, and that production was largely based on trial and error.”

The investigation also shows that the lead most likely came from England or the area along the borders of Poland and the Czech Republic, while the copper ore used to make the cannon was mined in modern-day Slovakia.

The researchers report the findings of their investigations in this interdisciplinary study, which was published in the English maritime history magazine The Mariner's Mirror. They also discuss the discovery in light of historical, iconographic, and archaeological sources. The town of Marstrand, renowned for its superior harbor, served as a crucial commercial shipping hub between Western Europe and the Baltic Sea region in the fourteenth century. However, the sea served as a battlefield and a battleground, and civilian communities along the coast were frequently severely impacted. Additionally, there was always a possibility of pirate raids.

Which vessel did the gun belong to?

The novel rifle designs created at this period offered significant tactical benefits in naval warfare. The late Middle Ages saw the introduction of cannons aboard merchant ships as a means of self-defense against pirates and other hostile ships, so it wasn't just warships that were armed. The investigation of the Marstrand cannon offers fresh insights and viewpoints on the evolution of this military technology.

The Marstrand cannon type's funnel-shaped cannons are typically dated to the 15th and 16th centuries, however this discovery proves that the model was already in use in the 14th century. The cannon's powder chamber's well-preserved remnants of the charge also demonstrate that cartouches, a type of textile packing for the powder charge, were used considerably earlier than previously thought.

“Now, of course, we also want to try to locate and document the ship that the cannon belonged to. Although it is probably severely degraded and broken up, it should be possible to find scattered remains of the wreck if we conduct a thorough inventory of the site and its surroundings,” mentions Staffan von Arbin.

Papua New Guinean body adornment practices

The majority of us may choose to wear jewelry or other adornments because we like them, believe they look nice on us, or because a loved one donated them to us, but the people of Papua New Guinea have an entirely different perspective.

Rimbu. Bilas Exhibition at the Australian Museum. Image credit: Wylda Bayrón

Since the beginning of time, people have worn objects as talismans, status symbols, or to stand out from the crowd. stones, feathers, shells, and bones. gemstones, fabrics, and metals. Consider the numerous exquisite artifacts created by the ancient Egyptians, Romans, and Greeks and discovered during excavations at important sites and in the tombs of emperors and other powerful people. The wearing of these ornaments served as a type of language and communication that stated who the wearer was and where they were from. Papua New Guinea serves as the ideal illustration of this.

In Papua New Guinea, the practice of body modification is referred to as bilas. Bilas, which derives from the pidgin language Tok Pisin, honors how interconnected all living things and people are. Since ancient times, adornments have served to meet many social, spiritual, and physical demands. Some are used to symbolize authority or position, while others are used in cultural festivities and rites. They are made from a variety of natural resources, including shells, feathers, and plant fibers.

The Australian Museum's newest exhibit, Bilas: Body Adornment from Papua New Guinea, features a stunning collection of Wylda Bayrón photographs as well as items from its renowned Pacific cultural collections to highlight the beauty and diversity of body adornment and decoration from Papua New Guinea. The exhibition will examine the various meanings and interpretations of bilas as a practice from various cultural backgrounds, highlighting how closely connected PNG people are to their natural surroundings.

The stunning exhibition featuring photographs by Wylda Bayrón and a selection of objects from the world-renowned Pacific cultural collections of the Australian Museum. Image credit: Anna Kucera

An avid photographer

Wylda Bayrón, a Puerto Rican photographer working in the US, created 60 stunning images for the book Bilas: Body Adornment from Papua New Guinea. For her work behind the scenes on TV shows like Orange is the New Black, Billions, Madam Secretary, and most recently, And Just Like That, this multi-talented photographer is well recognized. But Bayrón's interest is far from a television, in places where culture and customs are still alive and well. Such a site exists in Papua New Guinea.

Papua New Guinea has been a destination for Bayrón on multiple occasions; her first visit (in 2013) turned into an 18-month adventure as she sought to photograph every community in the country's 22 regions. She even picked up pidgin so she could speak. Since then, Bayrón has returned numerous times. Her voyage into the heart of a nation, where communities welcomed her and shared their culture, led to the creation of the pictures that are on display in this exhibition at the Australian Museum.

“The peoples of Papua New Guinea are the curators of these images, and it is their cultures, traditions and customs that are being shared. These photographs document what I could not have when I was growing up – a photographic history of identity,” Bayrón said.

Images may truly tell a story when viewed through Bayrón's lens—a story of cultural continuity, resiliency, adaptability, and regeneration.

Defarim (headdress), Sanduan, Telefomin and Toea Armlet Milne Bay. Image credits: Australian Museum.

The presentation

Visitors to the Australian Museum can see the complex beauty and diversity of cultural decoration and body ornamentation from the many peoples in Papua New Guinea through the exhibit Bilas: Body ornamentation from Papua New Guinea.

The exhibition was created and curated by the Museum's Pasifika team, who worked with local communities and experts from the region. It includes Bayrón's arresting photographs as well as rare, never-before-exhibited cultural objects from the Museum's collection, which is one of the most significant in the world with over 60,000 objects from across the region.

The new items, which were acquired thanks to a gift from the Australian Museum Foundation, include the earliest instances of Enga (human hair) wigs, Kagua area wicker helmets, and Maring/Kalam "Glong" headdresses. The commissioning of these decorations for an Australian institution is a first.

Dr. Michael Mel, one of the exhibition's co-curators and a proud native of Kilipika Village in the Western Highlands, said: “In our culture, the body has long served as a ‘canvas’ for self-expression and to convey a multitude of messages to the outside world. Beyond being a vehicle for social communication and living art, there are also spiritual domains and meanings to the body adornment.”

The images from Bayrón that best represent Bilas are numerous. A Chimbu tribe chief's visage is painted in "Chimbu Roi" using charcoal and broken seashells. His nose piercing and headgear are decorated with bird of paradise feathers.

Additionally, Bayrón describes the image titled "Tumbuna," saying that the youngster would put on the bilas for the first time at dawn. The village chief, his grandfather, meticulously unpacks the feathers he has received from his forefathers and unfolds a tiny tapa (cloth made of bark) that he specifically fashioned for the occasion out of worry that he wouldn't live to see this moment. The youngster exults. He understands that these actions are important because they are passing on centuries-old customs to the next generation.

And that is the main idea of bilas.

Museum visitors admire the impressive headdress from Papua New Guinea. Image credit: Anna Kucera

Through the camera

Australian Geographic was also able to chat with Wylda Bayrón, whose photographs served as the inspiration for the Australian Museum display. We questioned Wylda about her love for PNG and its bilas.

What sparked your interest in photography?

“When I was a focus puller in 2004, I worked on a film in Singapore. I asked production to delay my return for a week as I wanted to visit Malaysia. The week turned into a year and a half travelling through Southeast Asia where I realised my passion for photography and tribal cultures.”

You have worked as a photographer/cinematographer on countless shows and movies. How do you juggle your passion for photography with the demands of film work?

“It’s a tricky balance because I love both parts of my work life and how distinct and different they are. They inform each other so in that sense it’s very rewarding. I try to work on shows that tell stories I love and think are important because each show is an all-consuming affair that can take up to six months of my life. With that money I buy my freedom to travel and invest in my passion for preservation of tribal culture. The cinematography and the photography are each a wing of a bird for me.”

What piqued your interest about Papua New Guinea?

“I’ve always had PNG in mind but the time had not come because I knew I had to go alone and I was in a relationship. I had seen pictures of the huli and a few other highland tribes and I was hooked. Little did I know I’d be spending a decade working with the people there.”

What happened on the first trip that sparked the passion for photographing and learning about the people of PNG?

“Pretty much immediately I was taken in by a family who were able to support me in my desire to capture as many tribes and Bilas as possible. My first “mum” travelled with me to some places initially and introduced me to her Motu family members and friends and that way I was able to use the wankot system to traverse and travel the entire island always having new families take me in and keep me safe. The project was born organically, fuelled by community desire for their own preservation.”

Baining Nature Powa and Chimbu Roi. Image credits: Wylda Bayrón

What resonates most about the peoples of PNG in your heart?

“What resonates most is that belonging to a place is not rooted in where you were born. PNG is my home and the people there are my family no matter what tribe or province they are from. Somehow, we always managed to connect and laugh and do the culture preservation work no matter where I was originally from. Once I learned the language and they knew that I understood them, the life and culture, I was one of them and they didn’t hesitate to accept me. It was always a homecoming even if it was new place. That’s pretty magical and you can’t fake that. PNG and I were written in the stars.”

What does the word bilas mean to you?

“Bilas is identity, community, ancestral knowledge and a core aspect of how we celebrate ourselves and the culture in PNG. The people and I have forged a beautiful bond. Their deep sense of identity and kindness is one of the parts that keep me coming back. It’s the immediate sense of family and community that made the journey so beautiful and I’m forever bonded with the people and the land.”

What is your favourite photo from your beautiful collection now on show at the Australian Museum as part of Bilas: Body Adornment from Papua New Guinea? What is the story behind it (the photo)?

“It’s so hard to identify a sole image as they are each representing a very special place and people. I do love my first photo shoot in the middle Sepik which yielded the image of the three men with a live crocodile around the main man. The first day we tried to shoot it rained and we had to cancel, but the men decided they would get dressed all over again the next day and then take me by canoe several hours north so that I would not miss my flight out as my visa was expiring.”

Blue plaque unveiled marking Egyptologist's birthplace in Barnsley

At the residence of an Egyptologist from Barnsley who found some of the early hints about the location of Tutankhamun's tomb, a blue plaque has been revealed.

Egyptologist and artist Ernest Harold Jones died from tuberculosis aged 34 before the tomb of Tutankhamun was found

According to Barnsley Council, Ernest Harold Jones, who passed away in 1911, "made significant archaeological discoveries that have largely been forgotten."

After discovering items carrying his name, according to the civic trust of the community, he stimulated curiosity about locating the pharaoh's tomb.

On Thursday 14th of September, the memorial was unveiled on Sackville Street, where he resided.

During a 1922 excavation in the Valley of the Kings, Howard Carter, a Jones acquaintance, famously found Tutankhamun's tomb.

If Jones had not passed away from illness at a young age, Prof. Joann Fletcher, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of York, thought it was quite likely that he would have discovered the tomb before Carter.

"In many ways he was way ahead of Howard Carter," mentioned Prof Fletcher, who has studied the Egyptologist and artist's life.

"His funeral in Egypt was arranged by his friends Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter, who were able to follow the clues Jones had found to finally discover the tomb in 1922."

Jones' Welsh-born parents moved their family to Barnsley, South Yorkshire, when Jones' father was appointed the school's first headmaster.

Councillor Robert Frost, council cabinet spokesperson for regeneration and culture, mentioned: "It is fascinating to discover the strong links between Barnsley and ancient Egypt - particularly around the research conducted by Ernest Harold Jones.

"It is important that his achievements are recognised and remembered."

8-Year-Old Discovers On the Beach, a 900-Year-Old Viking Artifact

While on a family vacation in Sweden, an 8-year-old kid discovered a 900-year-old Viking item on the shore.

An 8-year-old boy discovered a Viking artifact on a family vacation.Gotland County Administrative Board

On his walk to the beach, Bruno Tillema noticed an intriguing object and picked it up, according to a press statement from the Gotland County Administrative Board dated September 8.

"I just picked it up from the ground and thought, 'What is this?' " Tillema told the Board. "'Maybe some weird part from a house?' I went looking for fossils. Then mother came and asked what I had in my hand. Then I said, 'Some strange metal thing.'"

Andreas Tillema, Bruno's father, said in an interview with Newsweek that he and his wife had just handed Bruno a book about fossils and that as a result, he was "actively scanning the ground with his eyes."

To clarify what Bruno had found, the family talked to a relative who is an archaeologist.

"A video call later, it stood clear what [it] was," Andreas said.

An animal head-shaped bronze belt buckle from the Viking Age, which lasted between 800-1100 AD, was discovered by Bruno.

To report the relic, the Tillemas got in touch with the county government.

A second artifact, a ring buckle, was discovered after the Gotland museum conducted an investigation of the location.

Bronze was used to make both buckles. During the late Iron Age or the early Viking Age, they were applied on costumes.

Ring buckles were used for both men's and women's burials in Gotland, although animal head buckles were primarily found on women's graves. The Board stated that the buckle-related burials were presumably burned.

The National Antiquities Office will decide whether to display the buckles in a collection after the buckles have been maintained.

"I'm a little happy to be able to do it," Bruno said. "It feels like I've done something big and now I can share it with you."

According to Andreas, his son is pleased to finally share this tale, as he told Newsweek.

"We were asked to keep it a secret until the site was properly examined," Andreas said. "He has even started thinking about becoming an archaeologist when he grows up. His dream is to find a T. Rex skull."

The National Antiquities Office makes the decision about finder rewards.

Impressive Show: Pompeii Volcano Eruption

In the following impressive video we will analyze the volcano eruption in Pompeii. Watch the video to find out more!

Did medieval Peasants Travel?

In today’s video, Jason Kingsley, the modern Knight, discusses how and why peasants might have travelled in medieval times and why. Watch the video to find out more!

8,000-year-old Cave paintings found in Türkiye’s İnkaya Cave depict life and death

A number of cave paintings dating back some 8,000 years have been found in İnkaya cave in the Marmara province of Balıkesir during a field study conducted by Associate Prof. Dr. Derya Yalçıklı from Çanakkale (18th March) University, in 2015.

During the same studies, another cave located 5 kilometers away from the İnkaya cave was discovered. The discovery of both caves is known as the most important archaeological discovery made in Anatolia in recent years.

The cave paintings discovered in the Baltalıin and İnkaya Caves, which are situated in the Delice neighborhood of the Dursunbey district in the Balıkesir province of Turkey, offer information that sheds light on Neolithic Age life.

One of the remarkable findings showing that people in the Prehistoric Age were undeniably knowledgeable about the phenomenon of childbirth is the scene found among the cave paintings of İnkaya Cave.

The painting depicts a woman becoming pregnant, the pregnancy, and childbirth in an expression that has yet to be matched.