The Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal: Its Role in Egyptian-Kushite Syncretism

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By The Archaeologist Editor Group

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Sanctuaries of Syncretism: Deciphering Egyptian-Kushite Spiritual Connections

Jebel Barkal, a small mountain located in modern-day Sudan, has long been shrouded in the mystique of ancient history. This site, deeply intertwined with the religious and political dynamics of the ancient kingdoms of Egypt and Kush, hosts the remarkable Temple of Amun. The temple's rich history, architectural splendor, and the artifacts unearthed there offer invaluable insights into the religious and cultural practices of the time.

Historical Context

Jebel Barkal's prominence is largely attributed to its association with Amun, a major deity in Egyptian mythology. The site's significance escalated during the New Kingdom of Egypt (circa 1550–1077 BCE), when Pharaoh Thutmose III extended Egyptian influence into Nubia and identified Jebel Barkal as the dwelling of Amun. This association transformed Jebel Barkal into a spiritual epicenter, linking it directly to the Karnak Temple in Thebes, the primary cult center of Amun.

The Temple of Amun

The Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal, primarily constructed during the reign of Ramses II, is a testament to the religious fervor and architectural ingenuity of the period. The temple complex, adorned with intricate carvings, colossal statues, and imposing pillars, was dedicated to the worship of Amun. It served as a spiritual and administrative hub, underscoring the interwoven nature of religion and governance in ancient Egypt and Kush.

Architectural Features and Artifacts

The temple's architecture is a blend of Egyptian and Kushite styles, reflecting the cultural exchange between the two civilizations. Notable features include the pillared hall, the sanctuary, and a series of chambers used for religious ceremonies. The temple walls are adorned with reliefs depicting various pharaohs making offerings to the gods, symbolizing the divine rights of kings.

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Excavations at Jebel Barkal have yielded a plethora of artifacts, including statues, stelae, and inscriptions. These findings provide crucial insights into the religious practices, art, and politics of the era. The artifacts also highlight the craftsmanship and artistic skills of the ancient artisans.

Jebel Barkal at Abu Simbel

The depiction of Jebel Barkal at Abu Simbel, another monumental temple complex located in Egypt, further underscores its religious significance. The imagery shows Jebel Barkal as a sacred mountain occupied by Amun of Karnak. The pinnacle of Jebel Barkal is often represented as a colossal royal uraeus (a rearing cobra), adorned with the White Crown, a symbol of pharaonic authority and divine protection.

(Left) The Jebel Barkal pinnacle viewed from the northeast (i.e. upstream, looking downstream); (right) Jebel Barkal, from the same angle, as pictured at Abu Simbel, showing it as a mountain occupied by Amun of Karnak and the pinnacle as a colossal royal uraeus wearing the White Crown.

Egyptian-Kushite Religious Syncretism: A Confluence of Beliefs

The relationship between ancient Egypt and Kush, particularly in the realm of religion, is a fascinating example of cultural and religious syncretism. From around 2000 BCE, when Kush began to emerge as a significant power, there was a gradual blending of religious practices and deities between the two civilizations. This syncretism was not merely an adoption of Egyptian gods by the Kushites; rather, it represented a mutual exchange and reinterpretation of religious ideas and rituals. The Kushite interpretation of Egyptian deities often involved merging them with native Kushite gods or adapting their characteristics to fit local beliefs. For instance, the Egyptian god Amun, originally a minor deity, was assimilated with the Kushite god Apedemak, resulting in a unique form of worship that was distinctly Kushite while retaining Egyptian influences. This hybridization of religious beliefs is evident in the art and architecture of the period, where Egyptian styles blend seamlessly with indigenous Kushite elements, creating a distinct cultural identity.

The Impact of Syncretism on Political and Social Structures

This religious syncretism had significant implications for the political and social structures in both Egypt and Kush. In Egypt, the Kushite pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty embraced Egyptian religious traditions, incorporating them into their rule, which helped legitimize their reign in the eyes of the Egyptian populace. Conversely, in Kush, the adoption and adaptation of Egyptian religious practices served to enhance the authority and divine status of Kushite kings. This mutual religious influence fostered a sense of shared identity and cultural unity, despite the geographical and political distinctions between the two regions. Temples such as those at Jebel Barkal and the widespread worship of gods in their syncretized forms became symbols of this intertwined relationship. This syncretism also facilitated diplomatic and trade relationships, as shared religious beliefs often led to a deeper mutual understanding and respect between these ancient civilizations. Thus, the Egyptian-Kushite religious syncretism was not just a merging of gods and rituals but a profound blending of cultures that shaped the political and social landscapes of the region for centuries.

Jebel Barkal and its pinnacle as seen today through the ruined hypostyle hall of the Great Amun Temple.

The Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal stands as a monumental testament to the religious and political landscape of ancient Egypt and Nubia. Its architectural grandeur, the rich array of artifacts uncovered, and its depiction in other significant Egyptian sites like Abu Simbel all highlight its importance as a cultural and religious nexus. Today, Jebel Barkal continues to captivate historians, archaeologists, and enthusiasts alike, offering a window into a world where the divine and the temporal intersect in profound ways.

The Egyptian Influences on the Kushites: A Cultural Exchange Through Millennia

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The relationship between ancient Egypt and the Kingdom of Kush, a region located in what is now northern Sudan, represents one of the most intriguing aspects of African history. This connection, spanning several millennia, profoundly influenced the Kushite civilization in various domains, including religion, architecture, and art. The interaction between these two ancient powers was not merely one-sided; rather, it was a dynamic interchange that shaped the cultural landscapes of both civilizations.

The interaction between Egypt and Kush dates back to the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2686–2181 BC), when trade and military campaigns brought the two regions into contact. The Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC) saw increased Egyptian influence in Kush, leading to the establishment of Egyptian fortresses in Kushite territory. This period of direct control and influence was pivotal in transmitting Egyptian culture to the Kushites.

Religion: The Divine Synthesis

Religion was a significant arena for Egyptian influence in Kush. The Kushites adopted many Egyptian deities, most notably Amun. The temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal, a holy site for both Egyptians and Kushites, stands as a testament to this religious synthesis. The Kushite interpretation of Egyptian gods often involved integrating them with local deities, creating a unique religious blend that highlighted both Egyptian and indigenous characteristics.

Moreover, the practice of pyramid building for royal burials in Kush, a clear Egyptian import, was adapted to local customs and styles. The Nubian pyramids, smaller and steeper than their Egyptian counterparts, reflect this adaptation.

Architecture: Stone Echoes of an Ancient Civilization

Egyptian architectural influence is most visible in the grandiose structures that dot the Kushite landscape. This influence is evident in the use of Egyptian motifs, column designs, and temple layouts. The construction of temples, palaces, and pyramids in Kush followed Egyptian architectural styles but also incorporated distinct local elements, demonstrating a fusion rather than mere imitation.

Art: A Canvas of Cultural Interchange

Kushite art, heavily influenced by Egyptian styles, especially during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC), is a vivid illustration of cultural exchange. Egyptian artistic conventions, like the depiction of figures in profile and the use of hieroglyphs, were widely adopted in Kushite art. However, Kushite artisans infused these elements with local flavors, evident in the portrayal of Kushite physiognomy and dress in art and sculptures.

The Kushite Pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty

The zenith of Egyptian influence on Kush can be seen during the 25th Dynasty (c. 747–656 BC), when Kushite rulers, known as the "Black Pharaohs," conquered and ruled Egypt. This period saw the resurgence of traditional Egyptian art and architecture under Kushite patronage, symbolizing a cultural renaissance. The Kushite Pharaohs not only embraced Egyptian traditions but also played a role in their revival and preservation.

The cultural exchange between Egypt and Kush was a dynamic and complex process that transcended mere imitation. The Kushites adopted and adapted Egyptian religious, architectural, and artistic elements, creating a distinct culture that resonated with Egyptian influences yet retained its unique character. This interaction highlights the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations and the importance of cross-cultural influences in shaping the historical narrative of the Nile Valley civilizations.

The Beautiful Black Tribes of Asia, Pacific, & Australia

In the video below, we will be talking about various black people from Asia, the Pacific, and Australia.

Molluccans

The Moluccan people are an indigenous black community residing in the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia. The Moluccan people's origins can be traced back to Austronesian migrations from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands, with influences from neighboring regions like Papua New Guinea. These migrations over centuries laid the foundation for the diverse genetic makeup and cultural fabric of the Moluccan people.

Sri Lanka kaffirs

Nestled in the heart of the Indian Ocean, the teardrop-shaped island of Sri Lanka boasts a rich tapestry of cultures, traditions, and histories. Among its diverse inhabitants, one group stands out as a fascinating testament to the island's multicultural heritage: the Sri Lankan Kaffirs. The origins of the Sri Lankan Kaffirs can be traced back to the 16th century, when Portuguese colonialists brought African slaves to the island. These slaves were primarily of Bantu and Khoisan descent, from regions now known as Mozambique, Tanzania, and South Africa.

The Maniq of Thailand

Deep within the lush rainforests of southern Thailand is a unique and fascinating indigenous group known as the Maniq people. The origins of the Maniq people are shrouded in mystery, but anthropological research suggests that they are part of a broader group of Proto-Malayic ethnic communities. The Maniq people are one of the smallest ethnic groups in Thailand. Genetic studies of the Maniq people have revealed a unique genetic heritage that reflects their isolation and distinct way of life. Their genetic markers show connections to other indigenous groups in the region and ancient populations that inhabited Southeast Asia. The Maniq people often have darker skin and hair, well-suited to their forested environment.

The Semang and Batek of Malaysia

Malaysia, a country renowned for its cultural diversity, is home to the Semang and Batek people, who stand as distinct groups, embodying the ancestral heritage of the region. The origins of the Semang and Batek people trace back to the ancient inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula, contributing to the complex mosaic of Malaysia's indigenous population. These communities are believed to have inhabited the region for thousands of years, preserving their distinct way of life amidst the tides of history. The Semang and Batek people are part of the larger Orang Asli community, which translates to "Original People" in Malay, highlighting their status as the earliest inhabitants of the peninsula. Research has indicated that these communities share genetic markers with other indigenous populations in Southeast Asia and Australo-Melanesian groups.

East Timor

Nestled in the maritime heart of Southeast Asia lies East Timor, a land of breathtaking landscapes and a people whose history is as rich as the diverse tapestry of their culture. The roots of the East Timorese people can be traced back to Austronesian migrations that took place thousands of years ago. This early migration brought together various ethnic groups, including the Atoni, Tetum, Mambai, and Bunak, among others. The East Timorese population is relatively small, with an estimated 1.3 million people. They inhabit the eastern part of the island of Timor, which is shared with Indonesia.

New Caledonian Kanak People

Nestled in the heart of the South Pacific, New Caledonia is an enchanting archipelago that beckons with its turquoise waters, lush landscapes, and vibrant cultures. Among the mosaic of societies that grace this idyllic haven, the Kanak people stand as a testament to the island's rich history and diverse heritage. This Austronesian group, believed to have originated in Southeast Asia, ventured across vast ocean expanses, eventually settling in the Melanesian islands.

Southern Yemeni (Hadhrami and Shabwah) and Socotra Island people

Yemen, a land of historical significance and cultural diversity, is home to a multitude of ethnic groups and communities, each with their own unique customs, traditions, and identities.

The Vedda

The Vedda are a minority indigenous group of people in Sri Lanka. The Vedda minority in Sri Lanka may become completely assimilated. Most speak Sinhala instead of their indigenous languages, which are nearing extinction. It has been hypothesized that the Vedda were probably the earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka and have lived on the island since before the arrival of other ethnic groups in India.

New Study: Ivory Bag Rings Found in Anglo Saxon Cemeteries Came From African Elephants

High class female burials from the late fifth and seventh centuries AD frequently contain bag rings, but the origin of the ivory has been a subject of discussion since the 19th century; walrus and mammoth ivory have also been suggested as alternatives to elephantid ivory.

In Scremby, Lincolnshire, recent excavations of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery turned very elaborate female graves with bag rings. These burials were studied using radiocarbon dating and zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (ZooMS).

The report states that "Strontium analysis was also used to pinpoint the elephantids' habitation at the time that their tusks formed. We have determined through a multi-methodological approach that the elephants that lived in an area of young volcanic rocks in Africa somewhere between the fifth and sixth century AD provided the ivory for the Scremby bag rings.

A well-preserved ivory bag ring from the an Anglo-Saxon burial at Scremby in Lincolnshire. Photo: ©Hugh Willmott

The ivory most likely came from the Kingdom of Aksum, which is now in modern-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia; the strontium isotope readings point to an area near Eastern Africa.

The emergence of the Aksumite Kingdom in the ancient historical kingdom of Dmt was first mentioned in a trading manual from around the middle of the first century AD called the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea." The Kingdom was centered in Aksum, which was strategically located to rule both the highland and coastal districts of northern Ethiopia, not far from the foot of the Adwa highlands.

The Periplus text claims that the Aksumite Kingdom's position in the world had a significant part in the transcontinental commerce route between Rome and India from the very beginning.

Ivory bag ring in-situ alongside other belt accessories in a woman’s grave at Scremby Photo: ©Hugh Willmott

Up to the 7th century AD, the Kingdom had a significant influence on the supply of ivory. A trade monopoly between the region and the Mediterranean was created at the same time as the early Islamic conquests and expansion into North Africa.

The noticeable decrease in the presence of ivory bag rings in Anglo-Saxon graves dating from the 7th century onwards may have been caused by the disrupted trade routes to the West. Due in part to the re-establishment of Christianity, England also experienced larger changes to burial customs during this period of transition.

Nubian Kings: Who Were Ancient Egypt's Black Pharaohs? | Mystery Of The African Pharaohs

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The Archaeologist Editor Group

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The African Pharaohs: Rediscovering Ancient Egypt's Black Rulers

Ancient Egypt, a civilization that spanned millennia, is often remembered for its iconic pyramids, mummies, and powerful pharaohs. Among its long line of rulers, a group often overlooked in mainstream historical narratives is the African pharaohs, particularly those from the Kingdom of Kush, in what is now Sudan. These pharaohs, who ruled Egypt for nearly a century, are a testament to the interconnectedness of African civilizations in antiquity and the diverse legacy of the Egyptian empire.

The Rise of the Kushite Dynasty

The story of Egypt's black pharaohs begins with the Kingdom of Kush, a powerful realm located to the south of Egypt. Kush shared a long history with Egypt, marked by both peaceful interactions and conflicts. The Kushites were a Nubian people, and their culture, language, and political structures were heavily influenced by their northern neighbor.

Piye: The King Who Conquered Egypt

The Kushite conquest of Egypt was initiated by King Piye, who ascended the throne of Kush in the late 8th century BCE. Piye saw himself as a true heir to the legacy of the ancient pharaohs and believed he was destined to restore the glory of Egypt, which had waned due to internal strife and fragmentation. In a swift military campaign, Piye conquered Egypt and established the 25th Dynasty, also known as the Nubian Dynasty.

Reign of the Kushite Pharaohs

Piye's successors, including Shabaka, Shebitku, and Taharqa, continued to rule both Egypt and Kush, creating a period of prosperity and cultural renaissance.

Cultural and Religious Revival

The Kushite pharaohs were fervent patrons of the arts and religion. They invested in large construction projects, building and restoring temples and monuments across Egypt. The architecture from this period melded Kushite and Egyptian styles, symbolizing the fusion of the two cultures.

One of the most notable contributions of the Kushite pharaohs was their revival of the pyramid-building tradition. They constructed pyramids in both Egypt and Kush, although the Kushite pyramids were smaller and had steeper sides.

Taharqa: The Peak of the Kushite Empire

Taharqa, the last major Kushite pharaoh, is often celebrated for his contributions to both the Egyptian and Kushite kingdoms. Under his reign, the empire reached its zenith, with prosperity in the arts, culture, and economy. However, his reign also marked the beginning of the end of Kushite rule in Egypt.

The End of Kushite Rule and Legacy

The 25th Dynasty came to an end with the invasion of the Assyrian Empire. The Kushites were pushed back to their homeland, where they continued to thrive for several centuries.

Despite the end of their rule in Egypt, the Kushite pharaohs left a lasting legacy.

Cultural Integration: The Kushite pharaohs demonstrated how African and Egyptian cultures could integrate and thrive together, creating a unique blend of art, architecture, and religious practices.

Rediscovery and Recognition: In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the Kushite dynasty. Archaeological excavations in Sudan have uncovered stunning pyramids, temples, and artifacts that shed light on this often-overlooked chapter of African and Egyptian history.

Redefining African History: The story of the black pharaohs challenges the traditional narratives of African history, showcasing the continent's rich and diverse ancient civilizations.

The African pharaohs of Egypt's 25th Dynasty stand as a powerful symbol of the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations. Their story, a blend of conquest, cultural exchange, and artistic achievement, offers a broader understanding of African history beyond the borders of Egypt. As scholars continue to explore and understand the legacy of these African rulers, the history of the Kushite dynasty will likely gain its deserved recognition in the annals of world history.

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Sudan is one of the world’s last frontiers. Once though this vast desert land was the home of an advanced & mysterious civilisation. An ancient kingdom that was the glory of Africa. A kingdom that once ruled Egypt. A kingdom known as Kush. David Adams travels down the Nile from Lake Nasser to Khartoum in search of the mysterious kingdom of pyramid builders and sun worshippers on a journey into the land of the Black Pharaohs.

The Evolution of Human Nutrition in Prehistory

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By Giorgio Pintzas Monzani

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By now we always think of food as creation, art, a mix of new ingredients, yet losing the primordial essence of it: surviving.

Man has been able to evolve, travel and discover, having mainly only one motive, nutrition, food.

Of course, the fact that man has not always been interested in gourmet preparations does not mean that they should be of little importance today, at all.

However, there are nuances of prehistoric and ancient nutrition that are still little known to most people today, despite the infinite number of commonalities with our tables today.

Let us start initially by looking at what exactly prehistory is, a detail that often eludes many.

With the Latin term prae-historia, we define all that long period of human existence where the discovery of writing had not yet been made.

The exact subdivision of prehistory is as follows:

●       Paleolithic, which lasted nearly 2 million years and ended about 12,000 years ago

●       Mesolithic, a period between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago

●       Neolithic, the last period of the Stone Age that ended about 4,000 years ago with the invention of writing

The thing that stands out is precisely the long periods of these eras: it may seem obvious but it's not at all, that humans spent more time in prehistory than in history, we were mostly illiterate, which gives a very good idea of how young our race is.

So we will see how starting in the Paleolithic period, man began over the millennia, to develop a more varied and complex diet than his ancestors, albeit at a much slower pace than we might think.

We will certainly not develop the topic solely in the classical scholastic manner, but will also look at dishes from the prehistoric diet that have a direct connection to our tables today.

The Paleolithic, the longest period of prehistory

Speaking of the Paleolithic we mean the longest historical period of prehistory, as well as of human existence.

From the first appearance of homo habilis until the end of the Paleolithic, human nutrition is very limited and characterized by few developments and changes:

Hunting, although considered to be the foundation of his diet, was a very often exhausting and disappointing practice, often dealing with very large prey, thus ending up feeding on carrion and insects, making the human an excellent opportunist rather than a skilled hunter.

In addition, gathering berries and wild fruits was the basis of one's diet, a practice, however, borne by women; in fact, it is thought that it was they who later led to the birth of agriculture: through the seeds that fell on the way back to the villages.

Fishing was also of great importance, but often left on the back burner, dealing with prey that could rarely feed entire groups and families.

The Mesolithic, the first glimmers of true food evolution

With the end of the last ice age, about 10,000 years ago, we see the transition from the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic.

Major climate changes have disruptive effects on the planet's flora and fauna, making it impossible for humans to survive with pre-glaciation habits.

The scarcity of game and large prey prompts humans to embrace a sedentary lifestyle, and to a very different societal organization and their villages.

In fact, the first signs of prey-breeding practices begin, which are no longer killed, but caught and brought back to the villages, creating a kind of prolonged supply over time.

Not unimportant will be the invention of a weapon that will make herd hunting much easier: the bow.

Probably occurring around 6,000 B.C., it helped both in the search for livelihood and in the protection of villages.

The most significant discovery of the Mesolithic was the cultivation of cereals, in the area of the fertile crescent, Mesopotamia, some assume it was the production of wheat that eliminated the primordial need of the nomadic being.

We certainly cannot assume that the type of the first cereals grown had much in common with those consumed today, since over the centuries man modified the nature of cereals in order to make them more digestible to his organism.

Thanks to his own discoveries, the result of centuries of evolution, human beings went from being hunters and an "opportunistic animal" to a true breeder and farmer.

Neolithic, the pinnacle of development of the prehistoric period

Humans of the period by now have little or nothing in common with their Paleolithic ancestors: they created villages with more complex societal structures and more pronounced hierarchies than before; they also made family organization a priority by dividing even their members' possessions differently.

Inventions such as the wheel and the raft are the greatest technological developments of the period, and among the most significant of our existence.

During these millennia, sheep and cattle raising, and agriculture became the most important and widely used form of livelihood, thus decreasing dangerous practices such as hunting, while drastically increasing one's mortality rate.

In addition, man began to realize that having many children was not just a problem of mouths to feed, but a huge resource at the labor level.

Thus, a population increase never before took place, and thus the birth of large villages and much more populated establishments, the ancestors of cities.

But are there types of foods, whether simple nutritional habits or actual processed foods, that we still have, almost, directly in common with prehistoric humans today?

Yes.

So let us look at 3 examples of handed-down, and obviously modified, foods that have come down to us directly from remote periods in our history.

The consumption of insects, a lost custom

In today's Western culture, the consumption of insects, or derivatives of them, is a taboo.

A practice associated with poor quality food and poor hygienic conditions.

However, we forget to consider that this food was the basis of the prehistoric diet, especially of humans in the Paleolithic period: as mentioned earlier, the opportunistic instinct of humans, led them to eat larvae, grasshoppers and any other available and digestible insect.

It is therefore inferred how entomophagy (feeding on insects), is not a practice characteristic of peoples far from us, but present in the DNA of us all.

Obviously this practice was lost when diet and cuisine evolved?

Wrong, we do in fact have written evidence, including Aristotle's work "historia animalium," where the Greek philosopher spends time explaining to the reader the best methods of tasting various kinds of insects.

One example?

Aristotle declares that female larvae after copulation, are delicious, due to the sublime taste given by the eggs contained in it.

Polenta, an age-old dish, imprinted in our DNA

One may think that the oldest grain-based food is bread: however, we forget that in various Indo-European cultures, since ancient times, another cooked grain-based preparation, in the form of porridge, made its appearance.

Whether it was cooking on heated stones, or boiling in pouches from animal remains, human beings soon began eating doughs made from coarse flours and water.

In the case of cooking on hot stones, the first ancestors of bread were born, more specifically products similar to tortillas and Indian naan.

In the case of boiling, on the other hand, centuries before the appearance of terracotta, humans immersed red-hot stones inside containers of water in order to succeed in bringing products to a boil: in this case they added cereal flour to the water, which they cooked for a not-too-long time, until they obtained the first examples of polenta.

The Sumerians were among the first to prepare this dish, where, with flour made from grains such as millet and rye, they obtained a nutrient-rich mush with a huge energy intake.

It was certainly not the latter who extended it to other territories: the ease of its preparation and the need for only two ingredients meant that polenta played an important role for many peoples in different areas.

Nevertheless, it is important to note how it was the Greeks, in the centuries to come, who in turn made it a true substitute for bread and enriched the flavors through spices and savory sauces.

The name polenta came much later, with the Latin peoples: in fact, polenta comes from the word "puls," literally mush.

Jerky beef, not a modern invention

We all have a clear image of those huge shelves in supermarkets, with packages of jerky of all kinds and with all kinds of flavorings.

Well, what if I told you that this is not a product that is a child of modern drying techniques?

The need to obtain meat at times when hunting was difficult, for climatic reasons mainly, led many peoples of the earth to treat meat in a way that increased its durability.

Various archaeologists have found evidence of dried meat in various tombs in the area of ancient Egypt, dating as far back as 3,500 BCE.

Certainly the primordial methods did not always have the effectiveness of today's drying, in fact often the process to which meat was subjected was salting, despite this we see how a food on our shelves today, has roots far back.

Author:

Giorgio Pintzas Monzani is a Greek-Italian chef, writer and consultant who lives in Milan. His Instagram page can be found here.

The History of Writing; Tracing the Development of expressing Language by Systems of Markings

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by dimosthenis vasiloudis

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Protowriting, ideographic systems, or early mnemonic symbols came before more advanced writing systems in the evolution of writing in human societies (symbols or letters that make remembering them easier).

A subsequent development is true writing, in which the content of a spoken language is encoded so that another reader may reasonably reconstruct the identical utterance written down. It differs from proto-writing, which frequently forgoes recording grammatical words and affixes, making it harder or even impossible to reassemble the precise meaning intended by the writer unless a substantial amount of context is already known in advance.

Writing innovations

The idea that writing originated in a single civilization and was called "monogenesis" persisted for a long time. According to academics, all writing originated in Mesopotamia's ancient Sumer and spread around the world as a result of cultural diffusion. This argument holds that traders or merchants traveling between geographical locations passed on the idea of representing language by written signs, though perhaps not necessarily the specifics of how such a system operated.

The finding of ancient Mesoamerican scripts, far from Middle Eastern sources, demonstrated, however, that writing had been created more than once. In at least four ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia (between 3400 and 3100 BCE), Egypt (about 3250 BCE), China (1200 BCE), and lowland portions of southern Mexico and Guatemala, writing may have independently originated (by 500 BCE).

Some academics have suggested that ancient Egypt "The earliest authentic examples of Egyptian writing differ from Mesopotamian writing in both structure and style, indicating that they must have emerged independently. Although there is still a chance that Mesopotamian "stimulus dispersion" occurred, the influence could not have extended beyond the dissemination of an idea."

Because there is no evidence of communication between ancient China and the Near Eastern literate civilizations, as well as because Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches to phonetic representation differ, it is thought that ancient Chinese characters are independent creations.

The Vinča symbols.

The Rongorongo script of Easter Island, the Vina symbols from about 5500 BCE, and the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization are all controversial. Since none have been translated, it is unclear if they all represent real writing, protowriting, or something entirely different.

The earliest coherent texts date from around 2600 BCE, and Sumerian archaic (pre-cuneiform) writing and Egyptian hieroglyphs are usually regarded as the earliest authentic writing systems. Both developed out of their ancestors' proto-literate symbol systems between 3400 and 3100 BCE. The Proto-Elamite script belongs to roughly the same time frame.

writing methods

Writing systems are distinct from symbolic communication systems. For most writing systems, reading a text requires some knowledge of the spoken language that goes along with it. In contrast, it's not always necessary to have a prior understanding of a spoken language to use symbolic systems like information signs, paintings, maps, and mathematics. Every human group has its own language, which is thought by many to be a natural and essential aspect of mankind.

Writing system development has been intermittent, uneven, and delayed, and old oral communication systems have only been partially replaced. Writing systems generally develop more slowly after they are formed than their spoken counterparts and frequently preserve traits and idioms that have been lost to the spoken language.

Three writing standards are thought to apply to all writing systems. First, writing must be comprehensive; it must have a meaning or purpose, and it must make a point or be able to convey that message. Second, whether they are physical or digital, all writing systems must include some kind of symbol that can be created on a surface. In order to facilitate communication, the writing system's symbols must resemble spoken words or speech.

The greatest advantage of writing is that it gives society a way to regularly and thoroughly preserve information—something that the spoken word could not previously do as successfully. Writing enables communities to communicate knowledge, transmit information, and

stages of development

Sumer

An ancient civilization of southern Mesopotamia, is believed to be the place where written language was first invented around 3200 BCE.

Beginning with the Neolithic pottery phase, when clay tokens were used to keep track of particular quantities of animals or other goods, writing first appeared. These tokens were initially imprinted on the exterior of spherical clay envelopes, which were later used to keep them. Afterwards, flat tablets were gradually introduced in place of the tokens, and signs were recorded using a stylus. Towards the end of the fourth millennium BCE, Uruk was where actual writing was first discovered. Other areas of the Near East quickly followed.

The earliest recorded account of the development of writing is found in a poem from ancient Mesopotamia:

The Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and wrote on it like a tablet because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat the message. It has never been possible to write on clay before.

Enmerkar and the King of Aratta, a Sumerian epic written around 1800 BCE

Although there is agreement among scholars as to the difference between prehistory and the history of early writing, there is disagreement as to when proto-writing became "real writing." The criteria are somewhat arbitrary. In the broadest sense, writing is a way of keeping track of information. It is made up of graphemes, which in turn can be made up of glyphs.

Many centuries of shattered inscriptions typically follow the advent of writing in a particular region. The presence of coherent texts in a culture's writing system is how historians determine a culture's "historicity".

Standard reconstruction of the development of writing. There is a possibility that the Egyptian script was invented independently from the Mesopotamian script.

A conventional "proto-writing to true writing" system follows a general series of developmental stages:

Picture writing system: glyphs (simplified pictures) directly represent objects and concepts. In connection with this, the following substages may be distinguished:

• Mnemonic: glyphs primarily as a reminder.

• Pictographic: glyphs directly represent an object or a concept such as (A) chronological, (B) notices, (C) communications, (D) totems, titles, and names, (E) religious, (F) customs, (G) historical, and (H) biographical.

• Ideographic: graphemes are abstract symbols that directly represent an idea or concept.

Pre-cuneiform tags, with drawing of goat or sheep and number (probably "10"): "Ten goats", Al-Hasakah, 3300–3100 BCE, Uruk culture.

Transitional system: graphemes refer not only to the object or idea that it represents but to its name as well.

• Phonetic system: graphemes refer to sounds or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme is not related to its meanings. This resolves itself into the following substages:

• Verbal: grapheme (logogram) represents a whole word.

• Syllabic: grapheme represents a syllable.

• Alphabetic: grapheme represents an elementary sound.

Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC and among the earliest form of writing in Egypt. They are remarkably similar to contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.

The best known picture writing system of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols are:

• Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, c. 6600 BCE

• Vinča symbols (Tărtăria tablets), c. 5300 BCE[24]

• Early Indus script, c. 3100 BCE

In the Old World, true writing systems developed from neolithic writing in the Early Bronze Age (4th millennium BC).

Locations and timeframes

Comparative evolution

from pictograms to abstract shapes, in Mesopotamian cuneiforms, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters

Proto-writing

The first writing systems of the Early Bronze Age were not a sudden invention. Rather, they were a development based on earlier traditions of symbol systems that cannot be classified as proper writing, but have many of the characteristics of writing. These systems may be described as "proto-writing". They used ideographic or early mnemonic symbols to convey information, but it probably directly contained no natural language. These systems emerged in the early Neolithic period, as early as the 7th millennium BC, and include:

• The Jiahu symbols found carved in tortoise shells in 24 Neolithic graves excavated at Jiahu, Henan province, northern China, with radiocarbon dates from the 7th millennium BCE. Most archaeologists consider these not directly linked to the earliest true writing.

• Vinča symbols, sometimes called the "Danube script", are a set of symbols found on Neolithic era (6th to 5th millennia BCE) artifacts from the Vinča culture of Central Europe and Southeast Europe.

• The Dispilio Tablet of the late 6th millennium may also be an example of proto-writing.

• The Indus script, which from 3500 BCE to 1900 BCE was used for extremely short inscriptions.

The Dispilio Tablet

The Dispilio tablet is a wooden tablet bearing inscribed markings, unearthed during George Hourmouziadis's excavations of Dispilio in Greece, and carbon 14-dated to 5202 (± 123) BC.

It was discovered in 1993 in a Neolithic lakeshore settlement that occupied an artificial island near the modern village of Dispilio on Lake Kastoria in Kastoria, Western Macedonia, Greece.

Even after the Neolithic, a number of societies used proto-writing as a transitional form before adopting formal writing. Such a mechanism might have existed in the quipu of the Incas (15th century CE), often known as "talking knots". Another example is the pictographs created by Uyaquk before the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language developed the Yugtun syllabary around 1900.

Ancient writing

The Bronze Age saw the development of writing in a wide range of cultures. Indus script, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Cretan hieroglyphs, Chinese logographs, Sumerian cuneiform writing, and the Olmec script of Mesoamerica are a few examples. Around 1600 BCE, the Chinese script most likely evolved apart from the Middle Eastern scripts. It is also generally accepted that the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems, which include the Olmec and Maya scripts, had separate origins. In 2000 BCE, it is believed that the first real alphabetic writing was created for Hebrew laborers in the Sinai by assigning Semitic values to mostly Egyptian hieratic characters (see History of the alphabet and Proto-Sinaitic alphabet).

Ethiopia's Geez writing system is regarded as Semitic. With roots in the Meroitic Sudanese ideogram system, it is most likely of semi-independent origin. The majority of alphabets used today are either direct descendants of this one invention, many through the Phoenician alphabet, or were designed in direct response to it. The early Old Italic alphabet and Plautus (c. 750–250 BCE) were separated by around 500 years in Italy, while the Elder Futhark inscriptions and early works like the Abrogans (c. 200–750 CE) are separated by a similar amount of time in the case of the Germanic peoples.

Cuneiform writing

The first Sumerian script was derived from a system of clay tokens used to denote different types of goods. This had developed into a system of keeping accounts by the end of the fourth millennium BC, utilizing a stylus with a circular form that was impressed into soft clay at various angles to record numbers. A pointed stylus was used to gradually add pictographic lettering on this to show what was being counted. Writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the name "cuneiform") began to include phonetic features by the 29th century BCE and gradually replaced writing with a round stylus and a sharp stylus by about 2700–2500 BCE.

Cuneiform first started to represent Sumerian syllables around 2600 BCE. Ultimately, cuneiform writing evolved into a general-purpose system for writing numerals, syllables, and logograms. This alphabet was adapted to the Akkadian language starting in the 26th century BCE, and from there to others like Hurrian and Hittite. This writing system resembles Old Persian and Ugaritic scripts in appearance.

Hieroglyphics from Egypt

Literacy was concentrated among a well-educated elite of scribes, who played a crucial role in upholding the Egyptian empire through writing. To become scribes in the employ of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authority, one had to come from a certain background.

According to Geoffrey Sampson, the general concept of expressing words from a language in writing was likely transmitted to Egypt via Sumerian Mesopotamia. Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into being a little after Sumerian script, and, possibly [were], invented under the influence of the latter." Despite the significance of early Egypt-Mesopotamia links, "no definitive judgment has been established as to the genesis of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt" due to the lack of direct evidence. However, it is stated and agreed upon that "a very compelling argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt" and that "the evidence for such direct influence remains fragile."

Egyptian writing does suddenly appear at that time, but Mesopotamia has an evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to around 8000 BCE. Since the 1990s, discoveries of glyphs at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the conventional idea that the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one. These glyphs were discovered in tomb U-J at Abydos; they were written on ivory and most likely served as labels for other items discovered there.

Even though he acknowledged that Egypt's geographic location made it a receptacle for many influences, Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar maintained that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols originated from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and that in regards to writing, "we have seen that a purely Nilotic, therefore African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality."

Elamite writing

The unintelligible Proto-Elamite writing first appears around 3100 BCE. Around the latter third millennium, it is thought to have evolved into Linear Elamite, which was later supplanted by Elamite Cuneiform, which was adapted from Akkadian.

Indus script

Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a writing system used to record the as yet unidentified language(s) of the Indus Valley civilisation.

The Indus script has been assigned to markings and symbols discovered at numerous Indus Valley civilization sites due to the hypothesis that they were used to transcribe the Harappan language. It is disputed whether the script, which was in use from roughly 3500 to 1900 BCE, is a Bronze Age writing script (logographic-syllabic) or merely proto-writing symbols. According to analysis, it was written in boustrophedon or from right to left.

early SEMITIC ALPHABETS

Around 1800 BCE in Ancient Egypt, the first "abjads," which mapped individual symbols to individual phonemes but not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol, appeared as a representation of the language created there by Semitic workers. However, by that time, alphabetic principles had only a remote chance of being ingrained into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium.

Did the Proto-Canaanite alphabet take its symbols independently of the hieroglyphs?

It is only until the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script separates into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BCE), Byblos syllabary, and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BCE). These early abjads remained of minor significance for several decades. The untranslated Byblos syllabary most likely had some influence on the Proto-Canaanite, which in turn provided inspiration for the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BCE).

Anatolian hieroglyphs

The Hieroglyphic Luwian language was written down using Anatolian hieroglyphs, a native hieroglyphic script found in western Anatolia. Around the fourteenth century BCE, it initially appeared on royal seals of the Luwians.

Chinese characters

The corpus of inscriptions on oracle bones and brass from the late Shang dynasty is the earliest authenticated example of the Chinese script that has been found so far. The oldest of these is believed to date from about 1200 BCE.

There have been recent finds of tortoise-shell carvings from around 6000 BCE, such as Jiahu Script and Banpo Script, but it is debatable whether or not the carvings are complex enough to be considered writing. 3,172 cliff carvings from the period between 6000 and 5000 BCE have been found near Damaidi in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. They contain 8,453 different characters, including images of the sun, moon, stars, gods, and scenes of grazing or hunting.

Replica

of ancient Chinese script on an oracle turtle shell

These pictographs are thought to resemble the first Chinese characters that have been confirmed to be written. Writing in China would predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, traditionally recognized as the first manifestation of writing, by about 2,000 years if it were to be considered a written language. However, it is more likely that the inscriptions represent a type of proto-writing, comparable to the modern European Vinca script.

Early Greek and Cretan scripts

Cretan relics include hieroglyphic writing (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BCE, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). The Mycenaean Greek writing system, Linear B, has been decoded, but Linear A has not yet been. The three overlapping, but distinct, writing systems can be categorized according to their chronological order and geographic distribution as follows:

• Cretan Hieroglyphic / Crete (eastward from the Knossos-Phaistos axis) / c. 2100−1700 BCE

• Linear A / Crete (except extreme southwest), Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), Greek mainland (Laconia) and west Minor Asia (Miletus and maybe Troy) / c. 1800−1450 BCE

• Linear B / Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) / c. 1450−1200 BCE

The archaeological finds with signs of pre-alphabetic scripts in the Aegean

(Up) The finds with signs of Linear B script reach about 6,000 and constitute the majority of the pre-alphabetic written monuments of the Aegean.

(Middle) About 1,400 are the finds which imprint Linear A and make up a 11% of all pre-alphabetic inscriptions.

(Down) Cretan hieroglyphics occupies 2% of the available finds with only 400 finds.

Illustration: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Mesoamerica

The Cascajal Block, a stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing that predates the first Zapotec writing from around 500 BCE, was found in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere.

Stela 12 and 13

from the southern end of Building L, in the Zapotec city of Monte Albán, Outside of Oaxaca, Mexico.

The Maya script is one of numerous pre-Columbian scripts found in Mesoamerica, and it appears to have been the most well-developed and extensively deciphered. The earliest clearly identifiable Maya inscriptions date to the third century BCE, and writing continued to be used until just before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century BCE. A combination of logograms and syllabic symbols, utilized in Maya writing, is somewhat reminiscent of current Japanese writing.

IRON AGE WRITING

The Proto-Canaanite alphabet, which was used into the Iron Age, is all that the Phoenician alphabet is (conventionally taken from a cut-off date of 1050 BCE). The Greek and Aramaic alphabets were derived from this alphabet. They eventually gave rise to the writing systems that are currently used everywhere from Western Asia to Africa and Europe. The Greek alphabet, on the other hand, was the first to use specific symbols to represent vowel sounds.

By Matt Baker

In the first centuries of the Common Era, the Greek and Latin alphabets gave rise to a number of European scripts, including the Runes, Gothic, and Cyrillic alphabets, while the Aramaic alphabet developed into the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac abjads, the latter of which spread as far as Mongolian script. The Ge'ez abugida originated from the South Arabian alphabet. According to some academics, the Indian Brahmic family also descended from the Aramaic alphabet.

GRAKLIANI HILL WRITING

At Georgia's Grakliani Hill, behind a fallen altar from a temple dedicated to a fertility goddess from the seventh century BCE, an obscure script was uncovered in 2015. Grakliani's other temples' inscriptions, which depict animals, people, or decorative features, are different from these ones. Although its letters are rumored to be connected to ancient Greek and Aramaic, the script has no similarities to any known alphabet. In contrast, the earliest Armenian and Georgian letters come from the fifth century CE, right after the respective nations converted to Christianity. The inscription looks to be the oldest local alphabet ever uncovered in the entire Caucasus region. An portion of the inscription measuring 31 by 3 inches had been unearthed by September 2015.

Grakliani script on the basement of altar of goddess of fertility (XI-X c. BC)

Vakhtang Licheli, director of the State University's Institute of Archaeology, claims that "The writings on the temple's two altars have been kept in remarkably good condition. While the pedestal of the second altar is entirely covered with writings, the first altar has few clay letters carved into it." Unpaid students made the discovery. Inscriptions from Grakliani Hill were sent to Miami Laboratory in 2016 for beta analytic radiocarbon dating, which revealed that they were created between c. 1005 and c. 950 BCE.

WRITING IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician script for use with their own language in the early eighth century BCE, the history of the Greek alphabet officially began. The Greek and Phoenician alphabets share a lot of similarities in terms of their characters, and both alphabets nowadays are written in the same order. The Phoenician system's adapter(s) added three letters to the conclusion of the series, known as the "supplementals." The Greek alphabet evolved into a number of different forms.

Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens

One was utilized in southern Italy and west of Athens and is known as Western Greek or Chalcidian. The other variant, known as Eastern Greek, was spoken by the Athenians and in modern-day Turkey before spreading over the rest of the Greek-speaking world. The Greeks initially elected to write like the Phoenicians, from right to left, but subsequently switched to left to right. The lines would then alternately read from left to right, then from right to left, and so on. On occasion, though, the writer would begin the next line where the preceding one ended. Up until the sixth century, this style of writing, called "boustrophedon," mirrored the course of an ox-drawn plough.

Italic scripts and Latin

Cippus Perusinus

Etruscan writing near Perugia, Italy, the precursor of the Latin alphabet

All of the contemporary European scripts have their roots in Greek. The Latin alphabet, named after the Latins, a central Italian people who came to rule Europe with the emergence of Rome, is the most widely used descendant of the Greek script. Around the fifth century BCE, the Etruscan civilization, which employed a multitude of Italic scripts descended from the western Greeks, taught the Romans how to write. The other Old Italic scripts have not survived in very large quantities due to the cultural hegemony of the Roman state, and the Etruscan language is largely extinct.

WRITING DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Roman rule in Western Europe fell apart, and the Persian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire became the main centers of literary development. Latin, which was never a major literary language, lost prominence quickly (except within the Roman Catholic Church). Greek and Persian were the two main literary languages, but Syriac and Coptic were also significant.

Arabic quickly became a significant literary language in the area as a result of the development of Islam in the 7th century. Greek's status as a scholarly language soon lost ground to Arabic and Persian. The Turkish and Persian languages now use Arabic script as their principal writing system. The development of the cursive scripts for Greek, the Slavic languages, Latin, and other languages was also greatly inspired by this script.

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system was also extended throughout Europe thanks to the Arabic language. The modern Spanish city of Cordoba had emerged as one of the world's leading intellectual hubs by the start of the second millennium and was home to the largest library at the time. Its location at the meeting point of the Islamic and Western Christian worlds encouraged intellectual growth and written exchange between the two cultures.

THE MODERN ERA AND THE RENAISSANCE

By the 14th century, Western Europe had experienced a renaissance, which had temporarily increased the significance of Greek while slowly restoring Latin's status as an important literary language. In Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, a comparable but smaller emergence took place. As the Islamic Golden Era came to an end, Arabic and Persian also started to slowly lose ground. In order to codify the phonologies of the various languages, the Latin alphabet underwent several alterations as a result of the rebirth of literary development in Western Europe.

Writing has undergone steady change throughout history, in large part because of the emergence of new technologies. Technology advancements such as the printing press, computer, mobile phone, and pen have all changed how and what is written as well as the medium in which it is generated. Characters can now be generated with a button press rather than a hand motion, especially with the development of digital technology like the computer and the smartphone.

Miners in Angola unearth pink diamond believed to be largest found in 300 years

Miners in Angola have unearthed a rare pure pink diamond that is believed to be the largest found in 300 years, the Australian site operator announced Wednesday.

A 170 carat pink diamond - dubbed The Lulo Rose - was discovered at Lulo mine in the country’s diamond-rich northeast and is among the largest pink diamonds ever found, the Lucapa Diamond Company said in a statement to investors.

The “historic” find of the Type IIa diamond, one of the rarest and purest forms of natural stones, was welcomed by the Angolan government, which is also a partner in the mine.

“This record and spectacular pink diamond recovered from Lulo continues to showcase Angola as an important player on the world stage,” Angola’s Mineral Resources Minister Diamantino Azevedo said.

The diamond will be sold at international tender, likely at a dazzling price.

Although The Lulo Rose would have to be cut and polished to realize its true value, in a process that can see a stone lose 50 percent of its weight, similar pink diamonds have sold for record-breaking prices.

The 59.6 carat Pink Star was sold at a Hong Kong auction in 2017 for $71.2 million. It remains the most expensive diamond ever sold.

Source: (AFP)

City of Kerma: Center of the Nubian 'Kerma Culture'

Kerma was located in present-day Sudan at least 5500 years ago. It is one of the largest archaeological sites in ancient Nubia. Around 3000 BC, a peculiar culture began around Kerma. It was a large urban center that was built around a large adobe temple known as the Western Deffufa.

Model of the city of Kerma c. 2000 BC, National Museum of Sudan

By 1700 BC, Kerma had a population of at least 10,000 people. Different to those of ancient Egypt in theme and composition, Kerma's artefacts are characterized by extensive amounts of blue faience, which the Kermans developed techniques to work with independently of Egypt, and by their work with glazed quartzite and architectural inlays.

The ceremonial palace A, © B.-N. Chagny. Swiss-French-Sudanese mission of Kerma-Doukki Gel

Influence from Egypt may be observed in numerous burials, especially with regards to material evidence such as pottery and grave goods. Kerma contains a cemetery with over 30,000 graves. The cemetery shows a general pattern of larger graves ringed by smaller ones, suggesting social stratification. The site includes at its southern boundary burial mounds, with four extending upwards of 90 metres (300 feet) in diameter. These are believed to be the graves of the city's final kings, some of which contain motifs and artwork reflecting Egyptian deities such as Horus. Artifacts such as scarab seals and amulets are prolific, indicating extensive trade with ancient Egypt as well as an exchange of cultural ideas. After the sacking of Kerma, the cemetery was used to host the kings of the 25th or "Napatan" dynasty of the Kingdom of Kush from Upper (Southern) Nubia.

Tumulus from Kerma c. 2450 BC, National Museum of Sudan

The Kerma culture or Kerma kingdom was the early civilization centered in Kerma. It flourished from around 2500 BC to 1500 BC. The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "Upper Nubia", and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt. The polity seems to have been one of a number of Nile Valley states during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. In the Kingdom of Kerma's latest phase, lasting from about 1700–1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of Sai and became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt. Around 1500 BC, it was absorbed into the New Kingdom of Egypt, but rebellions continued for centuries. By the eleventh century BC, the more-Egyptianized Kingdom of Kush emerged, possibly from Kerma, and regained the region's independence from Egypt.

The linguistic affiliation of the Kerma culture is currently unknown, and membership to both the Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic language families has been proposed.

Daggers of bone and copper, 1750-1450 BC, Kerma, British Museum

Kerma was evidently a sizable political entity - Egyptian records speak of its rich and populous agricultural regions. Unlike Egypt, Kerma seems to have been highly centralized. It controlled the 1st to 4th Cataracts, which meant its domain was as extensive as ancient Egypt.

The Western Deffufa

Numerous village communities scattered alongside fields of crops made up the bulk of the realm, but there also seems to have been districts where pastoralism (goat, sheep and cattle) and gold processing were important industries. Certain Kerma towns served to centralize agricultural products and direct trade. Analysis of the skulls of thousands of cattle interred in royal Kerma tombs suggest that stock were sometimes brought vast distances, from far districts, presumably as a type of tribute from rural communities on the death of Kerma's monarchs. This parallels the importance of cattle as royal property in other parts of Africa at later times.

Only the centres of Kerma and Sai island seem to have had contained sizable urban populations.

Nabta Playa: Is The World's Oldest Astronomical Site Found in Africa?

Ancient societies all around the world erected massive stone circles like celestial clocks, aligning them with the sun and stars to mark solstices. These early calendars foretold the coming of the seasons, helping civilizations track when to plant and harvest crops. They were also connected with religion and served as special ceremonial sites.

Located in Africa, Nabta Playa was once a large internally drained basin in the Nubian Desert, located approximately 800 kilometers south of modern-day Cairo and about 100 kilometers west of Abu Simbel. Today the region is characterized by numerous archaeological sites. The Nabta Playa archaeological site, one of the earliest of the Egyptian Neolithic Period, dated to circa 7500 BC.

By the 7th millennium BC, exceedingly large and organized settlements were found in the region, relying on deep wells for sources of water. Huts were constructed in straight rows. Sustenance included fruit, legumes, millets, sorghum and tubers. Also in the late 7th millennium BC, but a little later than the time referred to above, goats and sheep, apparently imported from Western Asia, appear. Many large hearths also appear.

In the 1960s, a prominent American archaeologist named Fred Wendorf wanted to search for the ancient origins of Pharaonic Egypt, away from the Nile River. When he was taken out to the site, he first thought they were natural formations. But he soon realized that the site was once a large lakebed that would have destroyed any such rocks. He would return many times over the course of decades. Then, during excavations in the early 1990s, Wendorf and a team of excavators, including Polish archaeologist Romuald Schild, uncovered a circle of stones that seemed to be aligned with the stars in some mysterious way.

The First Astronomical observation

By the 5th millennium BC these peoples had fashioned what may be among the world's earliest known archeoastronomical devices (roughly contemporary to the Goseck circle in Germany and the Mnajdra megalithic temple complex in Malta). These include alignments of stones that may have indicated the rising of certain stars and a "calendar circle" that indicates the approximate direction of summer solstice sunrise. "Calendar circle" may be a misnomer as the spaces between the pairs of stones in the gates are a bit too wide, and the distances between the gates are too short for accurate calendar measurements." An inventory of Egyptian archaeoastronomical sites for the UNESCO World Heritage Convention evaluated Nabta Playa as having "hypothetical solar and stellar alignments."

Astrophysicist Thomas G. Brophy suggests the hypothesis that the southerly line of three stones inside the Calendar Circle represented the three stars of Orion’s Belt and the other three stones inside the calendar circle represented the shoulders and head stars of Orion as they appeared in the sky. These correspondences were for two dates – circa 4800 BC and at precessional opposition – representing how the sky "moves" long term. Brophy proposes that the circle was constructed and used circa the later date, and the dual date representation was a conceptual representation of the motion of the sky over a precession cycle.

Near the Calendar Circle, which is made of smaller stones, there are alignments of large megalithic stones. The southerly lines of these megaliths, Brophy shows, aligned to the same stars as represented in the Calendar Circle, all at the same epoch, circa 6270 BC. The Calendar Circle correlation with Orion's belt occurred between 6400 BCE and 4900 BC, matching the radio-carbon dating of campfires around the circle.

New Suggestions

A 2007 article by a team of University of Colorado archaeoastronomers and archaeologists (three members had been involved in the original discovery of the site and its astronomical alignment) has responded to the work of Brophy and Rosen, in particular their claims for an alignment with Sirius in 6088 and other alignments which they dated to 6270, saying that these dates were about 1,500 years earlier than the estimated dates. The Sirius alignment in question was originally proposed by Wendorf and Malville, for one of the most prominent alignments of megaliths labelled the "C-line", which they said aligned to the rising of Sirius circa 4820 BCE. Brophy and Rosen showed in 2005 that megalith orientations and star positions reported by Wendorf and Malville were in error, noting that "Given these corrected data, we see that Sirius actually aligned with the C-line circa 6000 BCE. We estimate that 6088 BCE Sirius had a declination of -36.51 degrees, for a rising azimuth exactly on the C-line average". Malville acknowledged the corrections made by Brophy and Rosen, but concluded the C-line of megaliths "may not represent an original set of aligned stele; we refrain from interpreting that alignment."

They also criticised suggestions made by Brophy in his book The Origin Map that there was a representation of the Milky Way as it was in 17,500 BCE and maps of Orion at 16,500 BC, saying "These extremely early dates as well as the proposition that the nomads had contact with extraterrestrial life are inconsistent with the archaeological record. Inference in archaeoastronomy must always be guided and informed by archaeology, especially when substantial field work has been performed in the region.

They propose that the area was first used as what they call a "regional ceremonial centre" around 6100 BC to 5600 BC with people coming from various locations to gather on the dunes surrounding the playa where there is archaeological evidence for gatherings which involved large numbers of cattle bones, as cattle were normally only killed on important occasions. Around 5500 BCE a new, more organised group began to use the site, burying cattle in clay-lined chambers and building other tumuli. Around 4800 BC a stone circle was constructed, with narrow slabs approximately aligned with the summer solstice, near the beginning of the rainy season.

More complex structures followed during a megalith period the researchers dated to between about 4500 BC to 3600 BC. Using their original measurements and measurements by satellite and GPS measurements by Brophy and Rosen they confirmed possible alignments with Sirius, Arcturus, Alpha Centauri and the Belt of Orion. They suggest that there are three pieces of evidence suggesting astronomical observations by the herdsmen using the site, which may have functioned as a necropolis. "The repetitive orientation of megaliths, stele, human burials and cattle burials reveals a very early symbolic connection to the north." Secondly, there is the orientation of the cromlech mentioned above. The third piece of evidence is the fifth millennium alignments of stele to bright stars.

They conclude their report by writing that "The symbolism embedded in the archaeological record of Nabta Playa in the Fifth Millennium BC is very basic, focussed on issues of major practical importance to the nomads: cattle, water, death, earth, sun and stars."

The 'Ezana's Stone' of Aksum: A Trilingual Monument, Similar to The 'Rosetta Stone'

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Legacy of King Ezana and the Ezana Stone: A Testament to Faith and Triumph

In the heart of modern-day Axum, Ethiopia, stands an ancient testament to history and faith—the Ezana Stone. This towering stele, dating back to the 4th century AD, recounts the remarkable journey of King Ezana, ruler of the Kingdom of Aksum. It serves as an enduring symbol of his conversion to Christianity and his victorious campaigns against neighboring regions, including the formidable Kingdom of Meroë. Let's delve into the significance of the Ezana Stone and the legacy it leaves behind.

King Ezana and the Kingdom of Aksum

Between AD 330 and 356, King Ezana reigned over the Kingdom of Aksum, a powerful empire located in the Horn of Africa. His rule was marked by significant accomplishments, both military and religious. King Ezana was not only a conqueror but also a devout Christian, and his story is intricately woven into the fabric of Ethiopian history.

King Ezana's reign was a period of remarkable achievements. He engaged in battles against the Nubians and commemorated his victories through inscriptions on stone tablets, which were a form of liturgical epigraphs praising God. What makes these inscriptions unique is that they were written in several ancient languages, including Ge'ez, Sabaean, and Greek, creating a trilingual monument akin to the famous Rosetta Stone.

The Birth of Ethiopian Orthodoxy

During King Ezana's rule, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church had its origins. It is said that Saint Frumentius, a freed slave and mentor to the young King Ezana, played a pivotal role in the conversion of the king to Christianity. This marked the beginning of a deep-rooted Christian tradition in Ethiopia that endures to this day.

The Conquest of Kush

One of the most significant chapters in King Ezana's reign was his campaign against the Kushites around 350 AD. This military expedition led to the downfall of the Kingdom of Kush. Ge'ez inscriptions discovered in Meroë, the capital of the Kushites, bear testimony to King Ezana's victorious march.

The Inscriptions on the Ezana Stone

The inscriptions on the Ezana Stone provide us with valuable insights into the ruler's campaigns and the fervor of his Christian faith. One of the inscriptions, translated from Greek, speaks of King Ezana's conquests and his benevolent treatment of prisoners and captives. He provided them with sustenance and clothing and resettled them in a region called Matlia.

The Ge'ez translation reveals the King's deep reliance on the Lord of Heaven for his success in battle. It narrates his military campaigns against the Noba and the Agwezat, detailing his victories, the capture of prisoners, and the plunder of enemy territories.

The Sabaean translation speaks of King Ezana's devotion to Jesus Christ and his trust in the Holy Trinity for guidance and triumph. It recounts his battles against the Agwezat and HST, highlighting the Lord's role in his victories.

Legacy of the Ezana Stone

The Ezana Stone is more than just an ancient artifact; it's a symbol of King Ezana's faith, his military prowess, and the birth of Ethiopian Christianity. It stands as a testament to a significant period in African history and the enduring legacy of a Christian nation.

The Ezana Stone, an ancient stele in Axum, Ethiopia, is a window into the past, shedding light on the remarkable reign of King Ezana, his conversion to Christianity, and his military triumphs. It serves as a testament to the enduring legacy of Ethiopian Orthodoxy and the indomitable spirit of a nation. The inscriptions on this stone continue to inspire awe and reverence, reminding us of the power of faith and the importance of recording history for future generations.

Ruins of Aksum: A great field opposite St Mary of Zion Church. Many obelisks were scattered in the archaeology park.

A Historic Move: Germany Agrees to Repatriate 'Benin Bronzes' to Nigeria

German officials say they have reached an agreement with Nigeria to return a share of plundered artifacts known as Benin Bronzes.

Thousands of plaques and sculptures were looted from the ancient Kingdom of Benin — now southern Nigeria, not the modern nation of Benin — by British soldiers in an 1897 raid, and were ultimately acquired by museums largely in Europe and the United States.

For the last decade, a consortium known as the Benin Dialogue Group has been working to repatriate these works and establish a permanent display in Benin City, in partnership with museums in Germany and other European nations. German officials announced on Thursday that they will work with Nigeria on plans to return some of its Benin Bronzes in the year ahead.

"The participants are in agreement that addressing Germany's colonial past is an important issue for the whole of society and a core task for cultural policy," they wrote in a joint release.

The German officials aim to return the first of their Benin Bronzes next year, and will release more specific plans and timetables by this summer. They said they "reaffirm their willingness in principle to make substantial returns" of the artifacts, but left the door open to keeping some of them.

"Discussions with the Nigerian partners are to cover not only returns to and cooperation projects in Nigeria, but also whether and how Benin Bronzes, as part of humanity's cultural heritage, can in future be shown in Germany as well," they said.

Numerous German museums are in possession of Benin Bronzes, the officials said. They invited the ones who are not part of the Benin Dialogue Group to join in their efforts.

There are far more of these historical objects scattered across the globe than in their native country, according to author Dan Hicks. He told Art News that 45 institutions in the United Kingdom and 38 in the U.S. hold Benin Bronzes, compared to just nine in Nigeria.

Berlin's Ethnological Museum is home to one of the world's largest collections of artifacts from the ancient kingdom, as The Associated Press reports. Its inventory is estimated to include some 530 items, including 440 bronzes. And roughly 900 such artifacts are housed in the British Museum alone.

A small brass relief plate from the Benin Empire depicting royal hornblowers from a drawer of a rolling shelf in the depot of the Dresden State Art Collections in Dresden. Photo: Arno Burgi/picture alliance via Getty Images.

Activists are increasingly calling for cultural institutions to repatriate their Benin Bronzes — widely seen as a symbol of colonial conquest — to Nigeria, though few have actually done so.

The French state promised two years ago to repatriate 26 such artifacts by 2021, but, as Art News reported this month, none has permanently left the country yet.

And while the British government has said institutions should "retain and explain" controversial artifacts, some regional U.K. museums appear to disagree, as the Guardian reports.

Benin Bronze artifacts on display in the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe in Hamburg, Germany. An international consortium is working on repatriating artifacts which were looted in the late 19th century.

Daniel Bockwoldt/picture alliance via Getty Images

Scotland's University of Aberdeen announced last month that it would imminently return a bust it had acquired in the 1950s, citing ethical concerns.

"Our panel concluded that this was acquired as loot and therefore, we didn't feel we had moral title," said Neil Curtis, head of museums and special collections at the University of Aberdeen.

The next meeting of the Benin Dialogue Group is set for May 27.

RACHEL TREISMAN

What do we call 'Artificial cranial deformation' in archaeology and why did ancient civilizations practised it?

Artificial cranial deformation or modification, head flattening, or head binding is a form of body alteration in which the skull of a human being is deformed intentionally. It is done by distorting the normal growth of a child's skull by applying force. Flat shapes, elongated ones (produced by binding between two pieces of wood), rounded ones (binding in cloth), and conical ones are among those chosen or valued in various cultures. Typically, the shape alteration is carried out on an infant, as the skull is most pliable at this time. In a typical case, headbinding begins approximately a month after birth and continues for about six months.

Elongated skull of a young woman, probably an Alan

Intentional cranial deformation predates written history; it was practiced commonly in a number of cultures that are widely separated geographically and chronologically, and still occurs today in a few areas, including Vanuatu.

The earliest suggested examples were once thought to include Neanderthals and the Proto-Neolithic Homo sapiens component (ninth millennium BC) from Shanidar Cave in Iraq, The view that the Neanderthal skull was artificially deformed, thus representing the oldest example of such practices by tens of thousands of years, has since been argued incorrect by Chech, Grove, Thorne, and Trinkaus, based on new cranial reconstructions in 1999, where the team concluded "we no longer consider that artificial cranial deformation can be inferred for the specimen". It thought elongated skulls found among Neolithic peoples in Southwest Asia were the result of artificial cranial deformation.

The earliest written record of cranial deformation—by Hippocrates, of the Macrocephali or Long-heads, who were named for their practice of cranial modification—dates to 400 BC.

Portrait of Alchon Hun king Khingila, from his coinage, circa 450 AD.

In the Old World, Huns also are known to have practised similar cranial deformation, as were the people known as the Alans. In Late Antiquity (AD 300–600), the East Germanic tribes who were ruled by the Huns, the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Heruli, Rugii, and Burgundians adopted this custom. Among the Lombards, the Burgundians and the Thuringians, this custom seems to have comprised women only. In western Germanic tribes, artificial skull deformations rarely have been found.

The practice of cranial deformation was brought to Bactria and Sogdiana by the Yuezhi, a tribe that created the Kushan Empire. Men with such skulls are depicted in various surviving sculptures and friezes of that time, such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan.

The Alchon Huns are generally recognized by their elongated skull, a result of artificial skull deformation, which may have represented their "corporate identity". The elongated skulls appears clearly in most of the portaits of rulers in the coinage of the Alkhon Huns, and most visibly on the coinage of Khingila. These elongated skulls, which they obviously displayed with pride, distinguished them from other peoples, such as their predecessors the Kidarites. On their coins, the spectacular skulls came to replace the Sasanian-type crowns which had been current in the coinage of the region.

This practice is also known among other peoples of the steppes, particularly the Huns, as far as Europe.

The Iranian hero Rostam, mythical king of Zabulistan, in his 7th century AD mural at Panjikent. He is represented with an elongated skull, in the fashion of the Alchon Huns.

In the Americas, the Maya, Inca, and certain tribes of North American natives performed the custom. In North America the practice was known, especially among the Chinookan tribes of the Northwest and the Choctaw of the Southeast. The Native American group known as the Flathead Indians, in fact, did not practise head flattening, but were named as such in contrast to other Salishan people who used skull modification to make the head appear rounder. Other tribes, including both Southeastern tribes like the Choctaw and Northwestern tribes like the Chehalis and Nooksack Indians, practiced head flattening by strapping the infant's head to a cradleboard.

The practice of cranial deformation was also practiced by the Lucayan people of the Bahamas and the Taínos of the Caribbean. It was also known among the Aboriginal Australians.

Deformed skulls, Afrasiab, Samarkand, Sogdia, 600-800 AD.

Paracas skulls.

In Africa, the Mangbetu stood out to European explorers because of their elongated heads. Traditionally, babies' heads were wrapped tightly with cloth in order to give them this distinctive appearance. The practice began dying out in the 1950s.

Friedrich Ratzel reported in 1896 that deformation of the skull, both by flattening it behind and elongating it toward the vertex, was found in isolated instances in Tahiti, Samoa, Hawaii, and the Paumotu group, and that it occurred most frequently on Mallicollo in the New Hebrides (today Malakula, Vanuatu), where the skull was squeezed extraordinarily flat.

The custom of binding babies' heads in Europe in the twentieth century, though dying out at the time, was still extant in France, and also found in pockets in western Russia, the Caucasus, and in Scandinavia. The reasons for the shaping of the head varied over time and for different reasons, from aesthetic to pseudoscientific ideas about the brain's ability to hold certain types of thought depending on its shape. In the region of Toulouse (France), these cranial deformations persisted sporadically up until the early twentieth century; however, rather than being intentionally produced as with some earlier European cultures, Toulousian Deformation seemed to have been the unwanted result of an ancient medical practice among the French peasantry known as bandeau, in which a baby's head was tightly wrapped and padded in order to protect it from impact and accident shortly after birth. In fact, many of the early modern observers of the deformation were recorded as pitying these peasant children, whom they believed to have been lowered in intelligence due to the persistence of old European customs.

Deliberate deformity of the skull, "Toulouse deformity", France. The band visible in photograph is used to induce shape change.

Motivations and theories

One modern theory is cranial deformation was likely performed to signify group affiliation, or to demonstrate social status. Such motivations may have played a key role in Maya society, aimed at creating a skull shape that is aesthetically more pleasing or associated with desirable cultural attributes. For example, in the Na'ahai-speaking area of Tomman Island and the south south-western Malakulan (Australasia), a person with an elongated head is thought to be more intelligent, of higher status, and closer to the world of the spirits.

Historically, there have been a number of various theories regarding the motivations for these practices.

It has also been considered possible that the practice of cranial deformation originates from an attempt to emulate those groups of the population in which elongated head shape was a natural condition. The skulls of some Ancient Egyptians are among those identified as often being elongated naturally and macrocephaly may be a familial characteristic. For example, Rivero and Tschudi describe a mummy containing a fetus with an elongated skull, describing it thus:

the same formation [i.e. absence of the signs of artificial pressure] of the head presents itself in children yet unborn; and of this truth we have had convincing proof in the sight of a foetus, enclosed in the womb of a mummy of a pregnant woman, which we found in a cave of Huichay, two leagues from Tarma, and which is, at this moment, in our collection. Professor D'Outrepont, of great Celebrity in the department of obstetrics, has assured us that the foetus is one of seven months' age. It belongs, according to a very clearly defined formation of the cranium, to the tribe of the Huancas. We present the reader with a drawing of this conclusive and interesting proof in opposition to the advocates of mechanical action as the sole and exclusive cause of the phrenological form of the Peruvian race.

P. F. Bellamy makes a similar observation about the two elongated skulls of infants, which were discovered and brought to England by a "Captain Blankley" and handed over to the Museum of the Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society in 1838. According to Bellamy, these skulls belonged to two infants, female and male, "one of which was not more than a few months old, and the other could not be much more than one year." He writes,

It will be manifest from the general contour of these skulls that they are allied to those in the Museum of the College of Surgeons in London, denominated Titicacans. Those adult skulls are very generally considered to be distorted by the effects of pressure; but in opposition to this opinion Dr. Graves has stated that "a careful examination of them has convinced him that their peculiar shape cannot be owing to artificial pressure;" and to corroborate this view, we may remark that the peculiarities are as great in the child as in the adult, and indeed more in the younger than in the elder of the two specimens now produced: and the position is considerably strengthened by the great relative length of the large bones of the cranium; by the direction of the plane of the occipital bone, which is not forced upwards, but occupies a place in the under part of the skull; by the further absence of marks of pressure, there being no elevation of the vertex nor projection of either side; and by the fact of there being no instrument nor mechanical contrivance suited to produce such an alteration of form (as these skulls present) found in connexion with them.