Nowruz: The Cultural Tapestry of the Persian New Year

On the cusp of spring, with the vernal equinox breathing new life into the dormant soils of winter, the ancient celebration of Nowruz commences—a festivity that stretches back over two and a half millennia, transcending borders and ethnicities. A general sense of renewal permeates the nations connected by the rich threads of Persian heritage as the earth tilts to bless the northern hemisphere with the first tender sunrays. This year, on March 20, 2024, the Persian New Year unfurls its vibrancy once again.

Nowruz, meaning 'new day' in Persian, is not just a marking of time but a profound expression of nature's perennial cycle of rebirth. The celebration of Nowruz is a cultural embodiment of rebirth and the rekindling of life, mirrored in the sprouting of green shoots and the blossoming of flowers that herald the arrival of spring.

The genesis of Nowruz is enmeshed with Iranian mythology and the tales of the majestic king Jamshid, a figure shrouded in the golden mists of legend and history. This sovereign, from the house of Pishdadian, is venerated for bequeathing this celebration to humanity, symbolizing not only the earth's awakening but also the triumph of light over darkness, of warmth over cold, of life over desolation.

The Pishdadian dynasty, enshrined in the annals of Persian lore, is revered as the progenitors of Iranian civilization. They were the harbingers of societal structures and agrarian advances, fostering prosperity and stability in ancient Iran. Their era is often romanticized as a golden age, free from suffering and filled with abundance—a utopian epoch that the Nowruz celebration aspires to recapture each year.

This New Year festivity has endured the passage of empires, resisted the erosion of time, and emerged as a resilient cultural institution. Today, Nowruz is observed by diverse ethnicities and nations, from the cradle of its birth in Iran to the steppes of Central Asia, and even in enclaves where Persian culture has left its indelible imprint.

The map shown delineates the contemporary geographical embrace of Nowruz—a testament to the cultural exchange that has characterized the regions touched by Persian influence. It shows countries and regions where Nowruz is not only a time of festivity but also an official holiday, marking the commencement of the year in countries such as Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, among others.

In regions like the self-governing republics of Kabardino-Balkaria and Dagestan, as well as the states of Albania, Kosovo, and even beyond, Nowruz is celebrated by people who honor the shared heritage that threads through their history. This is a festival that binds communities, igniting a collective spirit of joy, unity, and anticipation for what the new year holds.

As Nowruz approaches, families and communities come together to engage in time-honored traditions, each element steeped in symbolism and age-old customs. From the setting of the Haft-Seen—a table adorned with seven items starting with the letter 'S' in Persian, each signifying a different hope for the new year—to the jumping over bonfires on Chaharshanbe Suri, the ritual acts of Nowruz are replete with meaning and a deep connection to the forces of nature and the cosmos.

In 2024, as in all years past, Nowruz will echo the footsteps of those who walked the ancient lands of Persia, a moving homage to the wisdom of forebears who saw in the earth's rebirth a cause for celebration and hope. It stands as a reminder that, despite the differences that distinguish one nation from another, there are timeless rhythms that unite us—a dance of the earth around the sun, a cycle of life, death, and rejuvenation that continues to inspire and bind humanity in a shared narrative of renewal and joy.

Cracking the Code: The Odyssey of Deciphering Cuneiform

The Decipherment of Cuneiform: A Journey Through History

The decipherment of cuneiform, one of the oldest writing systems in the world, has involved the tireless efforts of numerous academics and the use of ground-breaking methodologies. This article delves into the intriguing story of how cuneiform script, used in ancient Persia, was finally decoded, revealing the rich history and insights hidden within these ancient inscriptions.

Early Knowledge and Curiosity

The journey towards deciphering cuneiform began with the inquisitiveness of travelers who explored the ruins of Persepolis in Iran. They were drawn to the enigmatic Cuneiform inscriptions that adorned the ancient structures. Even though some attempts at decipherment were made in the medieval Islamic world, these early endeavors proved largely unsuccessful.

In the 17th century, travelers like García de Silva Figueroa and Pietro Della Valle made significant observations about the cuneiform inscriptions at Persepolis. They noted the direction of writing, from left to right, and realized that these inscriptions represented words and syllables rather than mere decorative friezes. Englishman Sir Thomas Herbert even correctly guessed that these symbols were words and syllables to be read from left to right.

The first cuneiform inscriptions published in modern times were copies of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions in Persepolis, with Carsten Niebuhr publishing the first complete and accurate copy in 1778. These copies played a crucial role in the later decipherment efforts.

Old Persian alphabet, and proposed transcription of the Xerxes inscription, according to Georg Friedrich Grotefend. Initially published in 1815. Grotefend only identified correctly eight letters among the thirty signs he had collated.

Georg Friedrich Grotefend's Breakthrough

The actual decipherment of cuneiform began in the early 19th century, when Georg Friedrich Grotefend initiated the study of Old Persian cuneiform. Grotefend's groundbreaking work, though initially met with skepticism, led to the realization that certain inscriptions contained the names of kings and their titles.

Carsten Niebuhr was a traveler who brought back inscriptions from Persepolis to Europe in 1767, and these inscriptions would later be known as Old Persian cuneiform. Niebuhr realized that these inscriptions had a simpler set of characters, which he called "Class I," and he believed it to be an alphabetic script with only 42 characters.

Around the same time, Anquetil-Duperron returned from India with knowledge of Pahlavi and Persian languages, and he published a translation of the Zend Avesta in 1771, which introduced Avestan, an ancient Iranian language. This provided the foundation for Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy to study Middle Persian in 1792–93 during the French Revolution.

In 1793, de Sacy published his findings about the inscriptions at Naqsh-e Rostam, which had a standardized structure mentioning the king's name and titles.

Oluf Gerhard Tychsen studied the inscriptions from Persepolis in 1798 and found that the characters indicated individual words by oblique wedges. He also noticed a recurring group of seven letters and some common terminations.

Friedrich Münter, the Bishop of Copenhagen, built upon Tychsen's work and suggested that the inscriptions belonged to the time of Cyrus and his successors, likely in the Old Persian language. He identified a recurring sequence as "King" and correctly deciphered it as "King of Kings," with its Old Persian pronunciation as xšāyaθiya.

This Old Persian cuneiform sign sequence, because of its numerous occurrences in inscriptions, was correctly guessed by Münter as being the word for "King". This word is now known to be pronounced xšāyaθiya in Old Persian (𐎧𐏁𐎠𐎹𐎰𐎡𐎹), and indeed means "King".

These efforts by early scholars laid the foundation for the decipherment of Old Persian cuneiform and the understanding of ancient Persian history.

A pivotal moment in the decipherment occurred in 1823 when French philologist Champollion, who had deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs, confirmed the accuracy of Grotefend's identifications by reading an Egyptian dedication to King Xerxes I in a quadrilingual hieroglyph-cuneiform inscription.

In 1836, French scholar Eugène Burnouf identified and published an alphabet of thirty letters used in cuneiform inscriptions. This discovery marked a significant step in understanding the Cuneiform script.

Decipherment of Elamite, Akkadian, Sumerian, and Babylonian

Henry Rawlinson's visit to the Behistun Inscriptions in 1835 was crucial as they contained identical texts in three official languages: Old Persian, Babylonian, and Elamite. Rawlinson successfully deciphered Old Persian cuneiform and laid the foundation for deciphering the other scripts present in the Behistun Inscriptions.

The decipherment of Old Persian paved the way for deciphering Akkadian, a close predecessor of Babylonian. The techniques used to decipher Akkadian remain somewhat mysterious, but the work of Henry Rawlinson, Edward Hincks, Julius Oppert, and William Henry Fox Talbot played essential roles in deciphering Akkadian and eventually Sumerian.

The decipherment of cuneiform script is a testament to human curiosity, perseverance, and collaboration across centuries. From the first observations by early travelers to the groundbreaking work of scholars like Grotefend, Burnouf, Rawlinson, and Hincks, the journey of deciphering cuneiform has unlocked the ancient history of Persia and provided insights into the rich tapestry of human civilization. Today, modern technology continues to aid in the study of cuneiform, preserving this invaluable piece of our past for generations to come.

Aryan - A Term Lost in Translation: From Sanskrit to Modern Misconceptions

The Historical Complexity of the Term "Aryan"

In today's world, the term "Aryan" is often synonymous with notions of racial superiority and white supremacy, primarily due to its unfortunate association with Nazi ideology. This misunderstanding has led to a myriad of baseless concepts related to an alleged Aryan race, which have been hijacked and misused by racist ideologies. However, the true origins and historical context of the term "Aryan" reveal a far more complex and nuanced story.

The Pre-Nazi Origins of "Aryan"

To understand the term "Aryan" in its true historical context, we must look back to its origins, long before it became entangled with Nazi propaganda. The word "Aryan" initially referred to an ancient language whose speakers are believed to have influenced languages across the Indian subcontinent. It wasn't until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that it was erroneously equated with Germanic or Nordic peoples.

Who are the real Aryans?

Contrary to the misconceptions propagated by Nazi ideology, the earliest known Aryans dwelled in prehistoric Iran. These people migrated to northern India around 1,500 B.C. The term "Aryan" itself originates from the Sanskrit word "ārya," which also has a cognate in the Persian language, "ērān," giving rise to the modern-day name "Iran."

The Indus Valley Civilization

Before the arrival of the Aryans, the Indus Valley civilization had already reached a remarkable level of development. By 5500 BC, it had witnessed the emergence of religions, followed by the establishment of farming communities around 4000 BC and urban living around 2500 BC. The civilization reached its peak around 2000 B.C.

Arrival of the Aryans?

The Hindu Kush Mountains acted as a gateway for nomadic cattle herders from Central Asia, who were the Aryans, to settle in the fertile Indus Valley around 1500 BC. It's important to note that the Aryans were not unstoppable invaders but rather a group that gradually migrated to the region. Evidence suggests that the decline of the Indus Valley civilization was due to various factors, including environmental changes and social factors, rather than an Aryan invasion.

Diorama of everyday life in Indus Valley Civilization at the National Science Centre in Delhi, India. (Biswarup Ganguly / CC BY 3.0)

The Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

Archaeological findings indicate that the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization began around 1800 BC, possibly due to changes in river patterns, such as the drying up of the Saraswati River or catastrophic flooding. Natural disasters disrupted the agricultural practices that sustained civilization, leading to economic and societal collapse. The Aryans arrived in the region during this period, and their language and practices gradually integrated into the existing society.

the Kingdom of Aryan

The historical records related to the Kingdom of Aryan are scarce and often vague. Ancient sources make passing references to the Aryans, but their accuracy remains uncertain. For example, the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned that the people of Media were once called Aryans, but scholars debate the credibility of this account.

Aryan in Ancient Religions

In Zoroastrianism, the term "Airyana Vaejah" refers to the mythical homeland of the Iranian people but does not carry racial or hierarchical connotations. Persian kings like Darius the Great were also described as Aryans, likely indicating their Central Asian origins. In this context, Aryan denoted adherence to one's dharma, a concept related to proper behavior rather than racial superiority.

German anthropologist, Bruno Beger, conducting anthropometric studies as part of his work with the Nazis in their “scientific” studies to prove the superiority of the “Aryan” German race, as opposed to that of the “racially inferior” Jewish race. (Krause, Ernst / CC-BY-SA 3.0)

Distorted by Nazi Ideology

The term "Aryan" went through a transformation from describing an Indo-Iranian language to being associated with Indo-European peoples. This transition gave rise to the false idea that these ancient European peoples originated from the north and conquered Eurasia. While modern scholarship has debunked this theory, the concept of the Aryan race was distorted and misused for political purposes, particularly by the Nazis.

The history of the term "Aryan" is a tale of complexity and misunderstanding. Its true origins lie in an ancient language and migration to the Indian subcontinent, far removed from the racial hierarchies perpetuated by Nazi ideology. By unraveling the historical complexities surrounding "Aryan," we can promote a more inclusive and equitable society that values diversity and rejects racist ideologies, learning from the mistakes of the past.

Mirage: A Journey Through Ninth-Century Baghdad in Assassin's Creed and the Riches of Islamic Art and Architecture

The Assassin's Creed franchise has long been celebrated for its ability to transport gamers to meticulously detailed historical cityscapes. From ancient Damascus to Athens, each installment offers players an immersive experience in a bygone era. The upcoming release, Mirage, continues this tradition by plunging players into the vibrant world of ninth-century Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid caliphate. In this article, we will explore the significance of ninth-century Baghdad, its architectural marvels, and how Mirage pays homage to the rich legacy of Islamic art and architecture.

The Historical Context

Ninth-century Baghdad, founded in 762 by al-Mansur, the Abbasid caliph, was a thriving metropolis that played a pivotal role in shaping the medieval world. It was a hub of international politics, intellectual pursuits, the arts, and a bustling global economy. Architectural historians have meticulously reconstructed the city's layout, despite the absence of archaeological remains.

Baghdad, often referred to as the Round City, was designed with circular urban planning reminiscent of ancient Sasanian practices. It spanned approximately 3,000 meters in diameter and was predominantly constructed using mud-brick, a favored building material of the region since antiquity. The city featured two concentric circular walls, surrounded by a moat, and adorned with four domed gates, each crowned with a lance-bearing figure. At its center stood the grand domed Golden Palace of the Abbasid caliph.

Within the city walls, one could find the main mosque, elite residences, official government spaces, grand avenues leading to surrounding quarters, palaces, gardens, canals, bridges, markets, baths, and industrial areas. These detailed descriptions left behind by medieval scholars offer a glimpse into the opulence and complexity of ninth-century Baghdad.

Archaeological Remains

Regrettably, very little physical evidence from the ninth century survives in modern-day Baghdad. Most of the extant archaeological remnants date back to the later Abbasid period, particularly the 13th century. Notable structures include the Mustansiryya Madrasa, with its monumental gate adorned with intricate geometric patterns and inscriptions, and the shrine of 'Umar al-Surawardi, featuring a characteristic conical muqarnas dome.

A notable artifact is a marble prayer niche (mihrab) preserved in the Iraqi National Museum, which may be one of the few surviving remnants from the ninth-century palace city. However, no comprehensive architectural remains from that era have endured the test of time.

Clues from Other Sites

To better understand what ninth-century Baghdad looked like, scholars have turned to archaeological sites such as Al-Rafiqa in Raqqa, Syria, and Qadisiyya near Baghdad. These cities functioned as imitations of the Round City, providing valuable insights into its architectural style and layout. Additionally, the archaeological site of Samarra, founded in the 9th century, offers further clues with its grand palaces, monumental gates, and similar decorative elements.

Mirage: A Fantastical Interpretation

Mirage, as presented in its trailers, offers a breathtaking and fantastical rendition of Baghdad that never truly existed. While it takes artistic liberties, the game's art and architecture evoke diverse influences from various times and places beyond Baghdad and the caliphal age. Players will encounter elements reminiscent of medieval North African gates, early modern Iranian bazaars and mosques, domed tombs from South and Central Asia, and tiled interiors from the Iberian peninsula.

A Showcase of Islamic Art and Architecture

Some scholars of Islamic art and architecture may express disappointment at the liberties taken in Mirage. However, I view these artistic choices as an opportunity to showcase the wealth of Islamic art and architecture from different regions and time periods. Islamic architecture is a profound tradition, often misunderstood or unfamiliar to those outside Muslim-majority regions. Mirage serves as an homage to this tradition, making these riches visible and relevant to a global audience.

In conclusion, Assassin's Creed's Mirage transports players to ninth-century Baghdad, offering an immersive experience in a city of historical significance. While the game takes artistic liberties, it provides a unique platform to appreciate the diverse influences and rich legacy of Islamic art and architecture. By doing so, it contributes to a broader understanding of this remarkable cultural heritage, bridging the gap between the virtual world and the real historical treasures that await discovery.

How the Persian Empire Built a Multinational Army

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The Achaemenid Empire, also known as the Persian Empire, was one of the largest and most enduring empires in ancient history. Stretching from the Indus Valley in the east to the Balkans in the west, it encompassed a vast array of cultures, ethnicities, and territories. The sheer size and diversity of the empire were mirrored in its military. The Persian army was a true multinational force, reflecting the vast regions under its sway.

1. Composition and Organization

The backbone of the Achaemenid military was the standing army, known as the "Immortals" due to their consistent number of 10,000—whenever a member was killed or wounded, he was immediately replaced. Predominantly Persians, these were elite soldiers who were well-trained and equipped.

Yet, the Persian military's strength wasn't just in these elite forces. The vast territories under Persian control provided a wealth of military resources, from the skilled archers of the eastern provinces to the heavy infantry of the west.

2. Infantry

• Persians and Medians: As the core of the infantry, these groups were equipped with large rectangular shields, spears, and short swords. They often wore felt caps, colorful tunics, and trousers.

• Egyptians: They were typically armed with large shields and long spears, making them an essential heavy infantry component.

• Ethiopians and Libyans: These troops from the African provinces were known for their distinct weaponry, including large bows, and were often deployed as skirmishers or archers.

3. Cavalry

The Achaemenids were one of the first empires to use cavalry extensively.

• Persian Horsemen: These were the empire's elite cavalry, armed with spears and bows.

• Bactrian and Sogdian Cavalry: Hailing from the easternmost provinces, they were renowned horse archers and often rode armored horses.

• Cappadocian Cavalry: From the western provinces, these were heavier cavalry units equipped with long spears.

4. Specialized Troops and Mercenaries

• Indian Troops: They provided elephant units and were also known for their longbows made from bamboo.

• Scythian Archers: These nomadic troops were invaluable for their skills in horse archery.

• Greek Mercenaries: As the Persians expanded westward, they began employing Greek hoplites—mercenary heavy infantry known for their prowess in phalanx warfare. By the time of the later Achaemenid rulers, Greek mercenaries had become a common sight in Persian armies.

Çanakkale Archaeological Museum

The sarcophagus and one of its two decorated sides. Battle scene: a Greek mercenary peltast (left) and an Achaemenid dynast of Hellespontine Phrygia (center) attacking a Greek psilos (right), Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BCE.

5. Naval Forces

The Achaemenid Empire's navy was predominantly made up of Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Greeks, with the Phoenicians being particularly instrumental in the naval battles against Greece.

6. Command and Communication

Given the army's multicultural nature, effective communication was crucial. The empire used the Aramaic language as its lingua franca, facilitating communication across the army's diverse makeup.

The vastness of the Persian Empire required a logistics and communication network unparalleled in the ancient world. The Royal Road, stretching over 2,500 kilometers, allowed messages and troops to move swiftly across the empire, ensuring its efficient administration and defense.

The Achaemenid Persian army's strength lay not just in its numbers but in its ability to integrate and harness the strengths of its diverse components. From the deserts of Egypt to the steppes of Central Asia, each region brought its unique capabilities to the Persian war machine. This multicultural military force was a testament to the Achaemenid's administrative prowess and their ability to unite such a vast realm under one banner.

The Multi-Ethnic Troops of Achaemenid General Mardonius: A Close Look at the Battle of Plataea

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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From Desert Archers to Mountain Horsemen: A Dive into the Persian Multinational Military

The Achaemenid Empire, at its zenith, was an incredible mosaic of different ethnicities and cultures, governed by a centralized system that allowed for unparalleled cooperation and coordination in military campaigns. The sheer size and diversity of the empire were mirrored in its military. The Persian army was a true multinational force, reflecting the vast regions under its sway.

One of the most striking pieces of evidence showcasing this intricate system is the monumental Battle of Plataea, and more specifically, the diverse army that General Mardonius led. This assembly of troops, as described by Herodotus and etched in stone at the Naqsh-e Rostam Necropolis, offers a revealing look at the multi-ethnic composition of the Achaemenid forces.

Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia

1. Persians: The Elite Soldiers

The Persians formed the core of the Achaemenid military, often in the most prestigious and heavily armed positions. Their significance lay not just in their number but also in the strategic roles they played in the empire's military conquests. At Plataea, these were the elite fighters that Mardonius would have heavily relied upon, serving as his guards and frontline combatants.

2. Medians: The Allies Turned Subjects

Once a significant power in their own right, the Medians were assimilated into the Achaemenid Empire following Cyrus the Great's conquest. At the Battle of Plataea, the Medians were akin to the Persians in terms of their role on the battlefield. Their incorporation into the Achaemenid army was symbolic of the empire's capacity to integrate conquered peoples, turning them from potential threats into assets.

3. Sakas: The Nomadic Archers

Often referred to as Scythians in some sources, the Sakas were a nomadic group known for their prowess with the bow. Their inclusion in Mardonius' army provided an essential ranged component to the Achaemenid forces. Their mobility and ability to harass enemy lines from a distance would have been invaluable in the open plains of Plataea.

4. Bactrians: From the Far East of the Empire

Hailing from the region corresponding to present-day Afghanistan, the Bactrians provided a distinct character to the Achaemenid army. Recognized for their cavalry, these units would have played a critical role in providing Mardonius with swift and effective mounted forces. Their knowledge of varied terrains, owing to their homeland, would also have made them adaptable fighters.

5. Indians: The Exotic Contingent

The inclusion of Indians within the ranks of Mardonius’ army is a testament to the vast expanse of the Achaemenid Empire. Equipped with their unique weapons, like the bamboo longbow, and potentially elephant units, the Indians added an element of unpredictability to the Achaemenid forces. Their participation is a vivid representation of the empire's vastness and its ability to mobilize troops from the farthest reaches of its territories.

The Achaemenid forces at the Battle of Plataea, under General Mardonius, provide a fascinating study into the diverse and coordinated military apparatus of the empire.

The Naqsh-e Rostam Necropolis: A Monument to Diversity

Located near Persepolis, the Naqsh-e Rostam Necropolis stands as a proud testament to the Achaemenid Empire’s legacy. Among its reliefs, one can find a list of troops by ethnicity, including those that fought at Plataea. This listing offers a visual confirmation of the empire's multi-ethnic character and is a lasting tribute to the vast territories and peoples that the Achaemenids governed.

HERODOTUS’ TESTIMONY

According to modern estimates based on the order of battle described by Herodotus, the detailed composition of the Achaemenid army consisted of about 40,000 Persian troops on the left of the battle line, facing the Spartans; about 20,000 Bactrians, Indians and Sakae in the center, facing various Greek states; and about 20,000 Greek allies of the Persians (Macedonians, Thessalians, Beotians, Thebeans), positioned on the right wing, facing the Athenians. Some 5,000 people made up the cavalry, which also included Persians, Bactrians, Indians, and Sakae.

Herodotus described in detail the dispositions of the two armies:

He posted the Persians facing the Lacedaemonians ... Next to the Persians he posted the Medes, fronting the men of Corinth and Potidaea and Orchomenus and Sicyon; next to the Medes, the Bactrians, fronting men of Epidaurus, Troezen, Lepreum, Tiryns, Mycenae, and Phlius. After the Bactrians he set the Indians, fronting the men of Hermione and Eretria and Styra and Chalcis. Next to the Indians he posted the Sacae, fronting the Ampraciots, Anactorians, Leucadians, Paleans, and Aeginetans; next to the Sacae, and over against the Athenians and Plataeans and Megarians, the Boeotian and Locrians and Malians and Thessalians and the thousand that came from Phocis ... Besides these, he arrayed against the Athenians Macedonians also and the dwellers about Thessaly. These that I have named were the greatest of the nations set in array by Mardonius that were of most note and account; but there was also in the army a mixed multitude of Phrygians, Thracians, Mysians, Paeonians, and the rest, besides Ethiopians and the Egyptian swordsmen.

— Herodotus IX-31/32.

In conclusion, the Achaemenid forces at the Battle of Plataea, under General Mardonius, provide a fascinating study into the diverse and coordinated military apparatus of the empire. This amalgamation of different ethnicities, each bringing their unique strengths to the battlefield, showcases the empire’s ability to integrate and command a multitude of cultures under a single banner. The reliefs at Naqsh-e Rostam further immortalize this diversity, offering present and future generations a glimpse into the richness of the Achaemenid era.

The History of Writing; Tracing the Development of expressing Language by Systems of Markings

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by dimosthenis vasiloudis

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Protowriting, ideographic systems, or early mnemonic symbols came before more advanced writing systems in the evolution of writing in human societies (symbols or letters that make remembering them easier).

A subsequent development is true writing, in which the content of a spoken language is encoded so that another reader may reasonably reconstruct the identical utterance written down. It differs from proto-writing, which frequently forgoes recording grammatical words and affixes, making it harder or even impossible to reassemble the precise meaning intended by the writer unless a substantial amount of context is already known in advance.

Writing innovations

The idea that writing originated in a single civilization and was called "monogenesis" persisted for a long time. According to academics, all writing originated in Mesopotamia's ancient Sumer and spread around the world as a result of cultural diffusion. This argument holds that traders or merchants traveling between geographical locations passed on the idea of representing language by written signs, though perhaps not necessarily the specifics of how such a system operated.

The finding of ancient Mesoamerican scripts, far from Middle Eastern sources, demonstrated, however, that writing had been created more than once. In at least four ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia (between 3400 and 3100 BCE), Egypt (about 3250 BCE), China (1200 BCE), and lowland portions of southern Mexico and Guatemala, writing may have independently originated (by 500 BCE).

Some academics have suggested that ancient Egypt "The earliest authentic examples of Egyptian writing differ from Mesopotamian writing in both structure and style, indicating that they must have emerged independently. Although there is still a chance that Mesopotamian "stimulus dispersion" occurred, the influence could not have extended beyond the dissemination of an idea."

Because there is no evidence of communication between ancient China and the Near Eastern literate civilizations, as well as because Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches to phonetic representation differ, it is thought that ancient Chinese characters are independent creations.

The Vinča symbols.

The Rongorongo script of Easter Island, the Vina symbols from about 5500 BCE, and the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization are all controversial. Since none have been translated, it is unclear if they all represent real writing, protowriting, or something entirely different.

The earliest coherent texts date from around 2600 BCE, and Sumerian archaic (pre-cuneiform) writing and Egyptian hieroglyphs are usually regarded as the earliest authentic writing systems. Both developed out of their ancestors' proto-literate symbol systems between 3400 and 3100 BCE. The Proto-Elamite script belongs to roughly the same time frame.

writing methods

Writing systems are distinct from symbolic communication systems. For most writing systems, reading a text requires some knowledge of the spoken language that goes along with it. In contrast, it's not always necessary to have a prior understanding of a spoken language to use symbolic systems like information signs, paintings, maps, and mathematics. Every human group has its own language, which is thought by many to be a natural and essential aspect of mankind.

Writing system development has been intermittent, uneven, and delayed, and old oral communication systems have only been partially replaced. Writing systems generally develop more slowly after they are formed than their spoken counterparts and frequently preserve traits and idioms that have been lost to the spoken language.

Three writing standards are thought to apply to all writing systems. First, writing must be comprehensive; it must have a meaning or purpose, and it must make a point or be able to convey that message. Second, whether they are physical or digital, all writing systems must include some kind of symbol that can be created on a surface. In order to facilitate communication, the writing system's symbols must resemble spoken words or speech.

The greatest advantage of writing is that it gives society a way to regularly and thoroughly preserve information—something that the spoken word could not previously do as successfully. Writing enables communities to communicate knowledge, transmit information, and

stages of development

Sumer

An ancient civilization of southern Mesopotamia, is believed to be the place where written language was first invented around 3200 BCE.

Beginning with the Neolithic pottery phase, when clay tokens were used to keep track of particular quantities of animals or other goods, writing first appeared. These tokens were initially imprinted on the exterior of spherical clay envelopes, which were later used to keep them. Afterwards, flat tablets were gradually introduced in place of the tokens, and signs were recorded using a stylus. Towards the end of the fourth millennium BCE, Uruk was where actual writing was first discovered. Other areas of the Near East quickly followed.

The earliest recorded account of the development of writing is found in a poem from ancient Mesopotamia:

The Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and wrote on it like a tablet because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat the message. It has never been possible to write on clay before.

Enmerkar and the King of Aratta, a Sumerian epic written around 1800 BCE

Although there is agreement among scholars as to the difference between prehistory and the history of early writing, there is disagreement as to when proto-writing became "real writing." The criteria are somewhat arbitrary. In the broadest sense, writing is a way of keeping track of information. It is made up of graphemes, which in turn can be made up of glyphs.

Many centuries of shattered inscriptions typically follow the advent of writing in a particular region. The presence of coherent texts in a culture's writing system is how historians determine a culture's "historicity".

Standard reconstruction of the development of writing. There is a possibility that the Egyptian script was invented independently from the Mesopotamian script.

A conventional "proto-writing to true writing" system follows a general series of developmental stages:

Picture writing system: glyphs (simplified pictures) directly represent objects and concepts. In connection with this, the following substages may be distinguished:

• Mnemonic: glyphs primarily as a reminder.

• Pictographic: glyphs directly represent an object or a concept such as (A) chronological, (B) notices, (C) communications, (D) totems, titles, and names, (E) religious, (F) customs, (G) historical, and (H) biographical.

• Ideographic: graphemes are abstract symbols that directly represent an idea or concept.

Pre-cuneiform tags, with drawing of goat or sheep and number (probably "10"): "Ten goats", Al-Hasakah, 3300–3100 BCE, Uruk culture.

Transitional system: graphemes refer not only to the object or idea that it represents but to its name as well.

• Phonetic system: graphemes refer to sounds or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme is not related to its meanings. This resolves itself into the following substages:

• Verbal: grapheme (logogram) represents a whole word.

• Syllabic: grapheme represents a syllable.

• Alphabetic: grapheme represents an elementary sound.

Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC and among the earliest form of writing in Egypt. They are remarkably similar to contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.

The best known picture writing system of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols are:

• Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, c. 6600 BCE

• Vinča symbols (Tărtăria tablets), c. 5300 BCE[24]

• Early Indus script, c. 3100 BCE

In the Old World, true writing systems developed from neolithic writing in the Early Bronze Age (4th millennium BC).

Locations and timeframes

Comparative evolution

from pictograms to abstract shapes, in Mesopotamian cuneiforms, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters

Proto-writing

The first writing systems of the Early Bronze Age were not a sudden invention. Rather, they were a development based on earlier traditions of symbol systems that cannot be classified as proper writing, but have many of the characteristics of writing. These systems may be described as "proto-writing". They used ideographic or early mnemonic symbols to convey information, but it probably directly contained no natural language. These systems emerged in the early Neolithic period, as early as the 7th millennium BC, and include:

• The Jiahu symbols found carved in tortoise shells in 24 Neolithic graves excavated at Jiahu, Henan province, northern China, with radiocarbon dates from the 7th millennium BCE. Most archaeologists consider these not directly linked to the earliest true writing.

• Vinča symbols, sometimes called the "Danube script", are a set of symbols found on Neolithic era (6th to 5th millennia BCE) artifacts from the Vinča culture of Central Europe and Southeast Europe.

• The Dispilio Tablet of the late 6th millennium may also be an example of proto-writing.

• The Indus script, which from 3500 BCE to 1900 BCE was used for extremely short inscriptions.

The Dispilio Tablet

The Dispilio tablet is a wooden tablet bearing inscribed markings, unearthed during George Hourmouziadis's excavations of Dispilio in Greece, and carbon 14-dated to 5202 (± 123) BC.

It was discovered in 1993 in a Neolithic lakeshore settlement that occupied an artificial island near the modern village of Dispilio on Lake Kastoria in Kastoria, Western Macedonia, Greece.

Even after the Neolithic, a number of societies used proto-writing as a transitional form before adopting formal writing. Such a mechanism might have existed in the quipu of the Incas (15th century CE), often known as "talking knots". Another example is the pictographs created by Uyaquk before the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language developed the Yugtun syllabary around 1900.

Ancient writing

The Bronze Age saw the development of writing in a wide range of cultures. Indus script, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Cretan hieroglyphs, Chinese logographs, Sumerian cuneiform writing, and the Olmec script of Mesoamerica are a few examples. Around 1600 BCE, the Chinese script most likely evolved apart from the Middle Eastern scripts. It is also generally accepted that the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems, which include the Olmec and Maya scripts, had separate origins. In 2000 BCE, it is believed that the first real alphabetic writing was created for Hebrew laborers in the Sinai by assigning Semitic values to mostly Egyptian hieratic characters (see History of the alphabet and Proto-Sinaitic alphabet).

Ethiopia's Geez writing system is regarded as Semitic. With roots in the Meroitic Sudanese ideogram system, it is most likely of semi-independent origin. The majority of alphabets used today are either direct descendants of this one invention, many through the Phoenician alphabet, or were designed in direct response to it. The early Old Italic alphabet and Plautus (c. 750–250 BCE) were separated by around 500 years in Italy, while the Elder Futhark inscriptions and early works like the Abrogans (c. 200–750 CE) are separated by a similar amount of time in the case of the Germanic peoples.

Cuneiform writing

The first Sumerian script was derived from a system of clay tokens used to denote different types of goods. This had developed into a system of keeping accounts by the end of the fourth millennium BC, utilizing a stylus with a circular form that was impressed into soft clay at various angles to record numbers. A pointed stylus was used to gradually add pictographic lettering on this to show what was being counted. Writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the name "cuneiform") began to include phonetic features by the 29th century BCE and gradually replaced writing with a round stylus and a sharp stylus by about 2700–2500 BCE.

Cuneiform first started to represent Sumerian syllables around 2600 BCE. Ultimately, cuneiform writing evolved into a general-purpose system for writing numerals, syllables, and logograms. This alphabet was adapted to the Akkadian language starting in the 26th century BCE, and from there to others like Hurrian and Hittite. This writing system resembles Old Persian and Ugaritic scripts in appearance.

Hieroglyphics from Egypt

Literacy was concentrated among a well-educated elite of scribes, who played a crucial role in upholding the Egyptian empire through writing. To become scribes in the employ of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authority, one had to come from a certain background.

According to Geoffrey Sampson, the general concept of expressing words from a language in writing was likely transmitted to Egypt via Sumerian Mesopotamia. Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into being a little after Sumerian script, and, possibly [were], invented under the influence of the latter." Despite the significance of early Egypt-Mesopotamia links, "no definitive judgment has been established as to the genesis of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt" due to the lack of direct evidence. However, it is stated and agreed upon that "a very compelling argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt" and that "the evidence for such direct influence remains fragile."

Egyptian writing does suddenly appear at that time, but Mesopotamia has an evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to around 8000 BCE. Since the 1990s, discoveries of glyphs at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the conventional idea that the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one. These glyphs were discovered in tomb U-J at Abydos; they were written on ivory and most likely served as labels for other items discovered there.

Even though he acknowledged that Egypt's geographic location made it a receptacle for many influences, Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar maintained that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols originated from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and that in regards to writing, "we have seen that a purely Nilotic, therefore African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality."

Elamite writing

The unintelligible Proto-Elamite writing first appears around 3100 BCE. Around the latter third millennium, it is thought to have evolved into Linear Elamite, which was later supplanted by Elamite Cuneiform, which was adapted from Akkadian.

Indus script

Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a writing system used to record the as yet unidentified language(s) of the Indus Valley civilisation.

The Indus script has been assigned to markings and symbols discovered at numerous Indus Valley civilization sites due to the hypothesis that they were used to transcribe the Harappan language. It is disputed whether the script, which was in use from roughly 3500 to 1900 BCE, is a Bronze Age writing script (logographic-syllabic) or merely proto-writing symbols. According to analysis, it was written in boustrophedon or from right to left.

early SEMITIC ALPHABETS

Around 1800 BCE in Ancient Egypt, the first "abjads," which mapped individual symbols to individual phonemes but not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol, appeared as a representation of the language created there by Semitic workers. However, by that time, alphabetic principles had only a remote chance of being ingrained into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium.

Did the Proto-Canaanite alphabet take its symbols independently of the hieroglyphs?

It is only until the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script separates into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BCE), Byblos syllabary, and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BCE). These early abjads remained of minor significance for several decades. The untranslated Byblos syllabary most likely had some influence on the Proto-Canaanite, which in turn provided inspiration for the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BCE).

Anatolian hieroglyphs

The Hieroglyphic Luwian language was written down using Anatolian hieroglyphs, a native hieroglyphic script found in western Anatolia. Around the fourteenth century BCE, it initially appeared on royal seals of the Luwians.

Chinese characters

The corpus of inscriptions on oracle bones and brass from the late Shang dynasty is the earliest authenticated example of the Chinese script that has been found so far. The oldest of these is believed to date from about 1200 BCE.

There have been recent finds of tortoise-shell carvings from around 6000 BCE, such as Jiahu Script and Banpo Script, but it is debatable whether or not the carvings are complex enough to be considered writing. 3,172 cliff carvings from the period between 6000 and 5000 BCE have been found near Damaidi in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. They contain 8,453 different characters, including images of the sun, moon, stars, gods, and scenes of grazing or hunting.

Replica

of ancient Chinese script on an oracle turtle shell

These pictographs are thought to resemble the first Chinese characters that have been confirmed to be written. Writing in China would predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, traditionally recognized as the first manifestation of writing, by about 2,000 years if it were to be considered a written language. However, it is more likely that the inscriptions represent a type of proto-writing, comparable to the modern European Vinca script.

Early Greek and Cretan scripts

Cretan relics include hieroglyphic writing (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BCE, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). The Mycenaean Greek writing system, Linear B, has been decoded, but Linear A has not yet been. The three overlapping, but distinct, writing systems can be categorized according to their chronological order and geographic distribution as follows:

• Cretan Hieroglyphic / Crete (eastward from the Knossos-Phaistos axis) / c. 2100−1700 BCE

• Linear A / Crete (except extreme southwest), Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), Greek mainland (Laconia) and west Minor Asia (Miletus and maybe Troy) / c. 1800−1450 BCE

• Linear B / Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) / c. 1450−1200 BCE

The archaeological finds with signs of pre-alphabetic scripts in the Aegean

(Up) The finds with signs of Linear B script reach about 6,000 and constitute the majority of the pre-alphabetic written monuments of the Aegean.

(Middle) About 1,400 are the finds which imprint Linear A and make up a 11% of all pre-alphabetic inscriptions.

(Down) Cretan hieroglyphics occupies 2% of the available finds with only 400 finds.

Illustration: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Mesoamerica

The Cascajal Block, a stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing that predates the first Zapotec writing from around 500 BCE, was found in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere.

Stela 12 and 13

from the southern end of Building L, in the Zapotec city of Monte Albán, Outside of Oaxaca, Mexico.

The Maya script is one of numerous pre-Columbian scripts found in Mesoamerica, and it appears to have been the most well-developed and extensively deciphered. The earliest clearly identifiable Maya inscriptions date to the third century BCE, and writing continued to be used until just before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century BCE. A combination of logograms and syllabic symbols, utilized in Maya writing, is somewhat reminiscent of current Japanese writing.

IRON AGE WRITING

The Proto-Canaanite alphabet, which was used into the Iron Age, is all that the Phoenician alphabet is (conventionally taken from a cut-off date of 1050 BCE). The Greek and Aramaic alphabets were derived from this alphabet. They eventually gave rise to the writing systems that are currently used everywhere from Western Asia to Africa and Europe. The Greek alphabet, on the other hand, was the first to use specific symbols to represent vowel sounds.

By Matt Baker

In the first centuries of the Common Era, the Greek and Latin alphabets gave rise to a number of European scripts, including the Runes, Gothic, and Cyrillic alphabets, while the Aramaic alphabet developed into the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac abjads, the latter of which spread as far as Mongolian script. The Ge'ez abugida originated from the South Arabian alphabet. According to some academics, the Indian Brahmic family also descended from the Aramaic alphabet.

GRAKLIANI HILL WRITING

At Georgia's Grakliani Hill, behind a fallen altar from a temple dedicated to a fertility goddess from the seventh century BCE, an obscure script was uncovered in 2015. Grakliani's other temples' inscriptions, which depict animals, people, or decorative features, are different from these ones. Although its letters are rumored to be connected to ancient Greek and Aramaic, the script has no similarities to any known alphabet. In contrast, the earliest Armenian and Georgian letters come from the fifth century CE, right after the respective nations converted to Christianity. The inscription looks to be the oldest local alphabet ever uncovered in the entire Caucasus region. An portion of the inscription measuring 31 by 3 inches had been unearthed by September 2015.

Grakliani script on the basement of altar of goddess of fertility (XI-X c. BC)

Vakhtang Licheli, director of the State University's Institute of Archaeology, claims that "The writings on the temple's two altars have been kept in remarkably good condition. While the pedestal of the second altar is entirely covered with writings, the first altar has few clay letters carved into it." Unpaid students made the discovery. Inscriptions from Grakliani Hill were sent to Miami Laboratory in 2016 for beta analytic radiocarbon dating, which revealed that they were created between c. 1005 and c. 950 BCE.

WRITING IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician script for use with their own language in the early eighth century BCE, the history of the Greek alphabet officially began. The Greek and Phoenician alphabets share a lot of similarities in terms of their characters, and both alphabets nowadays are written in the same order. The Phoenician system's adapter(s) added three letters to the conclusion of the series, known as the "supplementals." The Greek alphabet evolved into a number of different forms.

Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens

One was utilized in southern Italy and west of Athens and is known as Western Greek or Chalcidian. The other variant, known as Eastern Greek, was spoken by the Athenians and in modern-day Turkey before spreading over the rest of the Greek-speaking world. The Greeks initially elected to write like the Phoenicians, from right to left, but subsequently switched to left to right. The lines would then alternately read from left to right, then from right to left, and so on. On occasion, though, the writer would begin the next line where the preceding one ended. Up until the sixth century, this style of writing, called "boustrophedon," mirrored the course of an ox-drawn plough.

Italic scripts and Latin

Cippus Perusinus

Etruscan writing near Perugia, Italy, the precursor of the Latin alphabet

All of the contemporary European scripts have their roots in Greek. The Latin alphabet, named after the Latins, a central Italian people who came to rule Europe with the emergence of Rome, is the most widely used descendant of the Greek script. Around the fifth century BCE, the Etruscan civilization, which employed a multitude of Italic scripts descended from the western Greeks, taught the Romans how to write. The other Old Italic scripts have not survived in very large quantities due to the cultural hegemony of the Roman state, and the Etruscan language is largely extinct.

WRITING DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Roman rule in Western Europe fell apart, and the Persian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire became the main centers of literary development. Latin, which was never a major literary language, lost prominence quickly (except within the Roman Catholic Church). Greek and Persian were the two main literary languages, but Syriac and Coptic were also significant.

Arabic quickly became a significant literary language in the area as a result of the development of Islam in the 7th century. Greek's status as a scholarly language soon lost ground to Arabic and Persian. The Turkish and Persian languages now use Arabic script as their principal writing system. The development of the cursive scripts for Greek, the Slavic languages, Latin, and other languages was also greatly inspired by this script.

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system was also extended throughout Europe thanks to the Arabic language. The modern Spanish city of Cordoba had emerged as one of the world's leading intellectual hubs by the start of the second millennium and was home to the largest library at the time. Its location at the meeting point of the Islamic and Western Christian worlds encouraged intellectual growth and written exchange between the two cultures.

THE MODERN ERA AND THE RENAISSANCE

By the 14th century, Western Europe had experienced a renaissance, which had temporarily increased the significance of Greek while slowly restoring Latin's status as an important literary language. In Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, a comparable but smaller emergence took place. As the Islamic Golden Era came to an end, Arabic and Persian also started to slowly lose ground. In order to codify the phonologies of the various languages, the Latin alphabet underwent several alterations as a result of the rebirth of literary development in Western Europe.

Writing has undergone steady change throughout history, in large part because of the emergence of new technologies. Technology advancements such as the printing press, computer, mobile phone, and pen have all changed how and what is written as well as the medium in which it is generated. Characters can now be generated with a button press rather than a hand motion, especially with the development of digital technology like the computer and the smartphone.

Research team claims to have deciphered ancient Iranian Linear Elamite language

A team of researchers, with a member each from the University of Tehran, Eastern Kentucky University and the University of Bologna working with another independent researcher, has claimed to have deciphered most of the ancient Iranian language called Linear Elamite.

by Bob Yirka , Phys.org

Illustration by Meilan Solly / Photos via Wikimedia Commons under public domain, Getty Images, Desset et al.

In their paper published in the German language journal Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, the group describes the work they did to decipher the examples of the ancient language that have been found and provide some examples of the text translated into English.

In 1903, a team of French archaeologists unearthed some tablets with words etched onto them at a dig site on the Acropolis mound of Susa in Iran. For many years, historians believed the language used on the tablets was related to another language known as Proto-Elamite. Subsequent research has suggested the link between the two is tenuous at best.

Akkadian/cuneiform and Elamite/Linear Elamite inscription of King Puzur-Sushinak, from the collections of the Louvre Public domain via Wikimedia Commons

Since the time of the initial find, more objects have been found that were written in the same language—the total number today is approximately 40. Among the finds, most prominent are inscriptions on several silver beakers. Several teams have studied the language and have made some inroads, but the majority of the language has remained a mystery. In this new effort, the researchers picked up where the other research teams left off and also used some new techniques to decipher the script.

The new techniques used by the team on this new effort, involved comparing some known words in cuneiform with words found in the Linear Elamite script. It is believed that both languages were used in parts of the Middle East at the same time and thus, there should be some shared references such as the names of rulers, titles of people, places or other written works along with common phrases.

The researchers also looked at what they believed to be signs, rather than words, looking to assign meanings to them. Of the 300 signs they were able to identify, the team found they were only able to assign 3.7% of them to meaningful entities. Still, they believe they have deciphered most of the language and have even provided translations for some of the text on the silver beakers. One example, "Puzur-Sušinak, king of Awan, Insušinak [likely a deity] loves him."

The work by the researchers has been met with some skepticism by others in the community due to a variety of events surrounding the work. Some of the texts used as sources, for example, are themselves suspect. And some of the collections of materials with the language inscriptions on them might have been obtained illegally. Also, the corresponding author on the paper has refused requests to comment on the work done by the team.

New DNA analysis shed light to Indo-European homeland

Credit: PeopleOfAr

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Detailed paleogenetic research sheds light on Southern Arc migration, farming, and language evolution.

In a trio of papers, published simultaneously in the journal Science, Ron Pinhasi from the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology and Human Evolution and Archaeological Sciences (HEAS) at the University of Vienna and Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg from the University of Vienna and Harvard University, Iosif Lazaridis and David Reich at Harvard University—together with 202 co-authors—report a massive effort of genome-wide sequencing from 727 distinct ancient individuals with which it was possible to test longstanding archaeological, genetic and linguistic hypotheses. They present a systematic picture of the interlinked histories of peoples across the Southern Arc Region from the origins of agriculture, to late medieval times.

Credit: University of Vienna

The first article by the international team looked at the origins and dissemination of Indo-European and Anatolian languages. The Indo-Anatolian language family's ancestral home is thought to have been in West Asia, according to genetic evidence, with secondary dispersals of non-Anatolian Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppe. People with Caucasian origin came into Anatolia in the west and the steppe in the north during the first stage, which took place between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago. These people may have spoken Anatolian and Indo-European languages in their ancestry.

Around 5,000 years ago, Yamnaya steppe herders with Caucasus hunter-gatherer and Eastern hunter-gatherer heritage set off a series of migrations across Eurasia that may be traced to all currently spoken Indo-European languages (such as Greek, Armenian, and Sanskrit). Their southern excursions into the Balkans and Greece, as well as their eastern expansions across the Caucasus into Armenia, left a mark on the region's Bronze Age inhabitants.

The Yamnaya herders' descendants mixed differently with the local people as they grew. Several types of genetic evidence can be used to pinpoint how Indo-European-speaking immigrants from the steppe interacted with locals to create the Greek, Paleo-Balkan, and Albanian (Indo-European) languages in Southeastern Europe and the Armenian language in West Asia. The Yamnaya had a significant influence on Southeastern Europe, as individuals with nearly pure Yamnaya heritage arrived shortly after the Yamnaya migrations began.

The Southern Arc's Anatolia core region, where large-scale data offers a rich picture of change—and lack of change—over time, yields some of the most startling findings. According to the findings, Anatolia was not significantly affected by the Yamnaya migrations, in contrast to the Balkans and the Caucasus. Due to the absence of Eastern hunter-gatherer ancestors in Anatolia, in contrast to all other places where Indo-European languages were spoken, no connection to the steppe can be established for speakers of Anatolian languages (such as Hittite and Luwian).

The southern Caucasus was impacted numerous times, even before the Yamnaya migrations, in contrast to Anatolia's startling impermeability to steppe migrations. "I was surprised to learn that the Areni Chalcolithic people, who were discovered 15 years ago in the excavation I co-led, had ancestry from gene flow from the north to areas of the southern Caucasus more than 1,000 years before the Yamnaya expanded, and that this northern influence would disappear in the area before reappearing a few thousand years later. This demonstrates that there is still a lot of information to be learned through new digs and fieldwork in Eastern Western Asia "Ron Pinhasi says.

"Anatolia was home to varied communities descending from both local hunter-gatherers and eastern populations of the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and the Levant," states Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg

"Variations of the same types of ancestry were shared by the inhabitants of the Marmara region, Southeastern Anatolia, the Black Sea, and the Aegean regions."

Credit: University of Vienna

The interconnections of the first farming societies

The second research project investigates the origins of the world's oldest Neolithic populations, which date to around 12,000 years ago. "The genetic findings support the idea that early farming groups had a network of pan-regional relationships. In addition, they offer fresh proof that the Neolithic transition was a difficult process that took place not just in one central region but also in Anatolia and the Near East, "Ron Pinhasi said.

It gives the first ancient DNA data for Pre-Pottery Neolithic farmers from the Tigris side of northern Mesopotamia, which is a critical region for the origins of agriculture and can be found in both eastern Turkey and northern Iraq. The island of Cyprus, which saw the earliest maritime migration of farmers from the eastern Mediterranean, also contains the first ancient DNA from Pre-Pottery farmers. Together with the first information from Neolithic Armenia, it also offers fresh information on early Neolithic farmers from the Northwest Zagros.

By filling in these gaps, the authors were able to examine the genetic history of these societies, for which archaeological research had previously documented intricate economic and cultural interactions but was unable to track mating practices or interactions that did not leave visible material traces. The findings demonstrate pre-Neolithic roots from hunter-gatherers in the Caucasus, Levant, and Anatolia, and they demonstrate that these early farming cultures created a continuity of lineage that mirrored the topography of West Asia. The findings also show at least two waves of migration from the Fertile Crescent's core to Anatolia's ancient farmers.

The historic period

The third piece demonstrates how ancient Mediterranean political systems maintained differences in lineage from the Bronze Age while remaining connected by migration. The findings indicate that while Italians before the Imperial period had a totally diverse distribution, the ancestry of those who resided in and around Rome during the Imperial period was nearly identical to that of Roman and Byzantine inhabitants from Anatolia. This shows that the heterogeneous but comparable population of the Roman Empire, both in its longer-lasting eastern component focused on Anatolia and in its shorter-lasting western part, was plausible drawn to a significant extent from Anatolian pre-Imperial sources.

"Our findings are rather unexpected considering that in a Science study I co-authored in 2019 on the genetic heritage of people from Ancient Rome, we discovered a cosmopolitan pattern that we initially believed to be specific to Rome. Now that we can see it, other parts of the Roman Empire were just as multicultural as Rome itself, "Ron Pinhasi argues.

Man in Uzbekistan completely destroys archaeological site by selling clay from there

A man was detained in Kashkadarya region of Uzbekistan for completely destroying the Kunjulitepa archaeological site. He sold the land from it and caused damage to cultural heritage worth 47.5 billion soums ($4.3 million).

The General Prosecutor's Office of Uzbekistan reported that a resident of Darkhon makhalla, despite repeated warnings from the line departments, completely destroyed the archaeological site Kunjulitepa. He was in the business of selling clay. The man destroyed the monument by selling parts of the land from the monument.

"The Prosecutor’s Office of Yakkabag District opened a criminal case on destruction and damage to objects of material cultural heritage with large damage. The perpetrator was taken into custody," the statement said.

The Prosecutor General's Office of Uzbekistan recalled that in accordance with the changes made to the criminal legislation this year, the penalties for the destruction and damage of historical monuments were seriously strengthened, and punishment in the form of imprisonment for up to 7 years was established.

Are Scholars Close Enough to Decipher The Mysterious Linear Elamite Script?

A Breakthrough in Ancient Script Decipherment

Linear Elamite, a cryptic script used in what is now modern-day Iran, has long been a puzzle for historians and archaeologists. With its origins dating back over 5,000 years, Linear Elamite represents a fascinating chapter in the history of writing systems. The recent efforts of a group of European academics, under the direction of the French archaeologist Francois Desset, have rekindled hopes of discovering the secrets hidden within this enigmatic script.

Just as Jean-François Champollion faced the challenge of deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics with the help of the Rosetta Stone, scholars have struggled for decades to crack the Linear Elamite code. However, the breakthrough might finally be on the horizon, thanks to the meticulous work of Desset and his colleagues.

Their groundbreaking research, recently published in the journal Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, hinges on the examination of ancient silver beakers. These artifacts provide a tantalizing glimpse into the world of Linear Elamite, offering a potential key to unlocking its mysteries. It is important to note that, while the findings are intriguing, they remain the subject of debate within the scholarly community.

Chogha Zanbil, an ancient Elamite complex in the Khuzestan province of Iran Mehdi Zali.K via Wikimedia Commons under CC BY-SA 4.0

Linear Elamite's historical context is vital for understanding its significance. The script emerged in Susa, a thriving city on the fringes of Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau. This urban society played a pivotal role in the dawn of civilization, engaging in trade with neighboring Mesopotamian kingdoms and the Indus River Valley civilization.

The Sumerians are renowned for developing the first known writing system, cuneiform, around 3100 B.C.E. Their wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets marked a pivotal moment in human history, enabling the recording of language, economy, religion, and governance. While Cuneiform thrived in Mesopotamia, Linear Elamite was a contemporaneous script in Susa, representing a distinct linguistic tradition.

Over the past century, Proto-Elamite inscriptions have numbered over 1,600, offering some insight into this ancient society. However, Linear Elamite inscriptions have been scarce, with only about 43 discovered scattered across Iran. Its sporadic use and eventual disappearance around 1800 B.C.E. have confounded scholars.

Perforated stone with Linear Elamite inscriptions, from the collections of the Louvre Public domain via Wikimedia Commons

Francois Desset's journey began with his access to a collection of silver vessels in London, believed to date back to around 2000 B.C.E. These vessels bore inscriptions in both cuneiform and Linear Elamite, providing a unique opportunity for decipherment. Metallurgical analysis confirmed their authenticity and age, dispelling doubts about their origin.

Desset's method of deciphering Linear Elamite rested on identifying repeated symbols that were likely proper names, including those of known Elamite kings. Through this meticulous process, he managed to decode 72 Linear Elamite symbols, representing over 96 percent of those known to scholars. However, it's important to note that translating the content of these inscriptions remains a complex endeavor, given the absence of known relatives for the Elamite language.

Linear Elamite inscriptions on a silver vessel Desset / Iran, 2018

The significance of Desset's work extends beyond mere script decipherment. He proposes that Linear Elamite employs a syllabic approach similar to modern alphabets, setting it apart from other ancient scripts. If this hypothesis holds true, it would make Linear Elamite the oldest known writing system to rely solely on syllables, predating the creation of the alphabet by Phoenician traders around 1100 B.C.E.

Furthermore, Desset's research challenges established beliefs about the relationship between Proto-Elamite and Linear Elamite. While some argue that Proto-Elamite is a mixture of syllables and logograms, Desset posits that it is the predecessor of Linear Elamite. This debate highlights the complexity of deciphering ancient scripts and the need for further research.

Grid of the 72 deciphered alpha-syllabic signs on which the transliteration system of Linear Elamite is based. The most common graphic variants are shown for each sign. Blue signs are attested in southwestern Iran, red ones in southeastern Iran. Black signs are common to both areas. F. Desset

Another intriguing claim by Desset suggests that Proto-Elamite and Sumerian cuneiform may have coexisted, challenging conventional timelines. This hypothesis, based on radiocarbon dating and archaeological findings, offers a fresh perspective on the evolution of writing systems in neighboring societies.

As we await further excavations in Iran to bridge the gap between Proto-Elamite and Linear Elamite, Francois Desset's work represents a significant step toward unraveling the mysteries of an ancient script that has confounded scholars for centuries. His dedication to deciphering Linear Elamite not only sheds light on a little-known society but also challenges our understanding of the development of writing itself.

Akkadian/cuneiform and Elamite/Linear Elamite inscription of King Puzur-Sushinak, from the collections of the Louvre Public domain via Wikimedia Commons

In the coming years, as more Linear Elamite texts are translated and additional archaeological evidence surfaces, we may witness a renaissance in our comprehension of this ancient script. The legacy of Linear Elamite, once shrouded in obscurity, may soon emerge as a testament to the enduring human quest for communication and understanding in the annals of history.

Persepolis Reimagined: Explore the capital of ancient Persia at its height during the reign of King Xerxes

Getty has launched Persepolis Reimagined, an immersive web experience that lets visitors explore the ceremonial capital of the ancient Persian Empire at its height.

Visitors can walk in the footsteps of ancient dignitaries through the most accurate recreation of Persepolis to date, and learn about the art, architecture, and customs of this iconic monument to imperial power.

The experience is available across desktop and mobile, and will soon be viewable in multiple languages, including Arabic, Farsi, French, Hindi, Spanish, Traditional and Simplified Chinese, and English.

This Rare Scaraboid Shows a Persian King Killing a Greek Hoplite

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By Dimosthenes Vasiloudis

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The Scaraboid Telling Stories of Supremacy: A typical artistic example of propagandistic emphasis on the omnipotence of the Persian king

The art and culture of ancient Persia have always been a captivating treasure trove for historians and archeologists. Within this realm of historic material culture, one finds a multitude of symbols, motifs, and artistic practices that shed light on the sociopolitical constructs of the period. A notable artifact that recently captured global attention is an intricately carved scaraboid depicting a Persian King vanquishing a Greek Hoplite—an eloquent example of ancient propagandistic emphasis on the omnipotence of the Persian king.

Art as a Tool of Propaganda

Before delving into the specifics of this fascinating artifact, it is essential to understand the role of art in ancient civilizations. Art was a crucial means of communication and was often employed as an instrument of propaganda. In ancient times, literacy was not widespread, and images were a powerful tool for transmitting messages to the general public. Imagery often portrayed rulers in scenes of heroism, dominance, and divine favor, subtly influencing public perception and reinforcing power structures.

The Achaemenid Persians were a multicultural empire, and architecture, inscriptions, and art all served the king's essential function as ultimate ruler and custodian. The Persian palaces were decorated with coins, seals, and scenes of tribute-giving that specifically extolled the king.

Several Achaemenid reliefs show the king seated on his throne, flanked by soldiers and courtiers, and receiving envoys from all countries that were under his control, stressing his power and control over the enormous expanse of his kingdom.

The people of the empire were given a crucial message by each and every one of these propaganda pictures. Both the heavenly nature of his authority and his great royal might, which was able to crush every foreign uprising and rule over every human population, were described.

Detail showing the king in the throne.

Audience relief (found at the Treasury, Persepolis, Iran - Apadana).

The Scaraboid: An Artistic Chronicle of Persian Strength

The same function is served by a rare scaraboid seal from the fifth century BC. It shows a Persian ruler (perhaps Xerxes I or Artaxerxes I) fastening his spear to a Greek hoplite, who then collapses to the ground in a gallery at the Getty Museum in Los Angeles.

As is well known, the Greco-Persian Wars and the "crushing of the barbarians" are prominent themes on ancient Greek ceramics. Nonetheless, it's really intriguing that this unusual propaganda seal prominently shows the Persian viewpoint.

The Greek hoplite is seen carrying a shield and a spear while being completely unclothed, only sporting the distinctive crested Corinthian helmet. The Persian king's long robe and crown are intricately and precisely etched. Over his shoulder are a bow and quiver.

Source: The Getty Museum Collection

The stone is supposed to have been found precisely in nearby Caria, and the engraving style points to an origin in western Asia Minor, likely Sardis.

Scaraboids, named for their similarity in shape to the scarab beetle, were common seals used in the ancient Near East. This particular specimen, carefully crafted from a semi-precious stone, is unique in its detailed depiction of a Persian King engaged in combat with a Greek Hoplite.

The depiction of a Persian king overcoming a Greek Hoplite may seem unusual given that historically, Persian-Greek conflicts, such as the famous battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, often resulted in Greek victories. However, the image serves a distinct propagandistic purpose, communicating the power, courage, and divine favor of the Persian king to its audience.

Detailed Examination: Symbols of Power and Superiority

The scaraboid artistry is impressive, revealing a wealth of details about the intended message. The Persian King is shown larger than the Greek Hoplite, a common artistic technique to demonstrate the superior status of the king. The king's facial expression is calm and composed, suggesting confidence and control over the situation, while the Hoplite's face is contorted in fear and defeat. This further underscores the idea of the king's invincibility.

Greek Pottery

Persian soldier (left) and Greek hoplite (right) depicted fighting, on an ancient kylix, 5th century BC

Greco-Persian Conflicts between 477 and 449 BC

Known as the Campaigns of the Delian League against Persia, the Greco-Persian conflicts between 477 and 449 BC started with the Greek counterattack in Thrace and the Aegean to remove the remaining Persian garrisons from the region. In the next decade, the Athenian politician Cimon began a campaign in Asia Minor to strengthen the Greek position there. A great double victory for the Greek forces comes at the Battle of the Eurymedon, both in the sea and on land.

Towards the end of the 460s BC, the Athenians did support a revolt in Egypt against Persian rulers. Although the Greek task force achieved initial successes, the Athenian force was finally annihilated.

In 451 BC, while a truce was agreed in Greece (with the ongoing First Peloponnesian War), Cimon was once again able to lead an expedition to Cyprus. However, while besieging Kition city, Cimon died, and the Athenian force decided to withdraw, winning another victory at the Battle of Salamis in order to extricate themselves. This campaign marked the end of hostilities between the Delian League and Persia and therefore the end of the Greco-Persian War.

The newly discovered scaraboid presents a fascinating snapshot of the potent intersection of art, propaganda, and power in ancient Persia. It serves as a reminder that the representations of historical events can be significantly influenced by those in power and how they choose to present themselves. While the actual battles may have been lost on the fields, the war of images was fought and won with equal fervor in the grand courts and workshops of ancient Persia, and it is this battle that continues to resonate with us today. Through the scaraboid, we understand the calculated and deliberate projection of the Persian king's omnipotence, a narrative manipulated for the sake of bolstering his rule and control.

The Sulayman-Too Museum: A Unique Cave Museum in Kyrgyzstan, Carved into the Mountain

One of Kyrgyzstan’s biggest and most beautiful museums, carved directly into the Suleiman-Too Scred Mountain.

The National Historical and Archaeological Museum Complex Sulayman (Russian: Национальный Историко-археологический музейный комплекс «Сулайман-Тоо») is is certainly one of the most unique museums in Kyrgyzstan and one of the main sites in the Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain. It was established in 1949 as “Osh Regional Museum”.

The present museum building was completed during the Soviet era in 1978 to celebrate the 3,000th anniversary of the city of Osh. It was carved inside the Sulayman Mountain, which became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2009. The structure represents a glassed concrete arch that closes the entry to the cave.

The architectural choice for the attraction is controversial, but it is undeniable by all that the big windows on the second floor provide a gorgeous view of Osh.

The National Historical and Archaeological Museum Complex Sulayman is one of the largest museums in Kyrgyzstan. The collections include more than 33,000 pieces of archaeological and ethnographic facts, works of handicraft, paintings, sculptures and graphics.

The museum has a very impressive collection of religious artifacts from the multiple religious beliefs present in the country. The second floor of the museum is the highlight of this attraction. With a panoramic view of the city of Osh and the museum walls that blend with the mountain rock you will be impressed by the uniqueness of this attraction. Even if you are not impressed by the outside looks of the museum, it is guaranteed that you will be awed by the inside.

The museum located in the cave is made up of two separate levels. Visitors enter through the lower level, which is entirely made of manmade caves. The artifacts displayed here are related to different religious practices, from shamanism to animism, to some of the major world religions. The second floor, made of a natural cave, opens through the front facade to a panoramic view of Osh.

At the base of the mountain is another museum, called the Silk Road Museum, this one dedicated to the fact the Sulayman Too is the only UNESCO World Heritage Site completely in Kyrgyzstan. Here one can find even more information about the region, its nature, and its history, through ancient manuscripts, coins, household items, felt products, books, and photographs.

The Letoon Trilingual Stele: An Interlingual Greek-Lycian-Aramaic Inscription

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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In the annals of history, the discovery of multilingual inscriptions has often been the key to unlocking the mysteries of extinct cultures and languages. One such monumental find is the Letoon Trilingual Stele, an ancient stone tablet inscribed with texts in Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic. This impressive artifact sheds light on the sociopolitical dynamics and intercultural exchanges of its time.

Historical Background and Location

Nestled in modern-day Turkey's Lycia region, Letoon was a significant religious sanctuary dedicated to the goddess Leto and her twins, Apollo and Artemis. The sanctuary's ruins bear witness to the rich history of Anatolia, with its evolving pantheon and varying rulers. The Letoon Trilingual Stele was unearthed within this sanctuary, pointing to the site's importance as a hub of religious and perhaps political activity.

The Letoon trilingual, or Xanthos trilingual, is an inscription in three languages: standard Lycian, or Lycian A; Greek; and Aramaic, covering the faces of a four-sided stone stele called the Letoon Trilingual Stele, discovered in 1973 during the archeological exploration of the Letoon temple complex (devoted to the goddess Leto). It was created when Lycia was under the sway of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.

Although the use of the term "Letoon" with regard to the inscription and the stele is unequivocal, there is no standard name for either. Xanthos trilingual is sometimes used, which is to be distinguished from Xanthos trilingual, meaning the Xanthos stele. However, sometimes the Xanthos stele is used for the Letoon trilingual stele as well as for the tomb at Xanthos. Moreover, the term Xanthos trilingual (Lycian A, Lycian B, and Greek) is sometimes used of the tomb at Xanthos. In the latter two cases, only the context can provide clues as to which stele is meant. The Aramaic inscription is known as KAI 319.

Given its location in a religious sanctuary, the stele might also shed light on syncretic religious practices or shared religious narratives across Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic-speaking communities.

The Inscriptions: A Linguistic Tapestry

1. Greek: The language of Homer and Plato, Greek, was widely spoken and understood across the Mediterranean. The Greek inscription on the stele reaffirms the extensive Hellenistic influence across Anatolia, particularly in major religious centers like Letoon.

2. Lycian: As with the Xanthian Obelisk, the presence of the Lycian language, indigenous to the Lycia region, underscores the cultural identity of the local populace. Lycian inscriptions often provide crucial clues to the socio-religious practices and governance of ancient Lycia.

3. Aramaic: The real surprise on the stele is Aramaic, a Semitic language primarily associated with ancient Mesopotamia and the Levant. Its presence on the stele highlights the far-reaching trade, diplomatic, and perhaps migratory patterns, emphasizing Anatolia's role as a crossroads of cultures.

Implications of the Trilingual Inscription

The stele serves multiple purposes.

Linguistic Decoding: Similar to the Rosetta Stone's role in decoding Egyptian hieroglyphics, multilingual inscriptions provide a means to decipher and cross-reference languages. In this case, the Lycian text, juxtaposed with its Greek and Aramaic counterparts, offers deeper insights into its structure and vocabulary.

Historical Insights: The confluence of three languages on a single stele hints at a period of cultural mingling. This could have been due to trade, shared governance, diplomatic alliances, or a mix of these factors.

Religious Significance: Given its location in a religious sanctuary, the stele might also shed light on syncretic religious practices or shared religious narratives across Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic-speaking communities.

The inscription is a public record of a decree authorizing the establishment of a cult, with references to the deities and provisions for officers in the new cult. The Lycian requires 41 lines; the Greek, 35; and the Aramaic, 27. They are not word-for-word translations, but each contains some information not present in the others. The Aramaic is somewhat condensed.

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Summary of the text

• Lines 1-5 of the Lycian text date the inscription to the government of Pixodaros.

• Lines 5-8: the Xanthians introduce a cult for two gods, "the Kaunian Ruler and King Arkesimas".

• Lines 9-11: a certain Simias is made priest, his priestship will be hereditary.

• Lines 12-20: definition of the territory owned by the temple, and of the salary to be awarded to the priest.

• Lines 20-24: on behalf of the temple a new tax is instituted, to be levied when a slave is liberated.

• Lines 24-30: the revenues thereof shall be spent on sacrifices at regular times.

• Lines 30-36: the citizens of Xanthos and the territory of Xanthos vow to execute faithfully those regulations.

Sample of the Lycian text

Below is a transliteration of a sample of lines with an English translation:

1-2. When Pixodarus, the son of Hecatomnus, became satrap of Lycia, (1) Ẽke: trm̃misñ: xssaθrapazate: pigesere: (2) katamlah: tideimi:

2-5. he appointed as rulers of Lycia Hieron (ijeru) and Apollodotos (natrbbejẽmi), and as governor (asaxlazu) of Xanthus, Artemelis (erttimeli). sẽñneñte- (3) pddẽhadẽ: trm̃mile: pddẽnehm̃mis: (4) ijeru: senatrbbejẽmi: se(j)arñna: (5) asaxlazu: erttimeli:

5-6. The citizens (arus) and the Xanthian neighboring residents decided mehñtitubedẽ: (6) arus: se(j)epewẽtlm̃mẽi: arñnãi:

7-8. to establish an altar to the Kaunian Ruler and the King Arkesimas (7) m̃maitẽ: kumezijẽ: θθẽ: xñtawati: (8) xbidẽñni: se(j)arKKazuma: xñtawati:

9-10. and they chose as priest Simias, the son of Kondorasis (9) sẽñnaitẽ: kumazu: mahãna: ebette: (10) eseimiju: qñturahahñ: tideimi:

11. and whoever is closest to Simias (11) sede: eseimijaje: xuwatiti:

12. and they granted him exemption (arawã) from taxes. (12) seipijẽtẽ: arawã: ehbijẽ: esiti:

The Letoon Trilingual Stele is more than just a piece of inscribed stone; it's a silent orator of a bygone era, speaking of a time when cultures converged, languages intermingled, and histories intertwined. As with all such artifacts, it prompts us to reflect on the ever-evolving story of human civilization and the ties that bind us across time and space.

'Naqsh-e Rostam', Iran: The Royal Necropolis of the Achaemenid Dynasty

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Naqsh-e Rostam stands as a timeless testament to the grandeur of the Achaemenid dynasty, bridging the chasm between ancient Persian glories and the present

Naqsh-e Rostam is a historical landmark that connects the modern and ancient worlds, and it is tucked away in Iran's southwest. This spectacular archaeological site, which serves as the royal necropolis of the Achaemenid Empire, is frequently overshadowed by the more famous Persepolis nearby.

A collection of ancient Iranian rock reliefs are cut into the face of the mountain, and the mountain contains the final resting place of four Achaemenid kings, notably King Darius the Great and his son, Xerxes. This site is of great significance to the history of Iran and to Iranians, as it contains various archeological sites carved into the rock wall through time for more than a millennium, from the Elamites and Achaemenids to the Sassanids. It lies a few hundred meters from Naqsh-e Rajab, with a further four Sassanid rock reliefs: three celebrating kings and one a high priest.

A Brief Overview of the Achaemenid Dynasty

To understand Naqsh-e Rostam's significance, one must first delve into the origins of the Achaemenid Empire. Established in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great, this dynasty stood as the first great Persian Empire. At its zenith, it spread across three continents, from Egypt's boundaries in the west to the Indus Valley in the east. As the empire's heartland, the Fars province in modern-day Iran became the center of several monumental constructions, among which Naqsh-e Rostam shines brightly.

The Tombs of Kings

One of the site's most captivating features is the four monumental tombs carved into the face of the rocky cliffs. These tombs, each standing at a considerable height above the ground, house the remains of Achaemenid kings. Although the precise identification of each tomb remains a matter of debate, most scholars concur that they belong to Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II.

Each tomb façade displays a similar design: the figure of the king stands atop a platform, which symbolizes the cosmic world. The king is shown paying homage to a divine figure, perhaps Ahura Mazda, emphasizing the divine mandate that the Achaemenid kings claimed to have.

The façade of these tombs includes big panels above the entryway, each with fairly identical content, with figurines of the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute, with troops and officials. These tombs are mostly decorated architecturally. The sizes of the three types of figures are clearly distinct. Each tomb has an entrance in the middle of the cross that leads to a small chamber where the king was buried in a sarcophagus.

Map of the archaeological site of Naqsh-e Rostam

Large figures of Sassanian monarchs, some praising gods and others engaged in battle, are depicted in rock reliefs near ground level, far below the Achaemenid tombs. The most well-known depicts the Roman Emperor Valerian kneeling before Sassanian King Shapur I on horseback, with Philip the Arab, an earlier emperor who paid tribute to Shapur, holding Shapur's horse as Gordian III, who was killed in combat, lies beneath it (other identifications have been suggested). This honors the Battle of Edessa in 260 AD, when Valerian became the sole Roman Emperor to be taken prisoner of war, a humiliating blow to the Romans that endured for centuries. These reliefs' placement strongly implies the Sassanid Empire's attempt to associate itself with the splendors of the preceding Achaemenid Empire.

Four Achaemenid kings' tombs are carved out of the rock face at a significant elevation above the ground. Because of the design of the tomb façade, the tombs are frequently referred to as Persian crosses. Each tomb has an entrance in the middle of the cross that leads to a small chamber where the king was buried in a sarcophagus. It is thought that the horizontal beam on each of the tomb's faces is a copy of a Persepolis entrance.

The accompanying inscription ("parsa parsahya puthra ariya ariyachitra," meaning "a Parsi, the son of a Parsi, an Aryan, of an Aryan family") specifically identifies one of the tombs as Darius I's tomb (c. 522-486 BC). The other three tombs are thought to belong to Artaxerxes I (c. 465–424 BC), Darius II (c. 423–404 BC), and Xerxes I (c. 486-465 BC). The graves of Naqsh-e Rostam are located in the following order (from left to right): Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I, and Xerxes I. The other kings' graves have been matched in a rather speculative manner; the relief figures are not meant to be personal portraits.

Although Artaxerxes III's reign, which lasted the longest at two years, could qualify as the fifth incomplete one, Darius III (c. 336-330 BC), the final king of the Achaemenid Dynasty, is the most likely candidate. Following Alexander the Great's invasion of the Achaemenid Empire, the tombs were pillaged.

The Cube of Zoroaster

Another fascinating structure at Naqsh-e Rostam is the Cube of Zoroaster, a square tower that dates back to the 5th century BCE. The purpose of this enigmatic structure remains a mystery, with theories suggesting it may have been a tomb, a depository for objects of religious importance, or even an atypical fire temple.

Sassanian Reliefs

While primarily known for its Achaemenid connections, Naqsh-e Rostam also boasts significant Sassanian influences. The Sassanians, another influential Persian dynasty, left their mark through a series of rock reliefs. These carvings depict scenes from various Sassanian kings' victories and triumphs, reflecting a tradition of celebrating and immortalizing royal achievements in stone.

DARIUS INSCRIPTION

The top left corner of the facade of Darius I's tomb bears an inscription by him that dates to around 490 BCE and is commonly referred to as the "DNa inscription" in academic publications. It mentions Darius I's conquests and his many other accomplishments throughout his life. Although the exact year is unknown, it can be presumed that it dates from the latter ten years of his rule.

The Achaemenid Empire, which at the time of writing made up the biggest empire, is particularly mentioned, as are several other inscriptions by Darius. His empire reached as far as Gandhara and the Indus in the Indian Subcontinent, which were annexed during the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, as well as Thrace and Macedonia in Europe, Egypt in North Africa, Babylon and Assyria in Mesopotamia, the steppes of Eurasia, Bactria in Central Asia, and the Assyrian and Babylonian empires in Mesopotamia.

Darius I inscription (the DNa inscription) on the upper left corner of the facade of his tomb.

“A great god is Ahuramazda, who created this earth, who created yonder sky, who created man, who created happiness for man, who made Darius king, one king of many, one lord of many.

I am Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries containing all kinds of men, king in this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid, a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan, having Aryan lineage.

King Darius says: By the favor of Ahuramazda these are the countries which I seized outside of Persia; I ruled over them; they bore tribute to me; they did what was said to them by me; they held my law firmly; Media, Elam, Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdia, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gandara [Gadâra], India [Hiduš], the haoma-drinking Scythians, the Scythians with pointed caps, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Lydia, the Greeks (Yauna), the Scythians across the sea (Sakâ), Thrace, the petasos-wearing Greeks [Yaunâ], the Libyans, the Nubians, the men of Maka and the Carians.

King Darius says: Ahuramazda, when he saw this earth in commotion, thereafter bestowed it upon me, made me king; I am king. By the favor of Ahuramazda I put it down in its place; what I said to them, that they did, as was my desire.

If now you shall think that "How many are the countries which King Darius held?" look at the sculptures [of those] who bear the throne, then shall you know, then shall it become known to you: the spear of a Persian man has gone forth far; then shall it become known to you: a Persian man has delivered battle far indeed from Persia.

Darius the King says: This which has been done, all that by the will of Ahuramazda I did. Ahuramazda bore me aid, until I did the work. May Ahuramazda protect me from harm, and my royal house, and this land: this I pray of Ahuramazda, this may Ahuramazda give to me!

O man, that which is the command of Ahuramazda, let this not seem repugnant to you; do not leave the right path; do not rise in rebellion!”

Naqsh-e Rostam provides a glimpse into the magnificence and profound cultural origins of prehistoric Iran. It serves as a lasting reminder of an empire that once pushed the boundaries of the known universe, in addition to serving as a necropolis for the Achaemenid kings. A trip to this location is a trip back in time, bringing to life the echoes of historic rituals, regal pronouncements, and legends of mighty monarchs and their final resting places.

Origins of the Persian Goddess 'Anahita'

Anahita is the Old Persian form of the name of an Iranian goddess and appears in complete and earlier form as 'Aredvi Sura Anahita', the Avestan name of an Indo-Iranian cosmological figure venerated as the divinity of "the Waters" (Aban) and hence associated with fertility, healing and wisdom.

The Greek and Roman historians of classical antiquity refer to her either as 'Anaïtis' or identified her with one of the divinities from their own pantheons. Based on the development of her cult, she was described as a syncretistic goddess, who was composed of two independent elements. The first is a manifestation of the Indo-Iranian idea of the Heavenly River who provides the waters to the rivers and streams flowing in the earth, while the second is that of a goddess of uncertain origin, though maintaining her own unique characteristics, who became associated with the cult of the ancient Mesopotamian goddess Inanna-Ishtar. According to one theory, this arose partly from a desire to make Anahita part of Zoroastrianism following the diffusion of her cult from the extreme northwest into the rest of Persia.

Head from a bronze cult statue of Anahita, a local goddess shown here in the guise of Aphrodite. From Satala, Armenia minor. Circa 200-100 BCE. (The British Museum, London)

According to H. Lommel, the proper name of the divinity in Indo-Iranian times was Sarasvatī, which also means "she who possesses waters". In Sanskrit, the name आर्द्रावी शूरा अनाहिता (Ārdrāvī śūrā anāhitā) means "of the waters, mighty, and immaculate". Like the Indian Sarasvatī, Anāhitā nurtures crops and herds; and she is hailed both as a divinity and as the mythical river which she personifies, "as great in bigness as all these waters which flow forth upon the earth" (Yasht 5.3).

Conflation with Ishtar

At some point prior to the 4th century BC, this yazata was conflated with (an analogue of) Semitic Ištar, likewise a divinity of "maiden" fertility and from whom Aredvi Sura Anahita then inherited additional features of a divinity of war and of the planet Venus or "Zohreh" in Arabic. It was moreover the association with the planet Venus, "it seems, which led Herodotus to record that the [Persis] learnt 'to sacrifice to "the heavenly goddess"' from the Assyrians and Arabians." There are sources who based their theory on this aspect. For instance, it was proposed that the ancient Persians worshiped the planet Venus as *Anahiti, the "pure one", and that, as these people settled in Eastern Iran, *Anahiti began to absorb elements of the cult of Ishtar. Indeed, according to Boyce, it is "probable" that there was once a Perso–Elamite divinity by the name of *Anahiti (as reconstructed from the Greek Anaitis). It is then likely (so Boyce) that it was this divinity that was an analogue of Ishtar, and that it is this divinity with which Aredvi Sura Anahita was conflated.

Anahita and Ishtar.

The link between Anahita and Ishtar is part of the wider theory that Iranian kingship had Mesopotamian roots and that the Persian gods were natural extensions of the Babylonian deities, where Ahuramazda is considered an aspect of Marduk, Mithra for Shamash, and, finally, Anahita was Ishtar. This is supported by how Ishtar "apparently" gave Aredvi Sura Anahita the epithet Banu, 'the Lady', a typically Mesopotamian construct that is not attested as an epithet for a divinity in Iran before the common era. It is completely unknown in the texts of the Avesta, but evident in Sassanid-era middle Persian inscriptions (see Evidence of a cult, below) and in a middle Persian Zend translation of Yasna 68.13. Also in Zoroastrian texts from the post-conquest epoch (651 CE onwards), the divinity is referred to as 'Anahid the Lady', 'Ardwisur the Lady' and 'Ardwisur the Lady of the waters'.

Because the divinity is unattested in any old Western Iranian language, establishing characteristics prior to the introduction of Zoroastrianism in Western Iran (c. 5th century BCE) is very much in the realm of speculation. Boyce concludes that "the Achaemenids' devotion to this goddess evidently survived their conversion to Zoroastrianism, and they appear to have used royal influence to have her adopted into the Zoroastrian pantheon." According to an alternate theory, Anahita was perhaps "a daeva of the early and pure Zoroastrian faith, incorporated into the Zoroastrian religion and its revised canon" during the reign of "Artaxerxes I, the Constantine of that faith."

The Cyclical Retaliatory Burnings Between Greeks and Persians: The Destruction of Athens and Persepolis

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Following Persia's conquest of the cities of Ionia (on the Aegean coast of Minor Asia) around 540 BC, the Persian satrap in Sardis appointed local tyrants to control the region. That marked the start of a two-century-long chain of incidents and war retaliations between the Greeks and Persians.

One of the most pivotal chapters in the annals of ancient world history was the ongoing conflict between the Persian Empire and the city-states of ancient Greece, notably Athens. This animosity culminated in a series of wars known as the Persian Wars (499–449 BC), which left a lasting imprint on the societies of both cultures. Central to this narrative are the notorious retaliatory burnings: the destruction of Athens by the Persians and the subsequent destruction of Persepolis by the Greeks. These events shaped the course of ancient history and have become emblematic of the cyclical nature of retribution and vengeance in war.

In an effort to strengthen his authority, the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, joined forces with the Persian satrap Artaphernes and launched an expedition to seize the Greek island of Naxos in 499 BC.

The mission was a failure, and Aristagoras decided to urge the entire Ionian region to rebel against the Persian king Darius the Great as he sensed his impending ouster as dictator.

The insurrection of Miletus was started by Aristagoras, who made the desperate decision to urge his own people, the Milesians, to rebel against their Persian overlords.

This marked the beginning of the Ionian Revolt, which lasted from 499 BC to 493 BC and was followed by related uprisings in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus, and Caria. These were uprisings by various Greek provinces in Asia Minor against Persian control.

The revolt was sparked by two Milesian tyrants, Histiaeus and Aristagoras, as well as the discontent of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants assigned by Persia to rule them.

The Greco-Persian Wars began with the Ionian Rebellion, which was the first significant battle between Greece and the Persian Empire.

Location and main events of the Ionian Revolt.

The Ionians advanced in 498 BC with help from Athens' and Eretria's military forces. Aristagoras designated his brother Charopinus and another Milesian, Hermophantus, as generals instead of taking personal command of the army.

The Ephesians then led this force through the mountains to Artaphernes' satrapal city of Sardis. The Greeks managed to seize the lower city by surprising the Persians.

Nonetheless, Artaphernes maintained control of the citadel with a sizeable male force. Herodotus claims that a fire unintentionally started in the lower city and swiftly spread.

Being encircled by a burning city, the Persians in the citadel made their way out into Sardis' market, where they engaged the Greeks in combat and drove them back. Demoralized, the Greeks withdrew from the city and started to travel back to Ephesus.

The burning of Sardis by the Greeks during the Ionian Revolt in 498 BC.

According to Herodotus, when Darius learned about the burning of Sardis, he vowed to exact revenge on the Athenians (after enquiring as to who they were) and assigned a servant to remind him of his word three times every day: "Master, remember the Athenians."

The insurrection was finally put an end to by the Persian counteroffensive (497–495 BC), which brought all of Asia Minor securely back under Persian authority. At the end of 493 BC, the Persians' only remaining task was to wreak retribution on Athens and Eretria for aiding the uprising.

The nations of mainland Greece would continue to pose a serious danger to the integrity of Darius' empire until something was done about the Ionian Rebellion. So Darius started to plan the total conquest of Greece, starting with the obliteration of Athens and Eretria.

Achaemenid destruction of Athens

With Xerxes I's victory at the Battle of Thermopylae, the Achaemenid Army conquered all of Boeotia in 480 BCE. Thespiae and Plataea, the two cities that had resisted Xerxes, were taken captive and destroyed.

The Capture of the Acropolis by the Persians, Abbott, Jacob, 1803-1879 - History of Xerxes, published 1900.

The remaining Athenians were then evacuated to Salamis with the aid of the Allied navy because Attica was also vulnerable to attack. By erecting a wall, destroying the causeway from Megara, and establishing a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth, the Peloponnesian Allies effectively abandoned Athens to the Persians.

Sept. 480 BCE marked the first time Athens had fallen. After finally defeating the few Athenians who had fortified the Acropolis, Xerxes gave the order to set Athens on fire. The Old Parthenon and the Old Temple of Athena were destroyed, along with the Acropolis.

Those Persians who had come up first betook themselves to the gates, which they opened, and slew the suppliants; and when they had laid all the Athenians low, they plundered the temple and burnt the whole of the acropolis.

— Herodotus VIII.53

"Perserschutt," or "Persian rubble," refers to the numerous statue ruins destroyed by the Achaemenids.

The Achaemenids severely destroyed the statue known as "Nike (Victory) of Callimachus," which had been built close to the Older Parthenon in celebration of Callimachus and his triumph at the Battle of Marathon.

On top of an engraved column, a statue of Nike (Victory) in the shape of a female with wings is shown. It is 4.68 meters tall and constructed of Parian marble. Parts of the statue's body and hands, as well as its head, were never found.

A few statues were also taken by Xerxes, including the bronze statue of Harmodius and Haristogiton, popularly known as "the Tyrant-slayers," which Alexander the Great later found in the Achaemenid city of Susa.

Acropolis excavation pit where remains of Archaic statues were found, northwest of the Erechtheum.

Statue of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, Naples. Roman copy of the Athenian version by Kritios and Nesiotes

Themistocles used the Parthenon column drums for the North Acropolis wall so that Athenians would always be reminded of the agony caused by Persian atrocities against Greeks.

Acropolis North wall Older Partenon columns

Foundations of the Old Temple of Athena, in front of the Erechtheion, that was destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I in 480-479 BC.

Retaliatory burning of the Palace of Persepolis

After defeating the Persian Emperor Darius III (r. 336-330 BCE) at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE, Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) seized control of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Alexander the Great lifting Thais holding a torch, in the painting "The Burning of Persepolis" (L'incendie de Persepolis), by Georges Rochegrosse, 1890.

Following a drinking party and at the suggestion of Thais, an Athens-based hetaira (courtesan), Alexander marched to the Persian capital city of Persepolis after defeating Darius III. He looted the city's treasures and then burned the great palace and the surrounding city to the ground (according to several much later Greek and Roman accounts, including those of Plutarch, Arrian, Diodorus Siculus, and Quintus Curtius Rufus).

When the king [Alexander] had caught fire at their words, all leaped up from their couches and passed the word along to form a victory procession in honour of Dionysus. Promptly many torches were gathered. Female musicians were present at the banquet, so the king led them all out for the comus to the sound of voices and flutes and pipes, Thaïs the courtesan leading the whole performance. She was the first, after the king, to hurl her blazing torch into the palace. As the others all did the same, immediately the entire palace area was consumed, so great was the conflagration. It was remarkable that the impious act of Xerxes, king of the Persians, against the acropolis at Athens should have been repaid in kind after many years by one woman, a citizen of the land which had suffered it, and in sport.

— Diodorus of Sicily (XVII.72)

The retaliatory burnings of Athens and Persepolis underscore the cyclical and devastating nature of warfare, where one act of destruction often leads to another. These events not only influenced the course of ancient history but also served as poignant reminders of the destructive capabilities of war and the enduring human instinct for retaliation. The ruins of the Acropolis and Persepolis, meticulously preserved, stand today as a testament to these monumental episodes of history, signifying the resilience of human societies in the face of conflict and devastation.

The Fantastic Coloured Glasses of Nasir Ol-mulk Mosque In Shiraz, Iran

The Nasir al-Mulk Mosque (Persian: مسجد نصیر الملک‎ Masjed-e Nasir ol-Molk), also known as the Pink Mosque (مسجد صورتی Masjed-e Surati), is a traditional mosque in Shiraz, Iran. It is located in Gawd-i Arabān quarter, near Shāh Chérāgh Mosque. It was built during Qajar dynasty rule of Iran.

The mosque includes extensive coloured glass in its facade, and displays other traditional elements such as the Panj Kāse ("five concaved") design. It is named in popular culture as the 'Pink Mosque', due to the usage of a considerable number of pink-colored tiles for its interior design. The mosque was built during the Qajar dynasty, and is still in use under protection by the Endowment Foundation of Nasir al Molk. Construction began in 1876 by the order of the late Hassan Ali Nasir al-Molk, one of the lords and aristocrats of Shiraz, the son of Mirza Ali Akbar Qavam-ol-Molk, the ruler of Fars and was completed in 1888. The designers were Mohammad Hasan-e-Memār, an Iranian architect who had also built the noted Eram Garden before the Nasir al-Molk Mosque, Mohammad Hosseini Shirazi, and Mohammad Rezā Kāshi-Sāz-e-Širāzi.

Although stained glass is mostly popular in churches nowadays, the earliest discovered was in Syria from the 7th century. We do have evidence of techniques and recipes for obtaining stained glass by the Arabic chemist Jabir ibn Hayyan in his book Kitab al-Durra al-maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl) published in the eighth century CE. Orsi windows are windows made of a mixture of wood and colorful glass in the Safavid and the Qajar dynasties. Orsi differs from stained glass used in many churches and Ottoman mosques which serve as illuminated images rather than a source of light. Light is a major feature in many mosques considering it being a major symbol of God in Islam. This is mentioned in a chapter in Quran: ″Allah is the light of the heavens and the earth″

Orsi in Nasir al Molk mosque creates a major definitive feature that makes up the colorful spiritual feeling of awe in the visitor when entering. The main purpose of Orsi is creating colorful light on the interior of the building. The mosque has seven wooden doors with colorful Orsi connecting the interior mosque to the courtyard. Orsi windows are characterized for using geometric shapes in their designs due to the prohibition of images and icons in islamic art.

📸 Photography By Ramin Rahmani Nejad.