"El Gigante", the Largest Moai Statue on Easter Island that Was never Erected

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Colossus of Rano Raraku: Unveiling the Mysteries of "El Gigante" on Easter Island

Nestled on the remote and enigmatic Easter Island, known to its indigenous people as Rapa Nui, stands one of the most awe-inspiring testaments to ancient ingenuity and determination: the Moai statue known as "El Gigante." Located near the Rano Raraku Quarry, the very cradle of these monolithic figures, El Gigante towers above its counterparts, measuring an astounding 22 meters in height. This monumental statue, although never completed or erected, encapsulates the ambition and the spiritual fervor of the Rapa Nui people, offering insights into their culture, beliefs, and technological prowess.

The Enigma of Construction and Transportation

The soft volcanic tuff from which the Moai were carved played a pivotal role in their creation. This material, found abundantly at the Rano Raraku Quarry, is characterized by its relatively soft composition, which facilitated the intricate carving process. However, the softness of the rock also meant that the statues were vulnerable to erosion, adding a layer of urgency and reverence to their preservation and study.

The construction and eventual transportation of these statues have baffled historians and archaeologists for centuries. Theories abound, from the use of wooden log rollers to the intriguing idea of a walking method, where ropes were used to rock the statues back and forth in a painstaking procession towards their ahu (ceremonial platforms). Despite the differing opinions, what remains indisputable is the incredible effort and organization required to envision and execute such feats, underscoring the advanced societal structure of the Rapa Nui people.

Theories Behind the Moai Constructions

Theories on why the ancient Rapa Nui people embarked on such monumental undertakings are as varied as they are fascinating. Some scholars posit that the statues were created to honor ancestors, chiefs, or other important figures, serving as a conduit between the spiritual and the living world. These towering figures were not merely artistic expressions but imbued with religious significance, watching over the inhabitants with their backs to the sea, guarding the communities, and projecting power and prestige.

Another theory suggests that the construction of Moai was intricately linked to the island’s social and political structure, with rival clans competing in a display of power and divine favor by erecting ever larger and more imposing statues. This competition might have driven the island's finite resources to the brink, contributing to its eventual ecological collapse.

The People Behind the Giants

The Rapa Nui civilization, isolated in the Pacific Ocean, developed a unique culture and society that flourished for centuries. The creators of the Moai were Polynesians, master navigators who, according to recent studies, might have settled on the island around the 12th century. Their society was hierarchically structured, with a paramount chief (ariki mau) overseeing the island's political and religious affairs. The clans, or ‘mata,’ were the backbone of Rapa Nui society, each responsible for the commissioning and construction of Moai to honor their ancestors and assert their status.

Several theories have suggested a link between the inhabitants of Easter Island and Native South Americans, fueled by similarities in agricultural practices, linguistic ties, and genetic studies. Thor Heyerdahl's mid-20th-century Kon-Tiki expedition famously posited that Polynesians, including those on Easter Island, could have originated from South America, based on the capability of ancient peoples to navigate vast ocean distances. Recent DNA evidence supports the notion of pre-European contact between these populations, indicating some level of interaction and exchange, thereby enriching the cultural and genetic tapestry of the Rapa Nui people.

"El Gigante" stands as a silent witness to the ambitions and spiritual beliefs of the Rapa Nui people. Its sheer size and the mystery of its unfinished journey from the quarry to its intended ahu speak volumes about the complexity and depth of this ancient culture. The Moai of Easter Island, especially the colossal El Gigante, continue to captivate the imagination of the world, reminding us of the incredible capabilities of ancient civilizations and the enduring quest to understand our shared human past.

Secrets of Nan Madol: The 800-Year-Old City of Spirits Built on Coral Reefs

In the heart of the Pacific Ocean rests a mysterious treasure shrouded in myth and legend—the ancient city of Nan Madol. Situated on the remote Pompe Island, this enigmatic city has long captivated the imagination of explorers, historians, and researchers alike. Concealed beneath dense jungle and mangroves, Nan Madol's secrets have remained elusive for centuries, instilling both awe and trepidation in those who seek to unravel their mysteries.

Spanning back 800 years, the city of Nan Madol stands as a testament to remarkable feats of engineering and spiritual significance. Visitors eager to delve into its ancient enclaves must first seek permission and partake in a unique ritual, emphasizing the city's cultural and ceremonial importance. The sheer scale and ingenuity of Nan Madol's largest structure, constructed using colossal basalt rock pillars, showcase the unparalleled architectural prowess of its builders.

Despite the allure of Nan Madol, understanding this remote Pacific civilization has posed significant challenges. The city's allure matches that of the Giza Pyramids or the monumental stone sculptures of Easter Island. Local lore attributes the city's creation to magic, yet no written historical accounts or definitive evidence corroborate this belief, shrouding Nan Madol in an air of mystique.

However, recent advancements in technology have provided groundbreaking insights into this ancient marvel. Through the use of advanced lidar scanning technology mounted on drones, researchers have managed to penetrate the thick foliage, revealing a hidden realm of 90 structures. These structures, including residential complexes and ritual sites, provide a glimpse into the daily lives and ceremonies of Nan Madol's past inhabitants.

The construction and logistics of Nan Madol pose another perplexing puzzle. The colossal basalt rock pillars, with a combined weight exceeding 700,000 tons, stand as a testament to the advanced engineering skills of the city's builders. The city's large stone seawalls, protecting it from the relentless waves, astound modern observers, while the method employed to transport the basalt rocks from an 18-kilometer quarry and the precise means of their placement leave contemporary experts pondering over the ingenious techniques employed by the civilization.

Moreover, the discovery of basalt pillars submerged at a depth of 300 feet near Nan Madol hints at the advanced seafaring capabilities of its residents. This suggests that the inhabitants were skilled navigators, possibly journeying to distant islands and leaving a legacy reflecting their command of the ocean.

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Not only do Nan Madol's architectural marvels confound observers, but their cultural and artistic significance adds further layers of intrigue. The city's stone art site, adorned with carvings dating back 2,000 years and unique symbols linked to distant areas, underscores the advanced seafaring abilities and connections of its creators. Yet, despite these tantalizing clues, the eventual fate of the Nan Madol civilization remains a haunting mystery. Theories range from natural disasters to the island being engulfed by the encroaching sea, leaving its advanced society lost to time.

Nan Madol's allure lies not only in its enigmatic past but also in the tantalizing possibilities it holds for enriching our understanding of ancient civilizations and their connection to the natural world. As researchers continue to unravel the secrets of this 800-year-old city of spirits, Nan Madol stands as a testament to human ingenuity, spiritual significance, and the enduring allure of the unknown.

The Mysterious Writings of Rongorongo: Unraveling the Enigma of an Ancient Script

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Tucked away on the remote Pacific island of Rapa Nui, also known as Easter Island, lies one of the world's most perplexing puzzles. Carved into wooden tablets and inscribed with an indecipherable script, the mysterious writings of Rongorongo have confounded experts for over a century. Despite numerous attempts to unlock the secrets of this enigmatic script, its purpose and meaning remain shrouded in mystery.

The Rongorongo script, comprised of intricate symbols and figures, is unique in the world of archaeology. It is the only known example of a written language developed in Polynesia, and its origins and purpose continue to be the subject of much speculation and debate. Some believe that the script was used for religious or spiritual purposes, while others suggest it was a form of record-keeping or used for genealogical purposes. However, the truth continues to elude us.

The origin of Rongorongo is a matter of much contention among experts. Some believe that it was created by the indigenous people of Rapa Nui, while others argue that it was brought to the island by migrants from other Polynesian islands or even South America. Experts have to piece together the story of Rongorongo from shards of evidence and educated guesses because artifacts and written records from the time period are so scarce.

What makes the Rongorongo script even more puzzling is the fact that it was lost for centuries. It was only rediscovered in the late 19th century by European explorers, who stumbled upon a small group of islanders who could recite the symbols and figures. Despite their efforts to document and preserve the script, much of the knowledge and understanding of Rongorongo were lost when the island's population was decimated by disease and cultural erosion.

Today, only a handful of Rongorongo artifacts survive, most of which are housed in museums around the world. Despite numerous attempts to decipher the script, its meaning remains a mystery, with many of the symbols and figures yet to be fully understood. Some have speculated that the script could provide insight into Rapa Nui's history and the meaning of its mysterious stone statues, while others have expressed pessimism that the language will ever be deciphered in its entirety.

Despite the difficulties, a group of committed researchers is still committed to discovering what lies beneath Rongorongo. They pore over the intricate symbols, searching for patterns and connections, in the hope of unlocking the mysterious script's hidden meaning. With the use of advanced technologies and interdisciplinary approaches, they aim to shed new light on this ancient enigma and unravel the mysteries of one of the world's most perplexing puzzles.

In conclusion, the Rongorongo inscriptions are still one of the most mysterious and intriguing artifacts in the world. For over a century, its peculiar script, mysterious history, and baffling function have fascinated specialists and enthusiasts. While historians work to decipher its mysteries, the tale of Rongorongo continues to be one of the most puzzling of ancient times.

The Burnt Human Mummies of the Kabayan Caves

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Ancient practices like the mummification of the dead are very well known nowadays. Most famously, the Egyptians used a mummification technique that produced the overused stereotype of a dead body wrapped in gauzy fabric. The Philippines' mummified remains were found in various caves. This sort of mummy is called a fire mummy.

The fire mummies are human remains that have been preserved through a protracted dehydration and smoking process. They were discovered in caverns near the town of Kabayan, in the Benguet province of the Philippines. Researchers now have a better understanding of the tribal people that used these mummification techniques as well as a unique mummification procedure thanks to these well-preserved bones.

The Ibaloi mummies, Benguet mummies, and Fire mummies are other names for the Kabayan mummies. Several caves in the region, including Timbak, Bangao, Tenongchol, Naapay, and Opdas, contained them.

Although smoking is not a typical method of mummification and is a highly time-consuming process, it has been used to successfully preserve countless bodies over the years. The Ibaloi tribe is thought to have produced the Kabayan mummies somewhere between 1200 and 1500 A.D., according to scientists. There is disagreement over the time frame because some experts think mummification dates back thousands of years. There is disagreement over when the practice first started, but everyone agrees that it stopped in the 1500s. The practice of smoking mummification was abandoned once the Spanish colonized the Philippines.

Some people hold the view that only tribal chieftains were smoked into submission. It was rumored that the unusual mummification process actually started before death, with a person taking part in the earliest steps.

The person would consume something with a very high salt content as death got closer. This first step was employed to begin the drying process before death because it is known that drinking saltwater dehydrates the body. The remaining steps in the mummification process would occur after the person died. This process is thought to have taken anywhere from a few weeks to a few months to finish.

After a thorough cleaning, the body was seated and put over a heat source. The body remained suspended above the burning kindling, away from any actual flames or fire. The heat and smoke would slowly and totally dry the body instead of burning it. By blowing tobacco smoke into the deceased's mouth, a ritualistic process of internal drying was accelerated. This was believed to aid in draining the internal organs of all fluid.

Herbs were then used to rub down the burnt body. The body was placed in one of the caves when mummification was finished, where it was finally found.

The Kabayan mummies are still housed in the caves where they were discovered. Despite the caverns' remote location, vandalism and theft remain serious threats, and as a result, Monument Watch has listed the region as one of the 100 Most Endangered Places in the world. It is also being considered for UNESCO World Heritage Site status.

The early 1900s saw the theft of one notable mummy from the caves, known as Apo Annu. Apo Annu was seated in a squatting stance and wearing attire that belonged to a tribal chief. Intricately crafted tattoos covered his mummified body. Apo Annu was regarded as a renowned hunter and was said to be a hybrid of a human and a deity. Apo Annu was eventually given back to the Ibaloi tribe. Since they believed that Apo Annu's absence was to blame for numerous natural calamities, including as earthquakes, droughts, sickness, and poor harvests, they fervently wished for his return.

The Ibaloi reburied the mummy after Apo Annu's reappearance in an effort to right the balance that his disappearance had upset. Even if there are still a number of stolen Kabayan mummies that have not yet been returned, Apo Annu's return indicates a willingness to keep the mummies in their proper resting places.

The Kabayan mummies, which have survived for millennia, may be in danger of disappearing and being destroyed due to theft and vandalism. The mummies and the caves may be shielded from further looting and damage by designating the Kabayan caves as a protected site and keeping some of the mummies' whereabouts a secret.

The Kabayan mummies are an impressive illustration of the creativity of the prehistoric Ibaloi tribe and the painfully time-consuming procedures they would go through to care for their dead. The Ibaloi tribe still regards these as sacred burial places.

Ideally, ongoing safeguards will enable the finding of additional details regarding the historic Ibaloi people and the distinctive fire mummies while safeguarding the holy remains and the locations where they were discovered.

According to a recent study, the mysterious boats painted in an Australian cave may be records of "battle ships" from modern-day Indonesia

Two bizarre artworks were discovered within a cave in northern Australia some 50 years ago. They represent a pair of boats with strange qualities that have perplexed scholars ever since their discovery, and they are probably hundreds of years old.

Researchers may have now discovered the images in a study that was just published in the journal Historical Archaeology, shedding light on Indigenous stories that have been long-erased.

Even while neighboring drawings of Indonesian fishing boats and later European ships have been discovered, the two mystery vessels are distinct: The vessels, according to the experts, are "combat ships" from the Moluccas, a collection of Indonesian islands situated immediately to the north of Australia.

According to a statement from Flinders University in Australia, the study's lead author, Mick de Ruyter, a maritime archaeologist, these motifs "support existing ideas that sporadic or accidental voyages from Indonesia to the Australian coastline took place before or alongside regular trepang [Indonesian for "sea cucumber"] fishing visits."

Uncertainty exists over the specific circumstances in which Aboriginal populations came into contact with Moluccan boats. The researchers note that the existence of fighting craft nevertheless suggests instances of physical violence or at the very least a projecting of authority. It's possible that the two groups got into a fight over commerce, headhunting, or slavery.

An other hypothesis put forth by Sue O'Connor, an archaeologist at Australian National University who was not involved in the study, is that Aboriginal groups may have traveled to the Moluccas. This either shows that such crafts have traveled to the coastlines of Arnhem Land [a region in northern Australia] or Arnhem Land residents have traveled to the Moluccan region, seen those crafts there, and returned to paint them.

The level of detail portrayed in the paintings astounded the researchers as well. Such accuracy suggests that the Indigenous artists spent more time with these ships than they did merely glimpsing them from the shore. The paddles, prowl boards, pennants, and other decorative elements of the ship have all been accurately depicted.

Based on certain features, such as the oars and pennants, researchers concluded that these boats likely weren't fishing vessels.  Darrell Lewis / Flinders University

According to the university's statement, reports from Dutch colonists show that during the 17th century, groups from the Moluccas were sailing "frequently" to Australia.

The study was not conducted by Australian archaeologist Paul Tacon of Griffith University; nevertheless, he is collaborating with Wesley and a wider group to investigate how Aboriginal people documented their contacts with outsiders. He tells Live Science's Jennifer Nalewicki that the new study gives encouraging new information.

This thorough investigation demonstrates persuasively that there was communication between Moluccan islanders and Aboriginal people in Arnhem Land, Australia, hundreds of years ago.

The Haka: New Zealand's Mighty Maori War Dance

Dive into the captivating world of the Haka, New Zealand's traditional Maori war dance. Witness its historical roots, learn about its profound significance, and experience the power and unity it brings to modern-day events like sports and wedding ceremonies. This is not just a dance; it's a vibrant expression of culture, history, and identity. Join us as we explore the rich narrative of the Haka - from the ancient battlefields of the Maori people to the international rugby fields and intimate wedding venues.

From Ancient Warriors to Modern Athletes: The Evolution of the Haka

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BY THE ARCHEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The haka, a form of traditional Maori war dance, has deep historical roots and significant cultural meaning. Maori people, native to New Zealand, are thought to have created the haka and used it for ceremonial and ritual purposes, as well as in times of war and hunting.

Before going into battle, the haka was traditionally used to strike fear into the hearts of the enemy. Maori warriors would perform the dance in order to impress upon their enemies their superior strength and bravery. The haka was performed to get the warriors amped up for the battle ahead and to get them in the right frame of mind to win.

The haka served as both a physical and a spiritual workout. It was believed that by performing the dance, the warriors would gain strength and courage from their ancestors and the spiritual world, which would in turn help them in battle. The haka's spiritual and emotional power was amplified by the inclusion of chanting and singing.

The haka was also performed at other significant events in ancient times. The haka was traditionally performed at special events like weddings and funerals. For similar reasons, the dance was also performed before and during hunts to gain the favor of the animals being pursued.

The haka came to symbolize much of what it meant to be Maori as a people as their culture and society flourished. Each succeeding generation incorporated their own distinctive touches and variations into the dance as they passed it down.

As the haka was exposed to new cultural and social contexts, it gradually began to adopt new characteristics and aesthetics. European settlers brought with them new musical instruments and dance styles to New Zealand, which led to the haka's gradual adaptation to include elements from both. Likewise, the dance developed a more rigid structure with predetermined steps and motions.

As time has progressed, the haka has gained worldwide recognition as a symbol of Maori heritage. The New Zealand rugby team, the All Blacks, are known to perform the dance before games. The dance is also popular at cultural events and festivals. The haka is performed to celebrate and honor the distinctive cultural history of the Maori people, and it has become a potent symbol of Maori national pride and identity.

Many questions remain unanswered about the haka's history and development, despite its length and depth. In this regard, scholars continue to disagree on whether or not the haka was brought to New Zealand by the Polynesian ancestors of the Maori people, or whether it emerged independently in that country.

In addition, there are numerous haka styles, each with its own rich heritage and tradition. While some haka are only performed by members of certain tribes or regions, others have gained widespread popularity. The context in which a haka is performed can also affect its meaning and significance.

The haka continues to represent Maori culture and identity despite the many questions and arguments surrounding it. As more and more people learn about and appreciate the distinctive history and customs of the Maori people, New Zealand and the Maori culture as a whole continue to grow in prominence.

In sum, the haka can trace its roots all the way back to ancient times. Traditionally, Maori warriors would perform the dance just before entering battle to both psych themselves up for the fight and scare off their opponents. It was also believed that the dancers' participation in the haka forged a bond between them and their ancestors and the spiritual realm, so it was performed at other significant events, such as weddings and funerals. The haka has become an integral part of modern Maori life and is widely recognized as a symbol of the people's devotion to their culture and history.

The Haka: A Powerful Tradition of New Zealand’s Maori Culture

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The Haka, a traditional war dance of the Maori people, is a riveting embodiment of the history, strength, and spirit of New Zealand. It is an art form that has been carefully preserved and handed down through generations, maintaining its cultural significance and impact from ancient times to modern-day performances in diverse settings such as sports events and wedding ceremonies.

The Historical Roots of the Haka

The history of the Haka is deeply intertwined with Maori culture and the indigenous people's warrior traditions. The Maori, who migrated to New Zealand from Polynesian islands around 1000 AD, brought with them an array of customs and traditions, among which was the Haka.

The word "Haka" means "dance" in the Maori language, but it doesn't merely refer to a dance in the conventional sense. The Haka is a complex performance combining dance, song, and chanting. It was traditionally used on the battlefield as well as during peaceful ceremonies to display the tribe's pride, strength, and unity.

In the context of warfare, the Haka was an integral part of the warriors' preparation. It served as a psychological warfare tool to intimidate the enemy, showcasing the strength and prowess of the Maori warriors before the battle commenced. The warriors would make fierce facial expressions - bulging their eyes, sticking out their tongues - and perform vigorous movements and rhythmic foot-stamping in unison, creating an awe-inspiring spectacle.

The Haka in Modern Times: Sports and Ceremonies

In contemporary times, the Haka has found its place in various aspects of New Zealand's society and culture. The most globally recognized display of the Haka is seen in sports, especially rugby. The New Zealand national rugby team, the All Blacks, has performed the 'Ka Mate' Haka before games since 1905, a tradition that has become one of the most iconic rituals in international sports. The Haka serves as both a challenge to opponents and a demonstration of unity and strength.

The 'Ka Mate' Haka, composed by the Maori chieftain Te Rauparaha in the early 19th century, is the most commonly performed Haka. It tells the story of Te Rauparaha's narrow escape from death during a conflict, symbolizing the eternal struggle between life and death. However, there are many different Haka, each with their own unique story and significance.

Another modern use of the Haka can be seen in wedding ceremonies. It's a profound way to honor the cultural heritage and bring a sense of unity and respect to the occasion. The wedding Haka often includes both male and female participants, and while it maintains the powerful, emotive expressions of the traditional Haka, it is typically more joyous and celebratory in nature.

Preserving the Haka Tradition

The preservation of the Haka tradition is not only about maintaining a link to the past, but also about reinforcing cultural identity in the present and future. Its performance at international sporting events and personal ceremonies ensures its continual visibility, both domestically and internationally.

Schools across New Zealand also play a vital role in preserving this rich cultural heritage. Many schools teach the Haka as part of the curriculum, thereby ensuring that younger generations understand and value this aspect of their cultural identity.

In recent years, there have also been concerted efforts to protect the intellectual property rights associated with the Haka. This has been driven by concerns about cultural appropriation and the commercial exploitation of the Haka without due respect or compensation to the Maori people.

The Haka is a profound expression of New Zealand's Maori heritage, a resonant echo of historical warrior traditions that has seamlessly found its place in the modern world. This powerful performance is not just a pre-game ritual or a ceremonial dance; it is a living, breathing testament to the resilience and vitality of Maori culture.

Even as it evolves to fit contemporary contexts, the core elements of the Haka – unity, strength, and pride – remain unchanged. The Haka’s continuity from ancient battlefields to rugby fields and wedding venues is not merely a testament to its adaptability. It is evidence of a culture's strength and the enduring respect for tradition in a rapidly changing world.

In the realm of sports, the Haka continues to captivate audiences worldwide, sending shivers down the spines of spectators and opponents alike. It is a spectacle that transcends the game, casting a global spotlight on the richness of Maori culture. Beyond the thrill and spectacle of the performance, it imparts a sense of the immense pride the All Blacks take in representing their country and their heritage.

At wedding ceremonies, the Haka becomes an expression of joy, respect, and unity, deeply touching not only the couple but everyone present. This transition from battlefield to wedding venue speaks to the Haka's versatility as a medium of expression – capable of embodying a wide range of emotions, from the fierceness of warriors to the joy of a newly married couple.

However, the preservation of the Haka isn't just about keeping a tradition alive; it's about respecting and understanding the roots from which it sprung. The Maori people's efforts to protect their intellectual property rights associated with the Haka underscore the importance of cultural respect and appropriation issues. As the Haka continues to gain global recognition, it is crucial to remember that it is not just a performance – it's a significant part of a culture and a people's identity.

As we witness the Haka on international stages and personal celebrations, we are reminded of its power and the rich cultural history it represents. It serves as a symbol of New Zealand's heritage, a compelling spectacle that reminds us of the strength of tradition and the importance of cultural preservation. The Haka is more than a dance; it is a vibrant thread in the fabric of New Zealand’s cultural identity, a thread that continues to be woven into the country’s narrative, from its ancient past to its dynamic present and into its future.

The History of Writing; Tracing the Development of expressing Language by Systems of Markings

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by dimosthenis vasiloudis

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Protowriting, ideographic systems, or early mnemonic symbols came before more advanced writing systems in the evolution of writing in human societies (symbols or letters that make remembering them easier).

A subsequent development is true writing, in which the content of a spoken language is encoded so that another reader may reasonably reconstruct the identical utterance written down. It differs from proto-writing, which frequently forgoes recording grammatical words and affixes, making it harder or even impossible to reassemble the precise meaning intended by the writer unless a substantial amount of context is already known in advance.

Writing innovations

The idea that writing originated in a single civilization and was called "monogenesis" persisted for a long time. According to academics, all writing originated in Mesopotamia's ancient Sumer and spread around the world as a result of cultural diffusion. This argument holds that traders or merchants traveling between geographical locations passed on the idea of representing language by written signs, though perhaps not necessarily the specifics of how such a system operated.

The finding of ancient Mesoamerican scripts, far from Middle Eastern sources, demonstrated, however, that writing had been created more than once. In at least four ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia (between 3400 and 3100 BCE), Egypt (about 3250 BCE), China (1200 BCE), and lowland portions of southern Mexico and Guatemala, writing may have independently originated (by 500 BCE).

Some academics have suggested that ancient Egypt "The earliest authentic examples of Egyptian writing differ from Mesopotamian writing in both structure and style, indicating that they must have emerged independently. Although there is still a chance that Mesopotamian "stimulus dispersion" occurred, the influence could not have extended beyond the dissemination of an idea."

Because there is no evidence of communication between ancient China and the Near Eastern literate civilizations, as well as because Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches to phonetic representation differ, it is thought that ancient Chinese characters are independent creations.

The Vinča symbols.

The Rongorongo script of Easter Island, the Vina symbols from about 5500 BCE, and the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization are all controversial. Since none have been translated, it is unclear if they all represent real writing, protowriting, or something entirely different.

The earliest coherent texts date from around 2600 BCE, and Sumerian archaic (pre-cuneiform) writing and Egyptian hieroglyphs are usually regarded as the earliest authentic writing systems. Both developed out of their ancestors' proto-literate symbol systems between 3400 and 3100 BCE. The Proto-Elamite script belongs to roughly the same time frame.

writing methods

Writing systems are distinct from symbolic communication systems. For most writing systems, reading a text requires some knowledge of the spoken language that goes along with it. In contrast, it's not always necessary to have a prior understanding of a spoken language to use symbolic systems like information signs, paintings, maps, and mathematics. Every human group has its own language, which is thought by many to be a natural and essential aspect of mankind.

Writing system development has been intermittent, uneven, and delayed, and old oral communication systems have only been partially replaced. Writing systems generally develop more slowly after they are formed than their spoken counterparts and frequently preserve traits and idioms that have been lost to the spoken language.

Three writing standards are thought to apply to all writing systems. First, writing must be comprehensive; it must have a meaning or purpose, and it must make a point or be able to convey that message. Second, whether they are physical or digital, all writing systems must include some kind of symbol that can be created on a surface. In order to facilitate communication, the writing system's symbols must resemble spoken words or speech.

The greatest advantage of writing is that it gives society a way to regularly and thoroughly preserve information—something that the spoken word could not previously do as successfully. Writing enables communities to communicate knowledge, transmit information, and

stages of development

Sumer

An ancient civilization of southern Mesopotamia, is believed to be the place where written language was first invented around 3200 BCE.

Beginning with the Neolithic pottery phase, when clay tokens were used to keep track of particular quantities of animals or other goods, writing first appeared. These tokens were initially imprinted on the exterior of spherical clay envelopes, which were later used to keep them. Afterwards, flat tablets were gradually introduced in place of the tokens, and signs were recorded using a stylus. Towards the end of the fourth millennium BCE, Uruk was where actual writing was first discovered. Other areas of the Near East quickly followed.

The earliest recorded account of the development of writing is found in a poem from ancient Mesopotamia:

The Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and wrote on it like a tablet because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat the message. It has never been possible to write on clay before.

Enmerkar and the King of Aratta, a Sumerian epic written around 1800 BCE

Although there is agreement among scholars as to the difference between prehistory and the history of early writing, there is disagreement as to when proto-writing became "real writing." The criteria are somewhat arbitrary. In the broadest sense, writing is a way of keeping track of information. It is made up of graphemes, which in turn can be made up of glyphs.

Many centuries of shattered inscriptions typically follow the advent of writing in a particular region. The presence of coherent texts in a culture's writing system is how historians determine a culture's "historicity".

Standard reconstruction of the development of writing. There is a possibility that the Egyptian script was invented independently from the Mesopotamian script.

A conventional "proto-writing to true writing" system follows a general series of developmental stages:

Picture writing system: glyphs (simplified pictures) directly represent objects and concepts. In connection with this, the following substages may be distinguished:

• Mnemonic: glyphs primarily as a reminder.

• Pictographic: glyphs directly represent an object or a concept such as (A) chronological, (B) notices, (C) communications, (D) totems, titles, and names, (E) religious, (F) customs, (G) historical, and (H) biographical.

• Ideographic: graphemes are abstract symbols that directly represent an idea or concept.

Pre-cuneiform tags, with drawing of goat or sheep and number (probably "10"): "Ten goats", Al-Hasakah, 3300–3100 BCE, Uruk culture.

Transitional system: graphemes refer not only to the object or idea that it represents but to its name as well.

• Phonetic system: graphemes refer to sounds or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme is not related to its meanings. This resolves itself into the following substages:

• Verbal: grapheme (logogram) represents a whole word.

• Syllabic: grapheme represents a syllable.

• Alphabetic: grapheme represents an elementary sound.

Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC and among the earliest form of writing in Egypt. They are remarkably similar to contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.

The best known picture writing system of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols are:

• Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, c. 6600 BCE

• Vinča symbols (Tărtăria tablets), c. 5300 BCE[24]

• Early Indus script, c. 3100 BCE

In the Old World, true writing systems developed from neolithic writing in the Early Bronze Age (4th millennium BC).

Locations and timeframes

Comparative evolution

from pictograms to abstract shapes, in Mesopotamian cuneiforms, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters

Proto-writing

The first writing systems of the Early Bronze Age were not a sudden invention. Rather, they were a development based on earlier traditions of symbol systems that cannot be classified as proper writing, but have many of the characteristics of writing. These systems may be described as "proto-writing". They used ideographic or early mnemonic symbols to convey information, but it probably directly contained no natural language. These systems emerged in the early Neolithic period, as early as the 7th millennium BC, and include:

• The Jiahu symbols found carved in tortoise shells in 24 Neolithic graves excavated at Jiahu, Henan province, northern China, with radiocarbon dates from the 7th millennium BCE. Most archaeologists consider these not directly linked to the earliest true writing.

• Vinča symbols, sometimes called the "Danube script", are a set of symbols found on Neolithic era (6th to 5th millennia BCE) artifacts from the Vinča culture of Central Europe and Southeast Europe.

• The Dispilio Tablet of the late 6th millennium may also be an example of proto-writing.

• The Indus script, which from 3500 BCE to 1900 BCE was used for extremely short inscriptions.

The Dispilio Tablet

The Dispilio tablet is a wooden tablet bearing inscribed markings, unearthed during George Hourmouziadis's excavations of Dispilio in Greece, and carbon 14-dated to 5202 (± 123) BC.

It was discovered in 1993 in a Neolithic lakeshore settlement that occupied an artificial island near the modern village of Dispilio on Lake Kastoria in Kastoria, Western Macedonia, Greece.

Even after the Neolithic, a number of societies used proto-writing as a transitional form before adopting formal writing. Such a mechanism might have existed in the quipu of the Incas (15th century CE), often known as "talking knots". Another example is the pictographs created by Uyaquk before the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language developed the Yugtun syllabary around 1900.

Ancient writing

The Bronze Age saw the development of writing in a wide range of cultures. Indus script, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Cretan hieroglyphs, Chinese logographs, Sumerian cuneiform writing, and the Olmec script of Mesoamerica are a few examples. Around 1600 BCE, the Chinese script most likely evolved apart from the Middle Eastern scripts. It is also generally accepted that the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems, which include the Olmec and Maya scripts, had separate origins. In 2000 BCE, it is believed that the first real alphabetic writing was created for Hebrew laborers in the Sinai by assigning Semitic values to mostly Egyptian hieratic characters (see History of the alphabet and Proto-Sinaitic alphabet).

Ethiopia's Geez writing system is regarded as Semitic. With roots in the Meroitic Sudanese ideogram system, it is most likely of semi-independent origin. The majority of alphabets used today are either direct descendants of this one invention, many through the Phoenician alphabet, or were designed in direct response to it. The early Old Italic alphabet and Plautus (c. 750–250 BCE) were separated by around 500 years in Italy, while the Elder Futhark inscriptions and early works like the Abrogans (c. 200–750 CE) are separated by a similar amount of time in the case of the Germanic peoples.

Cuneiform writing

The first Sumerian script was derived from a system of clay tokens used to denote different types of goods. This had developed into a system of keeping accounts by the end of the fourth millennium BC, utilizing a stylus with a circular form that was impressed into soft clay at various angles to record numbers. A pointed stylus was used to gradually add pictographic lettering on this to show what was being counted. Writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the name "cuneiform") began to include phonetic features by the 29th century BCE and gradually replaced writing with a round stylus and a sharp stylus by about 2700–2500 BCE.

Cuneiform first started to represent Sumerian syllables around 2600 BCE. Ultimately, cuneiform writing evolved into a general-purpose system for writing numerals, syllables, and logograms. This alphabet was adapted to the Akkadian language starting in the 26th century BCE, and from there to others like Hurrian and Hittite. This writing system resembles Old Persian and Ugaritic scripts in appearance.

Hieroglyphics from Egypt

Literacy was concentrated among a well-educated elite of scribes, who played a crucial role in upholding the Egyptian empire through writing. To become scribes in the employ of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authority, one had to come from a certain background.

According to Geoffrey Sampson, the general concept of expressing words from a language in writing was likely transmitted to Egypt via Sumerian Mesopotamia. Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into being a little after Sumerian script, and, possibly [were], invented under the influence of the latter." Despite the significance of early Egypt-Mesopotamia links, "no definitive judgment has been established as to the genesis of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt" due to the lack of direct evidence. However, it is stated and agreed upon that "a very compelling argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt" and that "the evidence for such direct influence remains fragile."

Egyptian writing does suddenly appear at that time, but Mesopotamia has an evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to around 8000 BCE. Since the 1990s, discoveries of glyphs at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the conventional idea that the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one. These glyphs were discovered in tomb U-J at Abydos; they were written on ivory and most likely served as labels for other items discovered there.

Even though he acknowledged that Egypt's geographic location made it a receptacle for many influences, Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar maintained that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols originated from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and that in regards to writing, "we have seen that a purely Nilotic, therefore African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality."

Elamite writing

The unintelligible Proto-Elamite writing first appears around 3100 BCE. Around the latter third millennium, it is thought to have evolved into Linear Elamite, which was later supplanted by Elamite Cuneiform, which was adapted from Akkadian.

Indus script

Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a writing system used to record the as yet unidentified language(s) of the Indus Valley civilisation.

The Indus script has been assigned to markings and symbols discovered at numerous Indus Valley civilization sites due to the hypothesis that they were used to transcribe the Harappan language. It is disputed whether the script, which was in use from roughly 3500 to 1900 BCE, is a Bronze Age writing script (logographic-syllabic) or merely proto-writing symbols. According to analysis, it was written in boustrophedon or from right to left.

early SEMITIC ALPHABETS

Around 1800 BCE in Ancient Egypt, the first "abjads," which mapped individual symbols to individual phonemes but not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol, appeared as a representation of the language created there by Semitic workers. However, by that time, alphabetic principles had only a remote chance of being ingrained into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium.

Did the Proto-Canaanite alphabet take its symbols independently of the hieroglyphs?

It is only until the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script separates into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BCE), Byblos syllabary, and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BCE). These early abjads remained of minor significance for several decades. The untranslated Byblos syllabary most likely had some influence on the Proto-Canaanite, which in turn provided inspiration for the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BCE).

Anatolian hieroglyphs

The Hieroglyphic Luwian language was written down using Anatolian hieroglyphs, a native hieroglyphic script found in western Anatolia. Around the fourteenth century BCE, it initially appeared on royal seals of the Luwians.

Chinese characters

The corpus of inscriptions on oracle bones and brass from the late Shang dynasty is the earliest authenticated example of the Chinese script that has been found so far. The oldest of these is believed to date from about 1200 BCE.

There have been recent finds of tortoise-shell carvings from around 6000 BCE, such as Jiahu Script and Banpo Script, but it is debatable whether or not the carvings are complex enough to be considered writing. 3,172 cliff carvings from the period between 6000 and 5000 BCE have been found near Damaidi in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. They contain 8,453 different characters, including images of the sun, moon, stars, gods, and scenes of grazing or hunting.

Replica

of ancient Chinese script on an oracle turtle shell

These pictographs are thought to resemble the first Chinese characters that have been confirmed to be written. Writing in China would predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, traditionally recognized as the first manifestation of writing, by about 2,000 years if it were to be considered a written language. However, it is more likely that the inscriptions represent a type of proto-writing, comparable to the modern European Vinca script.

Early Greek and Cretan scripts

Cretan relics include hieroglyphic writing (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BCE, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). The Mycenaean Greek writing system, Linear B, has been decoded, but Linear A has not yet been. The three overlapping, but distinct, writing systems can be categorized according to their chronological order and geographic distribution as follows:

• Cretan Hieroglyphic / Crete (eastward from the Knossos-Phaistos axis) / c. 2100−1700 BCE

• Linear A / Crete (except extreme southwest), Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), Greek mainland (Laconia) and west Minor Asia (Miletus and maybe Troy) / c. 1800−1450 BCE

• Linear B / Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) / c. 1450−1200 BCE

The archaeological finds with signs of pre-alphabetic scripts in the Aegean

(Up) The finds with signs of Linear B script reach about 6,000 and constitute the majority of the pre-alphabetic written monuments of the Aegean.

(Middle) About 1,400 are the finds which imprint Linear A and make up a 11% of all pre-alphabetic inscriptions.

(Down) Cretan hieroglyphics occupies 2% of the available finds with only 400 finds.

Illustration: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Mesoamerica

The Cascajal Block, a stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing that predates the first Zapotec writing from around 500 BCE, was found in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere.

Stela 12 and 13

from the southern end of Building L, in the Zapotec city of Monte Albán, Outside of Oaxaca, Mexico.

The Maya script is one of numerous pre-Columbian scripts found in Mesoamerica, and it appears to have been the most well-developed and extensively deciphered. The earliest clearly identifiable Maya inscriptions date to the third century BCE, and writing continued to be used until just before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century BCE. A combination of logograms and syllabic symbols, utilized in Maya writing, is somewhat reminiscent of current Japanese writing.

IRON AGE WRITING

The Proto-Canaanite alphabet, which was used into the Iron Age, is all that the Phoenician alphabet is (conventionally taken from a cut-off date of 1050 BCE). The Greek and Aramaic alphabets were derived from this alphabet. They eventually gave rise to the writing systems that are currently used everywhere from Western Asia to Africa and Europe. The Greek alphabet, on the other hand, was the first to use specific symbols to represent vowel sounds.

By Matt Baker

In the first centuries of the Common Era, the Greek and Latin alphabets gave rise to a number of European scripts, including the Runes, Gothic, and Cyrillic alphabets, while the Aramaic alphabet developed into the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac abjads, the latter of which spread as far as Mongolian script. The Ge'ez abugida originated from the South Arabian alphabet. According to some academics, the Indian Brahmic family also descended from the Aramaic alphabet.

GRAKLIANI HILL WRITING

At Georgia's Grakliani Hill, behind a fallen altar from a temple dedicated to a fertility goddess from the seventh century BCE, an obscure script was uncovered in 2015. Grakliani's other temples' inscriptions, which depict animals, people, or decorative features, are different from these ones. Although its letters are rumored to be connected to ancient Greek and Aramaic, the script has no similarities to any known alphabet. In contrast, the earliest Armenian and Georgian letters come from the fifth century CE, right after the respective nations converted to Christianity. The inscription looks to be the oldest local alphabet ever uncovered in the entire Caucasus region. An portion of the inscription measuring 31 by 3 inches had been unearthed by September 2015.

Grakliani script on the basement of altar of goddess of fertility (XI-X c. BC)

Vakhtang Licheli, director of the State University's Institute of Archaeology, claims that "The writings on the temple's two altars have been kept in remarkably good condition. While the pedestal of the second altar is entirely covered with writings, the first altar has few clay letters carved into it." Unpaid students made the discovery. Inscriptions from Grakliani Hill were sent to Miami Laboratory in 2016 for beta analytic radiocarbon dating, which revealed that they were created between c. 1005 and c. 950 BCE.

WRITING IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician script for use with their own language in the early eighth century BCE, the history of the Greek alphabet officially began. The Greek and Phoenician alphabets share a lot of similarities in terms of their characters, and both alphabets nowadays are written in the same order. The Phoenician system's adapter(s) added three letters to the conclusion of the series, known as the "supplementals." The Greek alphabet evolved into a number of different forms.

Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens

One was utilized in southern Italy and west of Athens and is known as Western Greek or Chalcidian. The other variant, known as Eastern Greek, was spoken by the Athenians and in modern-day Turkey before spreading over the rest of the Greek-speaking world. The Greeks initially elected to write like the Phoenicians, from right to left, but subsequently switched to left to right. The lines would then alternately read from left to right, then from right to left, and so on. On occasion, though, the writer would begin the next line where the preceding one ended. Up until the sixth century, this style of writing, called "boustrophedon," mirrored the course of an ox-drawn plough.

Italic scripts and Latin

Cippus Perusinus

Etruscan writing near Perugia, Italy, the precursor of the Latin alphabet

All of the contemporary European scripts have their roots in Greek. The Latin alphabet, named after the Latins, a central Italian people who came to rule Europe with the emergence of Rome, is the most widely used descendant of the Greek script. Around the fifth century BCE, the Etruscan civilization, which employed a multitude of Italic scripts descended from the western Greeks, taught the Romans how to write. The other Old Italic scripts have not survived in very large quantities due to the cultural hegemony of the Roman state, and the Etruscan language is largely extinct.

WRITING DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Roman rule in Western Europe fell apart, and the Persian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire became the main centers of literary development. Latin, which was never a major literary language, lost prominence quickly (except within the Roman Catholic Church). Greek and Persian were the two main literary languages, but Syriac and Coptic were also significant.

Arabic quickly became a significant literary language in the area as a result of the development of Islam in the 7th century. Greek's status as a scholarly language soon lost ground to Arabic and Persian. The Turkish and Persian languages now use Arabic script as their principal writing system. The development of the cursive scripts for Greek, the Slavic languages, Latin, and other languages was also greatly inspired by this script.

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system was also extended throughout Europe thanks to the Arabic language. The modern Spanish city of Cordoba had emerged as one of the world's leading intellectual hubs by the start of the second millennium and was home to the largest library at the time. Its location at the meeting point of the Islamic and Western Christian worlds encouraged intellectual growth and written exchange between the two cultures.

THE MODERN ERA AND THE RENAISSANCE

By the 14th century, Western Europe had experienced a renaissance, which had temporarily increased the significance of Greek while slowly restoring Latin's status as an important literary language. In Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, a comparable but smaller emergence took place. As the Islamic Golden Era came to an end, Arabic and Persian also started to slowly lose ground. In order to codify the phonologies of the various languages, the Latin alphabet underwent several alterations as a result of the rebirth of literary development in Western Europe.

Writing has undergone steady change throughout history, in large part because of the emergence of new technologies. Technology advancements such as the printing press, computer, mobile phone, and pen have all changed how and what is written as well as the medium in which it is generated. Characters can now be generated with a button press rather than a hand motion, especially with the development of digital technology like the computer and the smartphone.

Ancient Burials Bring Indonesian Life to Light

A new analysis says that the bodies of ancient island inhabitants may illuminate the cultural practices and movement patterns of thousands of years ago.

(Credit: EsHanPhot/Shutterstock)

Though it may seem paradoxical, studying the ways our ancestors died and dealt with death may be our best window into the ways that they lived their lives. A new study published in PLOS ONE stresses this point, stating that three burials from thousands of years ago may shed some light on traditions and movements of the ancient inhabitants of Indonesia’s Alor Island.

A Burial Bounty

Past burial practices — including the ways in which bodies are prepared and positioned — provide archaeologists with an abundance of information. They inform ancient peoples’ social structures and spiritual systems, as well as their diversification and development over time.

"Burials are a unique cultural manifestation," says Sofia Samper Carro, a study author and an archaeologist at the Australian National University, in a press release.

Aiming to mine this "cultural manifestation" for new information about the inhabitants of Southeast Asia, Carro and a team of colleagues set their sights on Indonesia’s Alor Island. There, they found three different bodies dating from about 13,000 to 7,500 years ago, all interred in dramatically different ways. According to Carro and the team, the differences between these burials indicate socio-cultural shifts over time and may reveal cross-cultural interactions, or complex migratory movements throughout Southeast Asia.

"Our results provide significant new data for understanding the evolution and diversification of burial practices in mainland and island Southeast Asia, contributing to a growing body of literature describing prehistoric socio-cultural behavior in this region," Carro concludes in a press release.

Three Bodies, Three Ways

Carro and the team uncovered over 50,000 ancient bones on Alor Island. Included in this abundance of bones were the three bodies — one stripped of appendages before burial, one buried in a seated position and another buried in a side position.

"The three quite unusual and interesting burials show different mortuary practices, which might relate to recent discoveries of multiple migratory routes through the islands of Wallacea [the central islands of Indonesia] from thousands of years ago," Carro says in a press release.

According to the team, the diversity in these burials and their potential ties to multiple migratory routes makes sense in the context of recent genetic research, which reveals complex patterns of admixture of previously isolated genetic groups in the region.

"We’re very pleased to present a paper that shows how burial practices can complement data on genetic diversity from one of the current research hotspots in Southeast Asia," Carro concludes in a press release.

Two-ton, 1,000 year-old ‘jars of the dead’ baffle archaeologists

ANCIENT stone urns uncovered in Southeast Asia dubbed “jars of the dead” have perplexed researchers.

(Image: Australian National University)

The discovery of more than one hundred new stone “jars of the dead” dating more than a thousand years ago has deepened Laos’ enduring archaeological enigma. The cup-like carved stones vary in size, range from 10ft (3m) in height and two tons in weight. Exactly how the jars were used remains an enigma, however it has been suggested that they served as burial urns for storing human bodies.

However local legend claims the urns were goblets once used by a drunk horde of giants.

Why these sites were chosen as the final resting place for the jars is still a mystery

Dr Dougald O'Reilly

Australian National University (ANU) researchers discovered the new jar sites in a remote forest during a survey beginning in 2015.

The jars were buried with decorated stone discs, strange small clay jars and more conventional stone age artefacts like beads and jewellery.

The latest landmark discoveries suggest the mysterious practices involving the jars were more widely performed than previously thought, and is hoped could help finally interpret their meaning.

Jars of the dead: Exactly how the jars were used remains an enigma (Image: Australian National University)

Laos’ jars of the dead remain one of archaeology’s most intriguing enigmas.

Archeologists currently believe the giant stone urns were involved with disposing with the dead.

However almost nothing is known for certain about the jars’ original function and where those who originally deposited them are now found.

Archaeologists led by Nicholas Skopal and Dr Dougald O’Reilly from ANU have now catalogued 137 new jars, found across 15 freshly-identified sites, in remote and mountainous forest.

The discoveries show that the ancient burial practices associated with the jars “were more widespread than previously thought,” said Dr O’Reilly.

Mr Skopal added: “These new sites have really only been visited by the occasional tiger hunter.”

“Now we’ve rediscovered them, we’re hoping to build a clear picture about this culture and how it disposed of its dead.

There is no evidence that the region where the jars were found was occupied.

Jars of the dead: The urns remain one of archaeology's most intriguing enigmas (Image: Australian National University)

Dr O’Reilly said: “Why these sites were chosen as the final resting place for the jars is still a mystery.

“It’s apparent the jars, some weighing several tonnes, were carved in quarries, and somehow transported, often several kilometres, to their present locations.”

Another hypothesis suggests that the jars were made to capture monsoonal rainwater for later boiling and use by caravans passing through the region.

Odd Anthropomorphic Figures with Oversized Heads Found Painted in a Rock Shelter in Tanzania

In 2018, archaeologists made a staggering discovery in Swaga Swaga Game Reserve in central Tanzania: 52 previously undocumented rock shelters, deliberately painted with rock art. Weathering had mostly destroyed all but a handful; but of those that were preserved, one was an absolute enigma.

The site, named Amak'hee 4, was elaborately painted with a frieze of figurative art – including three mysterious, anthropomorphic figures with extremely oversized heads.

These could be, according to archaeologist Maciej Grzelczyk of the Jagiellonian University in Poland, a clue to figuring out what other, similar trios of figures found in other rock art panels might be.

The Amak'hee 4 panel is difficult to date, but in 2021 Grzelczyk was able to gauge that it's at least a few hundred years old. It's painted almost entirely in red pigment, except for five figures in white.

The weathering on this pigment, and the absence of domestic animals, suggests that it's fairly old, dating back to the time of hunter-gatherer societies in the region.

A diagram of the artwork. (M. Grzelczyk, Antiquity, 2021)

Depicted on the panel are animals that appear to resemble wildebeest, elands, buffalo, and even a giraffe, as well as a smattering of human-like figures with large heads. But one group stands out.

"Particularly noteworthy among the Amak'hee 4 paintings is a scene that centers around three images," Grzelczyk wrote in his 2021 paper.

"In this trio, the figures seem to feature stylized buffalo heads. These shapes recall the central dip in the profile of the buffalo head from where the two horns rise and then curve outward away from the head, as well as the downturned ears."

The similarities to buffalo heads. (M. Grzelczyk, Antiquity, 2021)

The culture of the Sandawe people, who are descended from those who used to inhabit the region, does not include motifs of buffalo-headed people or people who can shape-shift into buffaloes (or vice versa), so the images may depict something else. But, Grzelczyk notes, buffalo horns do play a significant role in some Sandawe rituals.

Whatever they may be, the strange figures are not without precedent. Not far from Amak'hee 4, in the Kondoa region in central Tanzania, two rock shelter paintings in particular bear a strong resemblance to the trio.

At the site Kolo B2, three figures are depicted standing together. At Kolo B1, three figures are depicted horizontally, although laying on the ground.

Paintings of the figures. (M. Grzelczyk, Antiquity, 2021)

All three sites show similar figures, with large heads, although the Kolo figures sport a striped motif, interpreted as a headdress. (Other Kondoa figures are interpreted as having elaborate hairstyles.)

In all three sites, the figures are connected by a line across their midsection. And all three have similar arrangements and directions of the hands and arms.

Amak'hee 4 does have some important differences. The heads seem to be filled in with solid color, and they seem much more important to the action around them.

"The figures from Amak'hee 4 are noticeably bigger than those at Kolo, and make this main motif a central focal point around which the rest of the narrative seems to take place. In contrast, the images at Kolo are isolated depictions, with no clear connection to the rest of the paintings," Grzelczyk wrote.

At Kondoa, some of the rock art sites are still in use by the Sandawe for a variety of ritual activities. The newly documented sites are also known to local communities, so it's possible that they could shed some light on what the mysterious figures mean.

Meanwhile, archaeologists will continue the work of documenting the sites so that they can be added to the published record.

The paper has been published in Antiquity.

A version of this article was first published in February 2021.

Source: sciencealert

Prehistoric Artifacts Discovered in a Vietnam Cave

Over 700 prehistoric artefacts have been discovered inside Tham Un cave in the northern mountainous province of Bac Kan’s Ba Be district.

Over 700 prehistoric artefacts have been discovered inside Tham Un cave in the northern mountainous province of Bac Kan’s Ba Be district.

The discovery resulted from a fact-finding trip undertaken by the Institute of Archeology, the Vietnam Archeology Association, and the Bac Kan Museum.

Combing the entire cave, their team found traces of ancient people almost everywhere. Among the artefacts discovered were stone tools made from river pebbles.

According to Associate Professor, Dr Trinh Nang Chung, based on the overall study of the relics as well as the structure and age of the sediment, researchers believe that Tham Un was a residence of many generations of prehistoric people.

Its early inhabitants belonged to the late Bac Son Culture dating back 5,000 to 6,000 years, while the late inhabitants were from the Late Neolithic - Early Metal Ages dating back about 4,000 years.

This is a very important prehistoric relic cave, Chung stated.

Archaeologists are planning to excavate the site in the near future.

Source: vietnamplus.

The 'Marree Man': The Mystery behind a Modern Giant Geoglyph Figure

We all have heard about the big ancient geoglyphs of the Americas that were made centuries before us. But this one suddenly appeared in Australia in 1998!

The Marree Man, also known as Stuart’s Giant, is a modern geoglyph atop a plateau at Finnis Springs, 37 miles (60 km) west of Marree, South Australia. It depicts an indigenous Australian man hunting with a boomerang or stick and is 1.7 miles (2.7 km) tall with a perimeter of 17 miles (28 km). Although it is one of the largest geoglyphs in the world, its origin remains a mystery, with no one claiming responsibility for its creation.

The outline of this giant man figure drawn on earth was spotted by a helicopter pilot who was flying over central Australia and after that mystery started to surround who created and why. In 2018 Australian entrepreneur Dick Smith offered a A$5,000 (£2,800; $3,700) reward for any information about the artwork's origins.

It is 1.7 miles (2.7 km) tall with a perimeter of 17 miles (28 km).

Although it is one of the largest geoglyphs in the world, its origin remains a mystery, with no one claiming responsibility for its creation.

Marree Man has been a subject of fascination since its discovery in the desert about 700km north of Adelaide. It has gained popularity on tourism flights because it is too large to be viewed from the ground. Locals believe it portrays an Aboriginal man carrying a woomera - a throwing stick - in his left hand. Marree publican Phil Turner says he is convinced that its creator, or creators, were "professionals" who possibly used GPS technology.

"Whoever did the outline marked it out with bamboo nursery skewers at every 10m," Mr Turner told the BBC.

"If you didn't have the co-ordinates, you would have no idea if you were standing in his left toe or his elbow. Considering GPS technology was in its infancy at the time, it is an absolutely remarkable feat."

Mr Smith agrees, telling the ABC: "There were no mistakes - it was very professionally done."

Several theories about its creators have circulated over the years.
Pilot Trevor Wright, the first to see Marree Man on 26 June 1998, says he spotted it by chance. But anonymous faxes were also sent to local businesses and media at the time, to inform them of Marree Man's existence.

Some suspected it was the work of American artists because the faxes used US spelling and references. A plaque showing the US flag and Olympic rings was also found at the site.

But others have theorised that those clues were deliberately misleading, with alternative suggestions including local artists and even members of the Australian Army.

An Old Javanese Inscription was found at Gemekan Mojokerto Site, in Indonesia!

An inscription with Old Javanese script was found at the Gemekan Site, Kedawung Hamlet, Gemekan Village, Sooko District, Mojokerto Regency, East Java Province.

This inscription was found on Wednesday (9/2/2022) thanks to the results of excavations carried out by the East Java Province Cultural Heritage Preservation Center (BPCB Jatim) team from February 7 to planned to end on February 12, 2022.

The existence of the archaeological site has actually been identified by local residents since the 1980s. Locals noticed an unusual mound of earth in the area that seemed to cover certain stone structures from the past.

In 2016, the National Archaeological Research Center (Puslit Arkenas) conducted a surface survey on the mound. They still found outcrop structures in that place.

In 2018, the East Java BPCB carried out a third zoning of sites around the Trowulan Cultural Conservation Area (KCBN) in Mojokerto. They gave a cultural heritage zoning to the structure at the Gemekan Site.

Then, in February 2022, excavations were carried out to reveal the complete form of the structure. "From the results of this excavation, we found a structure like the foot of a temple whose stairs are on the east side," said Muhammad Ichwan, an archaeologist from BPCB East Java.

"When we cleaned the structure, in the northeast corner of the structure we got an inscription made of andesite stone," said Ichwan who led the excavation team.

Based on the measurements of Ichwan and his team, this stone inscription has a width of 88 centimeters, the remaining height is 91 centimeters, and a thickness of 21 centimeters. There are inscriptions on the four sides of the stone inscription, namely on the front, back, right and left sides. The underside of the truncated inscription appears to be flat, while the upper side looks pointed.

Ichwan believes the stone inscription they found is not intact, only the top. The bottom of this stone inscription has not been found.

However, there are written numbers that indicate the year the stone inscription was made. There are three numbers from the year marker which at least two digits in front of it can still be clearly read.

“Some of them can read and our friends also had the chance to read that it said 85X Saka, that was around 92X AD, that was the time of Mpu Sindok. But for the full content later the experts will research it," said Ichwan.

Maybe the third number is 2 which means 852 Saka or 930 AD. Or it could be that the third number is 3 which means 853 Saka or 931 AD. Or it could be that the third number is 9 which means 859 Saka or 937 AD. The third number for the year is uncertain because it is slightly damaged and the remaining shapes are like the numbers 2, 3, or 9.

Ichwan said that BPCB would invite an epigraph or inscription expert to analyze it. "We will also make a floor plan of the findings of the structure and inscriptions," he said.

Mpu Sindok

Śrī Mahārāja Rake Hino Dyaḥ Siṇḍok Śrī Īśānawikrama Dharmottuṅgadewawijaya (also known as Dyah Sindok, Mpu Sindok or Sindok) was the last king of the Sanjaya dynasty who ruled the Kingdom of Mataram from Central Java, reigned from around 928 or 929 AD. Sindok moved the seat of power of the Mataram kingdom from Central Java to East Java in 929 AD, probably as a result of the eruption of Mount Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya.

During his reign, the Kakawin Ramayana and the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan were written. Sindok was succeeded by his daughter, Sri Isanatungawijaya.

Indigenous Filipino Group Has Highest Known Denisovan Ancestry

Researchers found the relatively high proportion of DNA from a hominin cousin—nearly 5 percent—when they scanned more than 1,000 genomes from 118 distinct ethnic groups.

by Annie Melchor, The Scientist

Until recently, scientists thought the modern humans with the highest proportion of Denisovan ancestry lived in Papua New Guinea and Australia. According to a new study published yesterday (August 12) in Current Biology, however, an Indigenous group in the Philippines called the Ayta Magbukon have 30 to 40 percent more Denisovan DNA than these other frontrunners, for a total of nearly 5 percent of their genomes.

Denisovans were a group of archaic humans first identified from a single pinkie bone in a Siberian cave. They coexisted with modern humans and other archaic human species, such as Neanderthals, for hundreds of thousands of years, until they went extinct an estimated 30,000 to 50,000 years ago. According to Gizmodo, only Pacific Islanders and Southeast Asians have substantial Denisovan ancestry. By comparison, most people in other parts of mainland Asia have less than 0.05 percent Denisovan ancestry, and people of African and European descent don’t have any.

“[The Ayta Magbukon] possess more Denisovan ancestry than anybody else on the planet today,” Uppsala University biologist and study coauthor Mattias Jakobsson tells Inverse. “So that was a surprise to us.”

According to Gizmodo, the researchers were originally interested in studying the human history of the Philippines as part of a massive collaborative effort with Indigenous communities, local governments, the National Commission for Culture and the Arts of the Philippines, and researchers at Uppsala University.

As a follow-up study to an earlier one studying human migrations to the Philippines, “we intended to look at the distant past by assessing the levels of archaic ancestry among the populations, especially that some populations in these regions were previously shown to have elevated levels of Denisovan ancestry and that Island Southeast Asia is known to be inhabited by various archaic species of Homo,” population geneticist and study coauthor Maximilian Larena tells Gizmodo. 

To do this, the researchers analyzed the genomes of 1,107 individuals belonging to 118 distinct ethnic groups in the Philippines—including 25 groups self-identifying as “Negritos,” who are regarded as the earliest modern human inhabitants of the Philippines, according to the study’s authors. By comparing these genomes to Denisovan and Neanderthal genomes, they found that while the degree of Neanderthal ancestry was fairly uniform in their study population (and comparable to modern humans in other parts of the world), the degree of Denisovan ancestry was highly variable, and substantially higher among Negritos than in other groups.

These findings “are consistent with a model of an independent interbreeding event between Negritos and Denisovans within the Philippines, suggesting that Denisovans may have been in the islands long before the presence of any modern human ethnic group,” Larena tells Gizmodo. 

University of Tübingen paleogeneticist Cosimo Posth, who was not involved in the study, tells Science News the new report suggests that “still today there are populations that have not been fully genetically described and that Denisovans were geographically widespread.”

Currently, the Denisovan fossil record is sparse, and according to Science News, Denisovan fossils can’t be identified by morphology alone. They have to be genetically sequenced, which can be difficult when extracting fossils from tropical climates where the ancient DNA degrades more quickly. 

The findings “further increase my suspicions that Denisovan fossils are hiding in plain sight,” among previously excavated discoveries on Southeast Asian islands, University of Adelaide population geneticist João Teixeira tells Science News. Teixeira was not involved with the current study. 

“When it comes to Southeast Asia and the Southeast Asian Islands, we have more questions than answers as we don’t have a good archaeological record,” University of Colorado Boulder population geneticist Fernando Villanea tells Inverse. Villanea, who was not involved with the study, adds, “Now we have these incredible genetic findings and we’re having a hard time putting together a cohesive story.”

“By sequencing more genomes in the future, we will have better resolution in addressing multiple questions, including how the inherited archaic tracts influenced our biology and how it contributed to our adaptation as a species,” Larena says in the press release.

A Nature Paradise that hosts the Most Ancient Civilization on Earth

Rare animals and prehistoric petroglyphs in Kakandu National Park, Australia

One of the top attractions in Australia is located in the northern part of the country. Endless expanses of vegetation, impressive wetlands, rare animals and prehistoric rock paintings compose a natural paradise of 4,894,000 acres. The Kakadu National Park has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1981 and has pretty much the size of Slovenia.

It hosts Uranium Ranger Mine, one of the most productive uranium mines in the world. The visitor can closely observe the endemic birds of Australia and the migratory birds of Siberia and Japan, which spend part of their time in the water paradise.

It is worth discovering the greatness of nature by boating in the wetlands of Yellow Water Billabong. The park is home to 280 species of birds, two thousand species of plants and more than 10 thousand crocodiles.

Kakadu is a vibrant cultural landscape for the Indigenous peoples of Australia which is the oldest civilization on the planet. In the park one can see up close the prehistoric Aboriginal rock paintings that some date from 10,000 BC. Kakadu's rock art (gunbim) represents one of the longest historical records of any group of people in the world. It is also one of the reasons Kakadu has received World Heritage status. The paintings provide a fascinating record of Aboriginal life over thousands of years. This is one of the longest historical records of any group of people in the world.

For aboriginal people, art is an expression of cultural identity and connection to country. Generally, the act of painting was more important than the painting itself so many older paintings have been covered by more recent paintings: the artist was not concerned about preserving an image for posterity but simply wanted to paint to tell a story.

For Bininj/Mungguy many of the older paintings were done by spirit people. These form a continuous link with traditional beliefs about how the landscape was formed and Aboriginal laws established. The rock art also provides an insight in to Bininij/Mungguy culture by showing objects, animals and activities familiar to people today.

There are also many archaeological sites in Kakadu that reflect how Bininj/Mungguy have managed the country over thousands of years. Sites include occupation deposits in rock shelters, quarries where stone material was extracted and processed for tool making, human burial sites, stone or bone arrangements, surface scatters of stone, and earth and shell mounds.

The Sacred Spring in Jolotundo Temple - A beautiful site of Mt Penanggungan, Indonesia

The Jolotundo Temple lies on the slopes of Mount Penanggungan, one of the sacred mountains of Java. It is a place of spiritual power and a sacred spring (petirtaan)

The temple is set into a steep, forested hillside. The enclosure contains stone pools filled with spring water which is said to have strong healing and cleansing effects. Before you arrive, incense fills the air, as you start hearing the sound of running water. Offerings of petals float in the water.

The sacred springs (petirtaan) of Java

There are many holy springs throughout Java. But the water of Jolotundo is said to be particularly powerful. The spring was probably considered sacred long before the temple was built, and of all Mount Penanggungan’s temples it is the one still most venerated today.

In the daytime these pools are generally visited by tourists and casual visitors. True pilgrims arrive at dusk to meditate, pray and bathe in the waters for healing and renewed energy. People travel from all over Java to bathe in Jolotundo.

Pilgrims come from all faiths, as this is a Javanese sacred place which predates even Javanese Hinduism and the imported Abrahamic religions. After bathing, pilgrims usually take bottles of holy water away for later use.

The temple is built in Javanese andesite stone, with refined carvings that stood the tests of time. The Jaladwara (‘water gates’) from which the water flows is a Nāga, the serpent-guardians of the rivers and lakes.

In Java, bathing in sacred pounds (petirtaan) after dusk is considered to be more effective. The energy is said to be best between midnight and 2 am.

Due to the creeping islamization however, men and women now have to bathe separated in two different pools. Some of the more radical Moslem visitors there might try to convince you that “the early hours of Friday morning are actually the best time to visit”, or that the water here is “the second best in the world, after that from the ‘zamzam’ well in Mecca”.

In reality though, the most powerful nights are said to be those of a Full Moon (Purnima), or of a Kliwon Tuesday, when the second day of the seven-day calendar coincides with the last day of the the five-day Javanese week. On those nights, the temple is really busy and you have to queue for a long time to bathe in the holy waters.

An ancient subak Temple

Jolotundo is a also an ancient water temple that was used in the Hindu-Javanese water management system (subak) that is still in use in Bali but has been disregarded in Java in the past four centuries.

The water from this temple is of very high quality — even from a purely biological standpoint, the Jolotundo water has been ranked in studies as the third best water in the world for its high quality minerals. Even when keeping the water for long time (two years) the smell, color and taste of the water did not change at all.

A major ritual occurs in the temple every year for Melasti, the Indonesian Hindu ritual held to cleanse the soul and nature ahead of Nyepi, the annual Day of Silence. Melasti is performed at the ocean shores, in lakes and in rivers and at sacred springs. It is a ritual of purification of both buana alit (Self) and buana agung (the Earth).

Jolotundo’s real name is Jalatunda, since the Javanese colloquial language replaces the vowel a by o. To understand the original Sanskrit meaning of most Javanese words, you therefore must replace the o by a — then the meanings become more evident: Jala means ‘water’ in Sanskrit and tunda means ‘mouth’ or ‘beak’. There exists another sacred spring called Jalatunda on the Dieng plateau for example.

Near Jolotundo, there is another sacred bathing place, Candi Belahan, on Mount Penanggungan’s eastern slopes. It is also known colloquially to the locals as ‘Candi Tetek’ (“Breasts Temple”), because the water there comes from the ample breasts of a statue of Goddess Lakshmi (a manifestation of Dewi Sri).

The sacred geography of Mount Penanggungan

Mount Penanggungan is considered one of Java’s most sacred peaks, right after Mount Sumeru (Java’s highest peak), the home of the gods in Javanese Hinduism. The mountain, shaped like a perfect cone, is said to be the broken summit of the mythical Mount Meru.

In Old Javanese, tanggung means “to take on a burden”, therefore pananggungan might mean “the place where the world is supported”. So it is possible that the name of the place reflects its ancient function — a place where Javanese ascetics and kings “took on the burdens of the world” by connecting with Shiva.

Penanggungan is therefore a particularly revered mountain. This whole area has always been one of the spiritual cores of Java. There are 81 temples on its slopes, which has a numerologic significance (9 x 9).

Out of all these, Candi Jolotundo is the oldest and most sacred. It is considered the main starting point for the one-day walk that can bring you to the summit of Mount Penanggungan.

The pilgrimage route passes through many sites of great interest. After a while, the subsidiary peak of Bekel can be viewed on the left of the path. Above the agricultural land, on the higher, forested slopes, numerous temples appear at intervals of approximately 200 metres. These are ideal places for meditation, as the trail is not very frequented.

The mountain’s perfect cone is visible from the Majapahit capital in Trowulan, around 30 kilometers to the west. For centuries, pilgrims made their way up from Trowulan towards the sacred summit. In 1543, Mount Penanggungan was captured by the Moslem state of Demak. The temples were then hidden by the locals among the trees to protect them from destruction.

How to visit the area

Candi Jolotundo is located near Seloliman village (Trawas district) on the eastern slope of Mount Penanggungan, at an altitude of 500m. It is only a short distance from the main road connecting Surabaya and Malang.

There is a small office booth there where you can find a guide for climbing. This is important because the trail is not always very clear and there are numerous farm tracks which can add to the confusion. The route is however marked with red arrows painted on rocks and trees.

Pilgrims can find places to stay in the nearby hill resorts of Trawas or Tretes. The closest accommodation to the mountain is perhaps PPLH Environmental Education Centre, west of the mountain, where you can also find guides., a kilometer downhill from the Jolotundo temple. This is the best place to start from if you want to make your way up to the summit of the sacred mountain.

Source: Kalpavriksha