Archaeologists Confirm Birch Bark Writing Continued in Medieval Novgorod After Moscow Annexation

Archaeologists have uncovered fresh evidence showing that birch bark writing in Veliky Novgorod continued even after the city was annexed by Moscow in 1478. The findings were presented at the 40th All-Russian Conference “Novgorod and Novgorod Land: History and Archaeology,” where academician Alexei Gippius of the Russian Academy of Sciences shared results from the 2025 excavation season.

The discovery strengthens Novgorod’s reputation as one of medieval Eastern Europe’s most literate societies and offers deeper insight into taxation, trade, legal matters, and everyday life between the 12th and early 16th centuries. It also challenges the long-standing belief that Novgorod’s distinctive written culture declined rapidly after its political absorption into the Grand Duchy of Moscow under Ivan III.

Six New Birch Bark Letters

During the 2025 season, researchers discovered six new birch bark documents, numbered 1232 to 1237. Four were unearthed at the Trinity excavation site, one at the Ioannovsky site, and another near Ekaterininskaya Gorka, close to the Victory Monument.

The most significant find is Document No. 1237, dated to the late 15th or early 16th century. This dating is key because it proves that the birch bark writing tradition persisted into the early Moscow period, rather than ending in the 15th century as previously assumed.

According to Petr Gaidukov of the Institute of Archaeology, the document contains an inventory listing goods stored in baskets—specifically oats and rye. Though initially believed to be from the 16th century, closer analysis placed it at the transitional period between the 15th and 16th centuries.

It’s kind of beautiful, actually. Even after political control shifted, everyday people were still jotting down notes about grain and storage on strips of birch bark. Empires change—but daily life, paperwork, and practical literacy? That just keeps going.

A 12th-Century Tax Record from Kargopol

Among the most significant finds is Document No. 1232, dating to the late 12th century. The birch bark letter records tribute collected from Volosovo Pogost, stating: “This is the tribute from Volosovo Pogost worth 80 and 8 grivnas.”

The reference links the payment to territories near present-day Kargopol, which were under the authority of Veliky Novgorod during the medieval period. This brief but precise note offers rare numerical evidence of tribute obligations and reinforces our understanding of Novgorod’s extensive economic reach into northern Russia.

Such records highlight the highly organized administrative system of the Novgorod Republic, a powerful commercial center deeply embedded in Baltic trade networks.

Legal Notes and Debt Lists Reveal Daily Life

Other newly discovered letters shed light on legal procedures and everyday transactions.

Document No. 1234, although partially cut in the Middle Ages, preserves a line ordering enforcement action: “Send the bailiff to him.” This suggests the existence of formal legal mechanisms for debt recovery and dispute resolution.

Document No. 1235, reconstructed from fragments, appears to be a debt register listing amounts in kunas and rezanas — early medieval Rus monetary units. It includes several personal names such as Pervyata, Rokhlo, Dalko, and the rare archaic name “Zhitozhizn.”

Linguistically, “Zhitozhizn” is particularly noteworthy because it combines two ancient Slavic roots — Zhit and Zhizn — a pairing seldom documented together. Discoveries like this are invaluable for researchers studying Old East Slavic naming customs and language development.

Meanwhile, Document No. 1236 preserves a short domestic message: “Dmitry sent word with Puneya to his mother…” Document No. 1233, dated to the 14th century and found at the Ioannovsky site, appears to be a respectful letter addressed to a boyar widow and her sons, offering blessings for their health.

Taken together, these birch bark letters reveal a society deeply engaged in commerce, taxation, legal administration, and family correspondence. They show that medieval Novgorod was not only politically and economically sophisticated, but also remarkably literate in the rhythms of everyday life.

The most historically significant revelation comes from Document No. 1237, dated to the late 15th or early 16th century

The Birch Bark Writing System: A Medieval Innovation

Birch bark writing was a practical and distinctive form of communication used widely in Veliky Novgorod and other East Slavic regions between the 11th and 15th centuries. Rather than relying on costly parchment, people used thin sheets of birch bark — an abundant material in the forests of northern Russia.

Instead of ink, writers employed a stylus to scratch text directly onto the inner surface of the bark. The script used was Cyrillic, derived from the alphabet created in the 9th century by Cyril and Methodius.

Novgorod’s waterlogged soil, which preserves organic materials exceptionally well, has enabled archaeologists to recover more than 1,200 birch bark letters since the first discovery in 1951.

What makes these documents especially remarkable is what they reveal about literacy. In much of medieval Europe, reading and writing were largely limited to clergy and elites. In contrast, Novgorod’s letters show evidence of widespread practical literacy. Merchants, artisans, women, and even children wrote messages. Earlier discoveries include school exercises and simple drawings by boys learning to write — small, human traces of education centuries ago.

The 2025 discoveries extend the timeline of this tradition, demonstrating that birch bark writing continued even after Novgorod’s political absorption into Moscow’s centralized state.

Rethinking Medieval Russian Literacy

The survival of birch bark correspondence into the Moscow period challenges the long-standing narrative of cultural decline after Novgorod’s annexation. Instead of a sharp break, the evidence points to continuity in administrative systems and everyday written communication.

As excavations continue in Veliky Novgorod, researchers hope further discoveries will refine our understanding of medieval Russian society.

For now, these six newly uncovered letters stand as quiet but powerful testimony: even amid political change and shifting power structures, literacy endured — etched into bark, buried in damp soil, and preserved long enough to reshape the history of early Russian civilization.