“Denny,” the Denisovan–Neanderthal Girl: why one small bone changed the story of our mixed human past

In 2012, archaeologists sifting through thousands of unidentifiable bone scraps from Denisova Cave in Siberia pulled out a sliver no bigger than a thumb tip. It had no diagnostic shape and no context beyond the layer it came from. Yet that fragment—catalogued as Denisova 11 and later nicknamed “Denny”—turned out to be one of the most extraordinary individuals ever sequenced: a first-generation child of a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father. In one genome, Denny compresses the messy, braided history of archaic humans into a single life story. (eva.mpg.de)

From anonymous scrap to headline fossil

Denny was not discovered because of how the bone looked but because of how its proteins and DNA read. A team led by Samantha Brown first screened the cave’s bone splinters with ZooMS (Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry), a “collagen fingerprinting” method that flags likely hominin pieces among animal remains. That test picked out Denisova 11 as human. The group then sequenced its mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and found it belonged to a Neanderthal lineage; radiocarbon tests placed the fragment at more than 50,000 years old—beyond the reliable limit for precise ^14C dates but clearly Late Pleistocene. (PMC)

Subsequent nuclear-genome work at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology clinched the shock finding: across Denisova 11’s chromosomes, the pattern of variants alternated cleanly between Neanderthal and Denisovan alleles, exactly what you expect in an F1 (first-generation) offspring. The researchers could also tell that her mother belonged to a Neanderthal population genetically closer to later European Neanderthals than to earlier Altai Neanderthals from the same cave—evidence for Neanderthal movements across Eurasia—and that her Denisovan father carried traces of deeper Neanderthal ancestry in his own past. In other words, not only were Neanderthals and Denisovans meeting; they were meeting more than once. (eva.mpg.de, mpg.de)

How old was Denny when she died? The fragment’s cortical thickness and histological features point to an adolescent—at least 13 years old. It’s a small, human detail in a genome-scale story. (PMC, mpg.de)

Why she’s (still) the only one of her kind

Geneticists have long known that archaic humans mixed. Non-African people today carry Neanderthal DNA; populations from parts of Oceania and Southeast Asia carry Denisovan DNA as well. But those are echoes—signals of ancient interbreeding diluted by tens of thousands of years of recombination. Denny is different. She isn’t a statistical signature; she is the event. As of today, she remains the only confirmed first-generation Neanderthal–Denisovan individual ever identified, and she shows this mixing happened not just sporadically in deep time but in specific families who lived and died together. (eva.mpg.de)

That uniqueness reflects more than biology; it reflects sampling. Ancient DNA research depends on the luck of preservation, the happenstance of excavation, and the ingenuity of screening methods. Denisova Cave has been extraordinarily kind in this regard. Even so, Denny exists for us because a proteomics screen pulled her out of anonymity and because her DNA survived well enough for high-coverage analysis. Her status as “the only one” is a reminder that the fossil record is patchy and biased—which makes every “data point” like this disproportionately valuable. (PMC)

A braided landscape: when and where did groups meet?

Denny’s home ground helps explain the opportunity for encounters. Denisova Cave sits in the Altai Mountains at a crossroads between western and eastern Eurasia. Optical dating of the site’s sediments shows that Neanderthals, Denisovans and later Homo sapiens used the cave across hundreds of thousands of years, with occupations spanning roughly 300,000 to 20,000 years ago. This extended, overlapping presence created repeated chances for contact. (Nature)

More recently, sediment DNA studies have mapped these comings and goings even when bones are absent. A 2021 project sampled 728 sediment spots through the cave’s chambers and recovered ancient mitochondrial DNA from animals and hominins. The results chart turnovers in Denisovan and Neanderthal presence and show that both groups repeatedly occupied the cave—well into the time windows when initial Upper Palaeolithic technologies and modern human mtDNA first appear in the record. That broader picture makes Denny less a one-off curiosity and more a vivid snapshot from a long-running frontier of contact. (Nature)

What one genome tells us about two populations

Because Denny is an F1, her genome acts like a two-for-one archive. On her mother’s side, affinities to European Neanderthals imply east–west mobility among Neanderthal groups long before their disappearance. On her father’s side, the trace of older Neanderthal ancestry shows that Denisovans had already mixed with Neanderthals earlier—a layered history of contact that likely played out multiple times. The striking probability calculation from the original study is almost philosophical: among the tiny number of archaic individuals sequenced so far, to happen upon a literal first-generation hybrid suggests that, whenever these groups overlapped in space, interbreeding was not rare. (eva.mpg.de)

Methods that made the discovery possible (and why they matter)

Denny’s story is also a methods story. ZooMS triage turns “undiagnostic” bone crumbs into candidates for DNA work, making the most of sites where hominin remains are scarce or fragmentary. Pairing that with both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA analysis lets researchers separate maternal lineage (mtDNA) from the full ancestry picture (nuclear genome). This workflow—proteins to flag, mtDNA to place, nuclear DNA to resolve—has become a template for pushing the limits of what tiny fragments can tell us. Without it, Denisova 11 would still be a nameless shard in a storage tray. (PMC)

Why Denny matters beyond Denisova

First, she personalizes admixture. It’s one thing to say “Neanderthals and Denisovans mixed.” It’s another to read the genome of a teenager whose parents belonged to those different groups. That personalization helps the public grasp that human evolution is not a tree of neatly separated branches but a network of lineages exchanging genes when they met.

Second, she’s a calibration point. Denny anchors hypotheses about when and where Neanderthals moved across Eurasia and how often Denisovans and Neanderthals interacted. Her genome independently supports an east–west Neanderthal connection and a multi-episode contact history between Neanderthals and Denisovans—insights that would be far harder to extract from modern DNA alone. (eva.mpg.de)

Third, she contextualizes the cave’s deep-time narrative. Chronologies and sediment aDNA show that Denisova was a long-term meeting ground with shifting occupants and ecologies. Denny’s existence during that sequence makes the broader patterns tangible: overlapping ranges, intermittent contact, and cultural horizons in flux. (Nature)

Finally—and this is my take—Denny stands as a methodological milestone. She demonstrates that with careful screening and high-coverage sequencing, even “invisible” fragments can transform our models. If one F1 hybrid appears in such a small sample, the real history was likely rich with similar families whose traces are still waiting in museum drawers and sediment grids. That prospect is exhilarating because it promises a more nuanced, human-scaled story of how different groups met, lived, and sometimes had children together.

References (selected)

• Slon, V. et al. (2018). The genome of the offspring of a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father. Nature 561, 113–116. (Open-access PDF). (eva.mpg.de)

• Brown, S. et al. (2016). Identification of a new hominin bone from Denisova Cave, Siberia using collagen fingerprinting and mitochondrial DNA analysis. Scientific Reports 6, 23559. (Open-access). (PMC)

• Jacobs, Z. et al. (2019). Timing of archaic hominin occupation of Denisova Cave in southern Siberia. Nature 565, 594–599. (Nature)

• Zavala, E. I. et al. (2021). Pleistocene sediment DNA reveals hominin and faunal turnovers at Denisova Cave. Nature 595, 399–403. (Nature)

• Max Planck Institute press release (2018). Neandertal mother, Denisovan father! (summary with age estimate and population affinities). (mpg.de)

Cro-Magnon DNA, Out of Africa, and the Myths That Won’t Die

In recent years, two studies — Caramelli et al. (2008) and Klyosov & Rozhanski (2012) — have been repeatedly cited in online discussions and memes that claim to “disprove” the widely accepted Out of Africa model of modern human origins. While both works examine human ancestry in different ways, their interpretations and scientific credibility vary greatly. Unfortunately, oversimplified graphics and ideologically driven narratives have turned these studies into tools for misinformation rather than sources for understanding.

Caramelli et al. (2008): Mitochondrial Continuity, Not Total Identity

Caramelli and colleagues analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from a 28,000-year-old Cro-Magnon specimen (Paglicci 23) in southern Italy. Their findings showed that this individual carried a mitochondrial sequence identical to the Cambridge Reference Sequence — a sequence still common in modern Europeans today. This result supports a degree of genetic continuity between Upper Paleolithic Europeans and present-day populations.

However, mtDNA represents only the maternal lineage, a tiny fraction of our total genome. It cannot be used to claim that Cro-Magnons were “genetically identical” to modern Europeans in every respect. Nor does it say anything about other ancestry lines, archaic admixture, or the broader evolutionary context. The study supports some continuity, not a wholesale rejection of African origins.

“Spreading of Homo sapiens” Map
Depicts migration routes of Homo sapiens, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo erectus across the globe. Created by NordNordWest and released into the public domain—meaning no attribution is required. Ideal for a clean, scholarly visual.

Klyosov & Rozhanski (2012): Controversial and Non-Mainstream

Klyosov and Rozhanski’s work, published in Advances in Anthropology, takes a far more provocative stance, arguing that certain Y-DNA haplogroups point to a non-African origin for modern Europeans. They suggest that Cro-Magnons emerged independently of African Homo sapiens populations. While such claims are attention-grabbing, the methodology — often referred to as “DNA genealogy” — has been criticized for lacking rigor and for ignoring extensive peer-reviewed genetic evidence to the contrary.

This paper has not been widely accepted in the scientific community, and its conclusions are viewed as speculative at best. In practice, its most visible role has been as a citation in pseudoscientific or racialist narratives online.

What Experts Actually Accept

The current consensus, supported by decades of archaeology, paleoanthropology, and genomics, is that Homo sapiens evolved in Africa roughly 200,000–300,000 years ago. Around 60,000–70,000 years ago, some groups migrated out, eventually populating the rest of the world. Along the way, they encountered and interbred with other human species, such as Neanderthals, Denisovans, and as-yet unidentified archaic Africans.

This updated Out of Africa model acknowledges complexity — gene flow between populations, regional adaptations, and partial continuity in certain lineages like mtDNA — but still recognizes Africa as the primary cradle of our species.

Conclusion

Caramelli et al. (2008) offers a valuable, nuanced insight into maternal genetic continuity, while Klyosov & Rozhanski (2012) remains on the fringe of mainstream science. The problem is not with the existence of these studies, but with the way they are often stripped of context and repackaged into tidy, misleading narratives.

The reality is messier and far more interesting: modern humans are the product of a shared African origin, layered with migrations, encounters, and interbreeding events that left traces in all of us. The challenge is not to simplify this story into ideological talking points, but to appreciate the deep, interconnected history it reveals.

Ice Age Rhino Fossil Unearthed in Mycenae: Insights into Bronze Age Rituals

A fascinating fossil discovery in Mycenae, dating back to the Ice Age, has sparked new insights into ancient Greek society. The fossil is a two-horned rhinoceros astragalus, or ankle bone, from the species Stephanorhinus, found at the Acropolis of Mycenae during the Late Bronze Age (13th century BCE). The fossil’s collection and preservation raise questions about its significance to the Mycenaeans. Was it part of a ritual, a game, or used as a weight for measuring? The discovery, published in Nature, suggests the fossil may have inspired myths of mythical beings, such as giants or heroes.

The research led by Dr. Vasiliki Pliatsika, Dr. Jacqueline Meier, and Professor Kim Shelton uncovers the earliest known case of fossil collecting in mainland Greece. The fossil was unearthed in the 1970s but was only recently analyzed. It is an unusual find for Mycenae, especially since such fossils are rare in archaeological excavations in Greece. The size and weight of the fossil suggest that it was recognized as special by the Mycenaeans, perhaps attributed to a fantastical or ancient creature.

The fossil was found in a central underground room of a building in the southwestern quarter of Mycenae’s Acropolis, an area with residential remains. This placement may indicate that the Mycenaeans considered it a valuable and significant object. The room itself had limited natural light and rudimentary internal features, which leads researchers to reconsider the room’s purpose, possibly connected to rituals or games.

The rediscovered fossil astragalus from Mycenae, (A) posterior view with excavation tag, and (B) from various aspects. Photos by Meier.

Pliatsika and her colleagues suggest the fossil might have been used in religious or magical rituals, or even as a gaming piece or weight. The fossil weighs exactly 500 grams, coincidentally matching the weight of a mina, a unit of measurement in the Late Bronze Age. Ancient Greeks often repurposed such animal bones, sometimes filling them with lead to use as gaming dice or weights, adding another layer of mystery to its function.

The research underscores the rarity of paleontological finds from ancient Greece, particularly from the Bronze Age. While ancient texts frequently mention fossil discoveries and the myths they inspired, such as giants and Cyclopes, the physical evidence is sparse. This Mycenaean fossil contributes to our understanding of how ancient societies viewed their distant past and the natural world around them.

Ultimately, this find suggests that the Mycenaeans were not only aware of their history but actively sought connections to a mythological past. By collecting and preserving such fossils, they may have participated in the creation of myths, embedding them in their cultural and heroic narratives. The study adds a new dimension to how we perceive Mycenaean society, emphasizing their complex relationship with history and myth.

Cal Orck’o: Bolivia’s Dinosaur Track Wonderland

Nestled on the outskirts of Sucre, Bolivia, the Cal Orck’o dinosaur track site stands as one of the most extraordinary paleontological discoveries in the world. This natural marvel, often referred to as the "dinosaur dance floor," is a testament to the incredible biodiversity and geological history of our planet. The site offers a rare glimpse into the prehistoric past, preserving thousands of footprints that date back approximately 68 million years.

The Geological Wonder of Cal Orck’o

Cal Orck’o is not just remarkable for its paleontological significance but also for its sheer geological grandeur. The site is a massive vertical limestone wall that stretches nearly a mile (1.5 kilometers) in length and towers over 100 meters high. The wall’s steep inclination of 72 degrees showcases the raw power of tectonic forces that have shaped the earth over millions of years. Originally, this surface would have been a flat, muddy plain, part of a sprawling coastal environment where dinosaurs roamed freely. Over time, the movement of tectonic plates and the uplifting of the Andes turned this once-horizontal surface into a vertical wall, preserving the footprints of these ancient creatures as a snapshot of life during the late Cretaceous period.

An Impressive Collection of Dinosaur Tracks

What makes Cal Orck’o truly unique is the sheer number and diversity of dinosaur footprints embedded within its limestone face. The site boasts more than 5,000 individual footprints, arranged in 462 distinct tracks, which were left by at least eight different species of dinosaurs. These tracks tell the story of a thriving ecosystem, offering evidence of interactions between different dinosaur species as they traversed the prehistoric landscape.

Among the species identified at Cal Orck’o are the fearsome theropods, which include large carnivorous dinosaurs like Tyrannosaurus rex. There are also the tracks of smaller, nimble predators, possibly raptors, as well as the distinctive, broad prints of herbivorous sauropods, the long-necked giants of the dinosaur world. One of the most remarkable tracks at the site extends over 300 meters in length, suggesting that the dinosaur which made it was not only enormous but also traveled a significant distance across the ancient plain.

The Legacy of the Dinosaur Footprints

The footprints at Cal Orck’o offer invaluable insights into the behavior, movement, and interaction of dinosaurs. For instance, some tracks suggest herding behavior among sauropods, while others show evidence of solitary hunting by theropods. The diversity of tracks also indicates a rich and varied ecosystem, with different species coexisting and possibly competing for resources.

One of the most fascinating aspects of these tracks is the way they have been preserved. The muddy plains that once existed here were periodically covered by layers of sediment, which protected the footprints from erosion and fossilized them over time. As the landscape continued to change, these layers were compressed into limestone, preserving the footprints in remarkable detail.

The Discovery and Study of Cal Orck’o

The existence of the dinosaur tracks at Cal Orck’o was first brought to global attention in the mid-1990s, during the operations of a local cement company. As workers quarried the limestone, they began to notice the unusual indentations on the rock face. Paleontologists quickly realized the significance of the find, and since then, the site has been the subject of extensive study.

Numerous experts have visited Cal Orck’o to analyze the tracks, and it has also become a popular destination for tourists and dinosaur enthusiasts. The site is now protected and managed as part of the Parque Cretácico (Cretaceous Park), a museum and visitor center that offers guided tours and educational exhibits. The park plays a crucial role in preserving the site and educating the public about the importance of paleontology.

Capturing Cal Orck’o: The Photographers

The breathtaking scale and beauty of Cal Orck’o have attracted photographers from around the world, who have sought to capture the essence of this prehistoric landscape. Among them are Jerry Daykin, Ramon Kristian Arellano, Pete Oxford, and Carsten Drossel, each of whom has contributed to documenting the site’s majesty.

These photographers have captured stunning images that showcase the sheer size of the wall and the intricate detail of the dinosaur tracks. Their work has been instrumental in raising awareness about Cal Orck’o and its significance, helping to bring the wonder of this site to a global audience.

A Window into the Past

Cal Orck’o is more than just a collection of dinosaur tracks—it is a window into a world that existed millions of years before humans walked the earth. This site offers a rare opportunity to see the footprints of creatures that once dominated the planet, preserved in stone for eternity. As one of the most spectacular locations of its kind in the world, Cal Orck’o continues to captivate scientists, photographers, and visitors alike, reminding us of the incredible history written in the rocks beneath our feet.

Rewriting History: Princeton Researchers Reveal The Close Relationship Between Humans and Neanderthals

Princeton Researchers Reveal the Complex History of Neanderthals

Since discovering the first Neanderthal bones, scientists have been curious about how these ancient humans lived and interacted with us. Questions about our differences, similarities, and interactions—whether friendly or hostile—have persisted. The discovery of Denisovans, a Neanderthal-like group in Asia and Oceania, added more intrigue.

Now, a team of geneticists and AI experts, led by Joshua Akey from Princeton, is rewriting this history. They found that modern humans and Neanderthals had a much closer and frequent contact than previously thought.

"This is the first time we've identified multiple waves of mixing between modern humans and Neanderthals," said Liming Li, who worked in Akey’s lab.

For most of history, modern humans and Neanderthals interacted. Humans split from the Neanderthal family tree about 600,000 years ago and developed our modern features about 250,000 years ago. From then until Neanderthals disappeared 30,000 years ago, they regularly met and mixed with modern humans.

Illustration by

Matilda Luk, Office of Communications

Mapping Genetic Interactions

Using genomes from 2,000 living humans, three Neanderthals, and one Denisovan, Akey’s team mapped genetic exchanges over the past 250,000 years with a tool called IBDmix. This tool uses machine learning to decode genomes, revealing more detailed interactions than previous methods.

Their findings showed waves of contact about 200-250,000 years ago, another wave 100-120,000 years ago, and the largest wave about 50-60,000 years ago. This contrasts with the earlier belief that humans stayed in Africa for 200,000 years before spreading out.

"This shows humans were migrating out of Africa and back much earlier and more often than we thought," Akey said. This frequent movement led to many interactions with Neanderthals and Denisovans.

A New Look at Neanderthal Extinction

The study also revealed that Neanderthals had a smaller population than previously believed. Traditional genetic modeling used gene diversity as a proxy for population size. However, using IBDmix, Akey’s team showed that much of the genetic diversity in Neanderthals came from modern humans.

As a result, the estimated population of Neanderthals was reduced from 3,400 to about 2,400 breeding individuals.

Illustration by Michael Francis Reagan

How Neanderthals Disappeared

These findings suggest that Neanderthals didn't go extinct but were absorbed into human populations. Fred Smith first proposed this "assimilation model" in 1989. Akey supports this idea, saying, "Neanderthals were slowly shrinking until they merged with human communities."

"Modern humans gradually overwhelmed Neanderthals and incorporated them into our populations," Akey explained.

The research, titled “Recurrent gene flow between Neanderthals and modern humans over the past 200,000 years,” was published in the journal Science on July 13. The study was supported by the National Institutes of Health (grant R01GM110068 to JMA).

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Read the full research here: “Recurrent gene flow between Neanderthals and modern humans over the past 200,000 years,” by Liming Li, Troy J. Comi, Rob F. Bierma, and Joshua M. Akey, appears in the July 13 issue of the journal Science (DOI: 10.1126/science.adi1768). This research was supported by the National Institutes of Health (grant R01GM110068 to JMA).

World's Oldest Cave Art Unveiled: A Glimpse into Early Human Creativity

A groundbreaking discovery on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi has unveiled the oldest known figurative cave art, dating back at least 51,200 years. This remarkable find, made by a collaborative team of Australian and Indonesian researchers, features a depiction of a wild pig accompanied by three human-like figures, predating the previous record-holder by over 5,000 years.

Unveiling Ancient Creativity

Professor Maxime Aubert from Griffith University in Australia emphasized the significance of this discovery in altering our understanding of human evolution. Speaking to BBC News, he highlighted that this ancient painting offers a profound glimpse into early human abstract thinking and storytelling capabilities. “The painting tells a complex story. It is the oldest piece of evidence we have for storytelling. It shows that humans at the time had the capacity to think in abstract terms,” he remarked.

The Detailed Depiction

Located in the limestone cave of Leang Karampuang in South Sulawesi's Maros-Pangkep region, the artwork portrays a pig standing with its mouth partially open and three human-like figures around it. One figure appears to extend both arms while holding a rod. Another stands directly in front of the pig, with its head close to the animal's snout, seemingly holding a stick that might touch the pig’s throat. The third figure is depicted upside-down, legs splayed, with a hand reaching towards the pig's head.

a, Photostitched panorama of the rock art panel (using photographs enhanced using DStretch_Ire). Ther, therianthrope. b, Tracing of the dated rock art panel showing the results of LA-U-series dating. c, Transect view of the rock art sample BSP4.5 after removal from the artwork, highlighting the paint layer and the three integration zones (ROIs) and associated age calculations. d, LA-MC-ICP-MS imaging of the BSP4.5 232Th/238U isotopic activity ratio.

The Research Team and Significance

Led by Adhi Agus Oktaviana, an Indonesian rock art specialist from the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) in Jakarta, the team underscores the role of narrative storytelling in early human culture. Oktaviana noted, “Humans have probably been telling stories for much longer than 51,200 years, but as words do not fossilize, we can only go by indirect proxies like depictions of scenes in art, and the Sulawesi art is now the oldest such evidence by far that is known to archaeology.”

Evolution of Artistic Expression

While geometric patterns found in South Africa’s Blombos Caves dating back 75,000 to 100,000 years represent early human drawing, they do not constitute representational art. The newly discovered painting in Sulawesi, however, marks a significant evolutionary step, showcasing abstract representation of the surrounding world and indicating advanced cognitive processes.

Exploring the Origins of Abstract Thought

Dr. Henry Gee, senior editor at the journal Nature, where the findings were published, speculated on what might have spurred this cognitive awakening in humans around 50,000 years ago. “Something seems to have happened around 50,000 years ago, shortly after which all other species of humans, such as Neanderthals and the so-called Hobbit, died out,” he said. He suggested that there might be even earlier examples of representational art yet to be discovered.

Implications for Archaeology

This discovery challenges the previously Eurocentric view that abstract thought and art originated in Western Europe, a perspective largely based on ancient cave paintings found in Spain and Southern France. In recent years, however, findings in Sulawesi, including colored hand outlines from 2014 and a 40,000-year-old animal painting in Borneo from 2018, have highlighted Southeast Asia's pivotal role in early human artistic development.

Professor Chris Stringer of the Natural History Museum in London commented on the broader implications, suggesting that more ancient representational art might be found in Africa, where modern humans first evolved. “This find reinforces the idea that representational art was first produced in Africa before 50,000 years ago, and the concept spread as our species spread,” he said.

Advances in Dating Techniques

The precise dating of the Sulawesi cave art was facilitated by a novel method involving laser-cutting minute samples from the artwork. This technique allows for more detailed and accurate analysis, potentially leading to the re-dating of other cave art sites worldwide and further pushing back the timeline of human artistic expression.

A New Perspective on Human History

Adam Brumm from Griffith University highlighted the significance of these findings in understanding early human storytelling. “It is noteworthy that the oldest cave art we have found in Sulawesi thus far consists of recognizable scenes: that is, paintings that depict humans and animals interacting in such a way that we can infer the artist intended to communicate a narrative of some kind—a story,” he explained.

This discovery not only reshapes our understanding of early human creativity but also underscores the importance of narrative in the development of human culture, offering a deeper appreciation of our species’ cognitive and artistic evolution.

Back to the Beginning: The Best Movies Set in Prehistoric Times

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1. One Million Years B.C. (1966)

2. Quest for Fire (1981)

3. The Clan of the Cave Bear (1986)

4. 10,000 BC (2008)

5. Alpha (2018)

6. Walking with Dinosaurs (2013)

7. The Land Before Time (1988)

8. When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth (1970)

9. Caveman (1981)

10. Prehistoric Women (1967)

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Travel back to a time when mammoths roamed the earth and our ancestors first began to shape the world. The prehistoric period has always been a source of fascination for filmmakers and audiences alike. Over the years, we've seen countless movies set in this era, from campy B-movies to big-budget blockbusters. In this article, we'll take a look at the best movies set in prehistoric times, exploring their unique stories, themes, and cinematic achievements.

1. One Million Years B.C. (1966)

Directed by Don Chaffey, "One Million Years B.C." is a classic film best known for its stunning visual effects and Ray Harryhausen's incredible stop-motion animation. Set in the prehistoric era, this film tells the story of Tumak, a caveman who is banished from his tribe and forced to survive in the harsh and unforgiving world of the Stone Age. Along the way, he encounters various prehistoric creatures and eventually falls in love with Loana, a woman from a more advanced tribe.

This film is iconic for its portrayal of the prehistoric world, featuring groundbreaking special effects and memorable creatures such as the giant turtle, the brontosaurus, and the allosaurus. The movie is also famous for featuring a then-unknown Raquel Welch in a fur bikini, which has since become an iconic image in pop culture.

2. Quest for Fire (1981)

"Quest for Fire," directed by Jean-Jacques Annaud, is a critically acclaimed film that delves into the lives and struggles of a small tribe of prehistoric humans. Set 80,000 years ago, the film follows the tribe's journey to find a new source of fire after their precious flame is accidentally extinguished. Along the way, they encounter various tribes and creatures and ultimately discover the secret of creating fire.

Based on the novel by J.H. Rosny Sr., the film is known for its dedication to historical accuracy and its creative use of language. Linguistic expert Anthony Burgess developed a unique prehistoric language for the characters to speak, giving the film an authentic feel. The film also features detailed and realistic costume and set designs, further immersing the viewer in the prehistoric world.

3. The Clan of the Cave Bear (1986)

Based on the best-selling novel by Jean M. Auel, "The Clan of the Cave Bear" tells the story of Ayla, a young girl who is orphaned and raised by a tribe of Neanderthals. Directed by Michael Chapman, the film explores themes of survival, adaptation, and the clash of cultures as Ayla struggles to find her place in a world that doesn't understand her.

Daryl Hannah's performance as Ayla is highly praised, as is the film's realistic portrayal of prehistoric life. The movie is also notable for its beautiful cinematography, capturing the breathtaking landscapes of the prehistoric world.

4. 10,000 BC (2008)

"10,000 BC" is a big-budget epic directed by Roland Emmerich that takes viewers on a thrilling adventure through the prehistoric world. The film follows D'Leh, a young hunter who embarks on a perilous journey to rescue his love, Evolet, after she is kidnapped by an advanced civilization. Along the way, D'Leh encounters various prehistoric creatures and forms alliances with other tribes, leading to an epic battle for the future of humanity.

Despite mixed reviews, "10,000 BC" is known for its stunning visual effects, bringing the prehistoric world to life in a way never seen before. The film is also notable for its exploration of early human societies and the impact of cultural and technological advancements on their way of life.

5. Alpha (2018)

"Alpha," directed by Albert Hughes, is a visually stunning film that tells the story of a young hunter named Keda, who is left for dead after a hunting expedition goes awry. Set in the last Ice Age, the film follows Keda's journey to reunite with his tribe, accompanied by a lone wolf that he befriends along the way. Their bond grows stronger as they rely on each other for survival in the harsh and unforgiving wilderness.

"Alpha" is praised for its breathtaking cinematography and the unique bond portrayed between Keda and his wolf companion, symbolizing the early domestication of dogs by humans. The film is also known for its accurate portrayal of prehistoric environments and its focus on the human-animal relationship in our evolutionary history.

6. Walking with Dinosaurs (2013)

Based on the groundbreaking BBC documentary series of the same name, "Walking with Dinosaurs" is a family-friendly film that brings the prehistoric world to life through cutting-edge CGI technology. Directed by Barry Cook and Neil Nightingale, the film follows the adventures of Patchi, a young Pachyrhinosaurus, as he navigates the challenges of growing up in a world filled with danger and wonder.

"Walking with Dinosaurs" is celebrated for its educational value, providing audiences with a glimpse into the lives of dinosaurs and the environments they inhabited. The film's stunning visual effects and attention to detail make it a must-watch for anyone interested in prehistoric life.

7. The Land Before Time (1988)

"The Land Before Time" is an animated classic directed by Don Bluth, which has captivated the hearts of children and adults alike since its release. The film follows the journey of Littlefoot, a young Apatosaurus, who becomes separated from his family during an earthquake. Along the way, he befriends other young dinosaurs, including Cera the Triceratops, Ducky the Saurolophus, Petrie the Pteranodon, and Spike the Stegosaurus. Together, they embark on a quest to find the legendary Great Valley, a place of safety and abundance.

With its endearing characters and heartwarming story, "The Land Before Time" remains a beloved classic that has spawned numerous sequels and spin-offs, introducing new generations to the wonders of the prehistoric world.

8. When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth (1970)

Directed by Val Guest, "When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth" is a British film that takes place in a prehistoric world inhabited by both humans and dinosaurs. The film follows a tribe of cavemen as they struggle for survival and attempt to navigate the dangers posed by the massive creatures that share their world.

Featuring impressive stop-motion animation by Jim Danforth, the film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects. "When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth" is best remembered for its creative depiction of the prehistoric world and the awe-inspiring dinosaurs that ruled it.

9. Caveman (1981)

This comedy film, directed by Carl Gottlieb, stars Ringo Starr as Atouk, a bumbling caveman who is banished from his tribe due to his infatuation with the chief's mate. Atouk then forms his own tribe of misfits, as they face various challenges and comedic misadventures in their quest for survival.

"Caveman" is known for its slapstick humor and lighthearted take on prehistoric life, offering a fun and entertaining look at the trials and tribulations of our ancestors.

10. Prehistoric Women (1967)

"Prehistoric Women," also known as "Slave Girls," is a campy British film directed by Michael Carreras. Set in a prehistoric world, the film tells the story of a tribe of Amazonian women who enslave men and use them as laborers and breeding stock. However, when a male hunter named David stumbles upon their hidden society, he sets in motion a chain of events that leads to a revolt against the oppressive female regime.

While not critically acclaimed, "Prehistoric Women" is a cult classic that offers a unique, tongue-in-cheek take on prehistoric society and gender dynamics.

Conclusion

From thrilling adventures to touching stories of survival, these movies set in prehistoric times showcase the incredible power of cinema to transport us to a world long gone. Each film offers a unique perspective on the lives of our ancestors and the creatures that once roamed the earth, providing an engaging and immersive experience for audiences of all ages. As technology and our understanding of the prehistoric world continue to advance, we can expect even more captivating stories to be told on the big screen, further deepening our connection to the past.

The Mizyn Swastika of Ukraine: Is This Swastika's Earliest Known Appearance?

The symbol of the swastika, often associated with its appropriation in the 20th century, carries a much deeper and ancient historical significance. Its oldest known representation, dating back approximately 15,000 years, offers a fascinating glimpse into Upper Paleolithic art and symbolism.

The Mizyn archaeological site, located on the right bank of the Desna River near the village of Mizyn in Chernihiv oblast, Ukraine, is home to this ancient swastika. Discovered in 1908, this site has since been recognized as a pivotal example of Magdalenian culture in Ukraine. The First World War and the ensuing Ukrainian-Soviet War (1917–1921) halted extensive study of the site, but initial excavations carried out by Fedir Vovk, Petro P. Yefymenko, and Levko Chykalenko from 1908 to 1916 revealed its historical richness. Research resumed in 1930 under Mykhailo Rudynsky and continued after World War II, with significant contributions from archaeologists like Ivan Shovkoplias and Serhii Bibikov.

The site itself revealed five circular dwellings, the largest spanning 6 meters in diameter, constructed with wooden poles and animal skins and reinforced with mammoth bones or tusks. The inhabitants, who primarily hunted mammoths, deer, and other animals, left behind about 113,000 pieces of flint, of which 4,500 were identified as tools, including spear tips and needles. Additionally, numerous artifacts were discovered, including stylized sculptures of women and animals—predominantly mammoths. These artifacts often featured geometric decorative motifs, including the earliest known depiction of a meandering ornament and a swastika.

The swastika found at Mizyn is part of "an intricate meander pattern of joined-up swastikas" observed on a late Paleolithic figurine of a bird, meticulously carved from mammoth ivory. According to mythologist Joseph Campbell, this discovery points to a symbolic use of the swastika that dates back to around 10,000 BCE. Such artifacts underline the swastika’s long history as a symbol of divinity and spirituality in various ancient cultures, long before its misappropriation in recent history.

In addition to ornamental and utilitarian objects, some of the oldest known musical instruments made from mammoth bones were identified at Mizyn. The artifacts excavated from Mizyn are now preserved in the Archeological Museum of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and the National Museum of the History of Ukraine, located in Kyiv.

Today, the Mizyn site is part of the Mizyn National Nature Park, established in 2006, safeguarding its rich historical and cultural heritage. This site not only offers a window into the life of Upper Paleolithic humans but also serves as a testament to the enduring nature of symbolic expression across millennia.

New Research Sheds Light to The Persian Plateau: A Crucial Hub for Homo Sapiens Post-Africa Migration

The Persian plateau, a region that spans modern-day Iran, has been identified as a critical hub for Homo sapiens following their migration out of Africa. This pivotal role was established through the integration of genetic evidence, paleoecological models, and archaeological findings. The research, led by a team of scientists from various institutions, indicates that Homo sapiens dispersed from Africa approximately 70–60 thousand years ago (kya), but it wasn't until around 45 kya that they began to colonize all of Eurasia extensively. The interim period, which saw these early humans settle in the Persian plateau, has been a subject of considerable scientific interest.

The Genetic Evidence

Genetic studies reveal that populations within the Persian Plateau possess ancestry components closely matching those of the earliest Homo sapiens who left Africa. This suggests that the plateau acted as a significant waypoint for our species during their early Eurasian colonization attempts. The genetic markers found in the region provide a direct link to these ancient travelers, shedding light on the movements and expansions of early human populations.

Focal area for the Hub (A, white to light yellow hues show the most likely Hub location from a genetic perspective) and for Basal Eurasian ancestry (B, dark hues show higher proportion of a Basal Eurasian component) based on at least 75% WEC ancestry. The grayscale in individual population points is proportional to the inferred proximity to the Hub (A) or the proportion of Basal Eurasian ancestry (B). kya stands for thousands of years ago. Source Data in Supplementary Data 11.

Paleoecological Insights

The research further explores the environmental conditions that made the Persian plateau a suitable habitation site for early Homo sapiens. Using paleoecological models, the team reconstructed the climatic conditions of the plateau between 70 and 30 kya. The models indicate that the region could support human life throughout this period, offering a stable environment for these communities. Moreover, the plateau's ecological diversity and resources could sustain larger populations compared to other West Asian regions, making it an ideal settlement area during this epoch.

Archaeological Corroboration

Archaeological evidence from the Persian Plate supports the genetic and paleoecological findings. Sites across the region have yielded artifacts and remains dating back to the relevant period, indicating a continuous human presence. These archaeological sites, alongside the genetic and environmental data, paint a comprehensive picture of the plateau as a bustling hub for early humans.

The combination of genetic, paleoecological, and archaeological evidence positions the Persian plateau as a critical juncture in the story of human migration and settlement. This research not only highlights the importance of the region in our prehistoric past but also opens new avenues for understanding the complex journey of Homo sapiens as they spread across the globe. Further investigations into this area are likely to yield even more insights into the early chapters of human history.

Were Neanderthals Cannibals?: A Critical Analysis of Ludovic Slimak's Book

In the realm of paleoanthropology and archaeology, the question of Neanderthals' true nature has long been a subject of fascination and debate. Ludovic Slimak's recent book, "The Naked Neanderthal," offers a fresh perspective that challenges conventional wisdom. This article delves into the key arguments and insights presented in Slimak's work, shedding light on the enigmatic world of our ancient cousins, the Neanderthals.

Neanderthals: A Journey into the Past

Ludovic Slimak's book takes readers on a journey through time, back to a period when Neanderthals roamed western Eurasia. These hominins, who emerged between 400,000 and 350,000 years ago, have often been portrayed as the close intellectual and creative relatives of Homo sapiens. However, Slimak challenges this notion, arguing that Neanderthals are far more peculiar and mysterious than previously believed.

The Eemian Interglacial: A Critical Phase

One of the book's focal points is the Eemian interglacial, a warm phase that lasted over 10,000 years and began approximately 123,000 years ago. During this time, much of the Neanderthals' territory was covered in lush forests. Slimak directs our attention to this period, emphasizing its significance in understanding Neanderthal culture and behavior.

Symbolic Hunting: Unveiling Rituals

Slimak shares insights from his own excavations in southern France, notably at Le Grand Abri aux Puces. Here, he observes evidence that Neanderthals may have practiced symbolic hunting, specifically targeting male animals. This intriguing behavior raises questions about the existence of ritualistic practices among Neanderthals, challenging preconceived notions about their cognitive abilities.

Cannibalism: A Social Norm?

According to discoveries at Moula Guercy, the book also discusses the contentious subject of cannibalism among Neanderthals. Rather than interpreting these behaviors as signs of desperation during the warm Eemian period, Slimak proposes that they were part of normal hominin social interactions, drawing parallels with evidence from archaeology and primatology.

The Châtelperronian Enigma

Slimak delves into the enigmatic Châtelperronian culture, which dates back to approximately 43,000–39,000 years ago in France and northern Spain. This culture is defined by distinctive stone tools and objects that share similarities with both Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. The debate surrounding whether Neanderthals independently developed these artifacts or were influenced by Homo sapiens has been thoroughly examined.

Challenging Assumptions: The Need for Caution

A recurring theme in Slimak's book is the need for caution in interpreting archaeological evidence. He emphasizes the importance of rigorous excavation standards and maintaining the integrity of excavated layers. This call for methodological rigor serves as a reminder to archaeologists to remain vigilant in their pursuit of knowledge.

The Neanderthal Extinction Debate

Slimak's work also touches upon the contentious issue of Neanderthal extinction. While genomic analysis suggests multiple phases of interbreeding with Homo sapiens, Slimak presents evidence from the Grotte Mandrin site in France, suggesting that humans may have rapidly replaced Neanderthals over a short timeframe. This leads him to propose extermination, rather than assimilation, as the likely cause of Neanderthal extinction.

Artistic Sensibilities: A Matter of Debate

The author critically evaluates the notion of Neanderthal artistic sensibilities. He challenges the tendency to depict Neanderthals in museum reconstructions with painted skin or shell necklaces, arguing that these artifacts might have practical purposes. While Slimak acknowledges the potential aesthetic value of engraved bones and colored fossil shells, he remains skeptical of their significance.

The Call for a Holistic Approach

Throughout the book, Slimak advocates for a holistic approach to archaeology. He emphasizes the importance of extensive fieldwork and direct engagement with archaeological sites, cautioning against drawing conclusions solely from museum collections. While his perspective may be controversial, it underscores the necessity of firsthand experience in the study of Neanderthals.

Conclusion

"The Naked Neanderthal" by Ludovic Slimak challenges established perceptions of Neanderthals and their culture. While his views may not align with mainstream archaeology in every aspect, his book serves as a thought-provoking contribution to the ongoing discourse. It reminds us of the complexity and uncertainty that still shroud the enigmatic world of our ancient cousins. In the pursuit of knowledge, Slimak's call for rigorous methodology and an open-minded approach should be a guiding light for all archaeologists.

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References

- Slimak, L. "The Naked Neanderthal." Allen Lane, 2023.

Rethinking Neanderthals: Were They Truly a Separate Species?

For decades, Neanderthals have been portrayed as stoop-backed, heavy-browed, and primitive beings, existing a few rungs below modern humans on the evolutionary ladder. However, recent research challenges this long-held view, suggesting that Neanderthals may not be the separate species we've always believed them to be. In a groundbreaking study conducted by a team of researchers led by University of Trento archaeologist Diego Angelucci, evidence from the Gruta da Oliveira cave site in central Portugal paints a different picture of our ancient cousins.

A Shared History

The prevailing belief that Neanderthals were a distinct species, Homo neanderthalensis, is rooted in their anatomical differences from modern humans. These early findings, dating back to the 19th century, led to the notion that Neanderthals were intellectually inferior to Homo sapiens. However, as science advanced and more discoveries were made, our understanding of the Neanderthals began to evolve.

The Gruta da Oliveira Findings

The Gruta da Oliveira cave site has provided critical insights into the lives of Neanderthals. The research conducted over two decades reveals that Neanderthals shared their habitat with various animal species, including wolves, lions, brown bears, and lynxes, between 93,000 and 71,000 years ago. Among the artifacts and remains found in the cave, the discovery of bones that showed evidence of the controlled use of fire was particularly significant.

Neanderthals, it appears, were skilled in using fire for a multitude of purposes. They cooked a variety of meats, such as goat, deer, and horses, over a hearth that remained in a fixed position. This suggests that fire was a central element in their daily lives, not only for sustenance but also for warmth and protection from predators.

The Use of Fire

The controlled use of fire is a defining characteristic of advanced human cultures. While it's well-documented that our ancestors utilized fire for various purposes, including cooking and protection, the revelation that Neanderthals were also adept at fire management challenges the notion of their simplicity. As Diego Angelucci states, "There is a general agreement among archaeologists that they knew how to use fire."

The methods Neanderthals used to start fires remain a subject of inquiry. However, there is a tendency to believe that Tzi, the Iceman, used methods akin to those of later Neolithic cultures, like the flint and tinder method. This suggests a level of sophistication in their survival skills and technology.

A Shared Ancestry

Genetic analysis has further blurred the lines between Neanderthals and modern humans. It is now well established that there has been interbreeding between these two groups multiple times throughout history. This genetic connection weakens the argument for classifying Neanderthals as a separate species, as they are, in essence, our ancient relatives.

Conclusion

While the classification of Homo neanderthalensis may not disappear entirely, the accumulated evidence challenges the traditional view of Neanderthals as a separate and primitive species. The Gruta da Oliveira research and genetic studies reveal a more complex narrative, where Neanderthals are not distant cousins but closer siblings in our shared evolutionary history.

As we continue to delve into the past, it becomes increasingly clear that the Neanderthals were not the simple-minded brutes we once imagined. Instead, they were resourceful, capable, and culturally sophisticated beings who deserve a place alongside us in the Homo sapiens family portrait. This reevaluation of Neanderthals underscores the dynamic nature of scientific understanding and our ever-evolving perception of our ancient ancestors.

Rethinking Neanderthals: Were They More Human Than We Thought?

For over a century and a half, Neanderthals have been cast as primitive, stoop-backed brutes, seemingly distant relatives of modern humans. This enduring image, shaped by the discoveries of the mid-19th century, has persisted despite mounting evidence to the contrary. Recent research conducted by a team led by University of Trento archaeologist Diego Angelucci suggests that it's time to reconsider our perspective on Neanderthals. Are they really a separate species, Homo neanderthalensis, or should we view them as different forms of humans? In this article, we delve into the evolving understanding of Neanderthals and their remarkable similarities to our own species.

A Shared History

The Gruta da Oliveira cave site in central Portugal has been a focal point for researchers studying Neanderthal history. Angelucci's team spent two decades excavating this site, uncovering intriguing evidence that challenges conventional wisdom. They found that Neanderthals, more than 71,000 years ago, coexisted with various wild animals, including wolves, lions, brown bears, and lynxes.

What sets this discovery apart is the strong evidence of controlled fire use. Neanderthals at Gruta da Oliveira were not just huddling around fires for warmth; they were cooking a variety of meats, from goats and deer to horses, on a well-maintained hearth. This suggests that fire played a central role in their daily lives, a skill often associated with modern human culture.

The Fire of Innovation

The controlled use of fire has deep implications for our understanding of Neanderthal capabilities. While it's known that other hominins appreciated fire for hundreds of thousands of years, Neanderthals might have taken it a step further. They didn't merely rely on naturally occurring fires; they actively started, managed, and used fire for cooking, heating, and defense.

The exact methods they employed to spark these flames remain a mystery, but Diego Angelucci speculates that they may have used techniques similar to those seen in Neolithic practices, such as the flint and tinder methods used by Ötzi, the Iceman. This suggests a level of ingenuity and problem-solving that aligns more closely with modern human behavior than previously believed.

A Shared Ancestry

As genetic analysis continues to reveal, Neanderthals interbred with our ancestors on multiple occasions throughout history. This genetic mixing underscores the blurred lines between Neanderthals and modern humans. It challenges the notion of them being a separate species and emphasizes their position as close relatives.

While the classification of Homo neanderthalensis remains a part of our scientific taxonomy, it's time to reconsider how we view Neanderthals. The evidence from Gruta da Oliveira and elsewhere suggests that Neanderthals were not as different from us as once thought. They were more than mere cousins; they were different forms of humans who shared a rich history, sophisticated culture, and a mastery of fire. It's time to welcome Neanderthals into the Homo sapiens family portrait, recognizing them as our remarkable relatives who have much to teach us about our shared past.

Uncovering Neanderthal Culinary Intelligence: Evidence from Archaeological Excavations

In a remarkable revelation, recent excavations at the Gruta de Oliveira in central Portugal have shed new light on the culinary skills and intelligence of our ancient cousins, the Neanderthals. These findings, published in a groundbreaking study titled "Formation processes, fire use, and patterns of human occupation across the Middle Paleolithic of Gruta da Oliveira," further solidify the understanding that Neanderthals were far more sophisticated than previously believed.

Cooking with Fire: A Mark of Intelligence

Neanderthals, often portrayed as primitive beings in popular culture, have long been underestimated in terms of their intellectual capabilities. However, the discovery of intentionally constructed hearths inside the Gruta de Oliveira, where Neanderthals dwelled approximately 100,000 to 70,000 years ago, provides compelling evidence that they possessed the knowledge and skill to master fire.

Diego Angelucci, an archaeologist from the University of Trento and co-author of the study, emphasizes the significance of this discovery: "This confirms our observations and theories from previous studies. Neanderthals were capable of symbolic thought, artistic expression, body adornment, and a diverse diet. Moreover, our findings unequivocally demonstrate that they regularly cooked their food, establishing their culinary prowess on par with the Homo sapiens, who came much later."

Excavation in the Gruta de Oliveira. Credit: João Zilhão

Twenty Years of Meticulous Excavations

The Gruta de Oliveira, a part of the expansive Almonda karst system, served as a time capsule of Neanderthal life. Excavations carried out from 1989 to 2012, under the supervision of João Zilhão from the University of Lisbon, yielded a treasure trove of artifacts and remains spanning from approximately 120,000 to 40,000 years ago.

According to Angelucci, the site offered an extensive range of artifacts, from Lower Paleolithic relics to the Mousterian culture's chipped stones. However, the hearths found during these excavations have emerged as the most intriguing discovery, offering insights into the culinary practices of Neanderthals.

“Hearths and Food Remains”

Around a dozen hearths were meticulously unearthed at different stratigraphic levels within an excavation area of approximately 30 square meters and six meters deep. These circular, basin-like structures contained remnants of burnt bones, wood, and ash. Notably, the underlying rock showed signs of heat-induced discoloration, confirming the hearths' primary placement and long-term use.

These hearths were instrumental in cooking a diverse menu that included goats, deer, horses, aurochs (extinct bulls), rhinos, and even turtles, which were likely prepared on their carapaces and stewed on hot stones. Furthermore, previous excavations in Mediterranean caves near Cartagena (Spain) revealed remains of fish, mussels, mollusks, and roasted pine nuts, showcasing the breadth of Neanderthal cuisine.

The Mysteries of Fire Ignition

Despite these extensive findings, the methods employed by Neanderthals to start fires remain shrouded in mystery. Speculations point to techniques such as striking flint rocks together to create sparks on tinder, similar to methods discovered through the study of Ötzi, the Ice Man. However, no conclusive evidence has been found to substantiate these theories.

Nevertheless, the excavations provided an opportunity to compare Neanderthal life with that of Homo sapiens in Upper Paleolithic periods in the same region. Surprisingly, the results showed striking similarities in how both groups inhabited and utilized caves, suggesting that they were different human forms rather than distinct species.

Interdisciplinary Archaeology: A Key to Understanding

This groundbreaking study culminated in decades of dedicated work by archaeologists and researchers from various disciplines. Stone tools, bone remains, spatial analyses, stratigraphy, and microscopic studies were all employed to piece together this complex puzzle.

Diego Angelucci emphasized the importance of interdisciplinary archaeology, stating, "This type of archaeology is carried out with the most advanced methodologies. They require time and resources, and this is what we teach our students."

In conclusion, the Gruta de Oliveira excavations have shattered misconceptions about Neanderthals, highlighting their culinary prowess and intelligence. As the study unveils more layers of our ancient past, it becomes increasingly evident that our shared human history is far richer and more complex than previously imagined.

Scientists Reconstruct the Face of Homo Heidelbergensis: A Glimpse into Our Distant Ancestors

Anthropologists in Greece have undertaken an awe-inspiring endeavor to shed light on the enigmatic Homo heidelbergensis, a relatively obscure cousin of the Neanderthals who roamed the Earth between 700,000 and 200,000 years ago. Using state-of-the-art facial reconstruction techniques, these scientists have meticulously crafted a portrait that offers a tantalizing glimpse into what Homo heidelbergensis might have looked like.

Homo heidelbergensis, an extinct species within the Homo genus, left behind a fossil record dating back to the Middle Pleistocene era, spanning across Africa, Europe, and possibly Asia. This species possessed distinctive features, including a prominent browridge, a larger braincase, and a flatter facial structure when compared to its older hominid counterparts.

One of the most remarkable aspects of Homo heidelbergensis was its ability to adapt to colder climates, characterized by its short and wide physique, likely an evolutionary response to conserve heat. Notably, this species pioneered the art of shelter-building, constructing rudimentary dwellings from wood and rock—a testament to their resourcefulness. They were also the earliest known hunters of large animals, leaving behind fossilized remains of wild creatures such as deer, horses, elephants, hippos, and rhinos, bearing telltale butchery marks. Wooden spears unearthed at sites like Schöningen, Germany, further attest to their prowess as hunters.

Frontal view of the portrait of Homo heidelbergensis from Petralona, Greece, with hair and skin pigmentation. Image credit: Aidonis et al., doi: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104206.

The origins of the name "Homo heidelbergensis" can be traced back to 1908, when it was coined to accommodate the discovery of an ancient human jaw in a quarry near Heidelberg, Germany. However, it was only towards the end of the 20th century that this species gained broader recognition due to the unearthing of additional fossil specimens. Notable among these discoveries are specimens from Bodo in Ethiopia, Kabwe in Zambia, Ndutu in Tanzania, Petralona in Greece, Arago in France, and potentially Dali in China.

The ambitious task of reconstructing the face of Homo heidelbergensis was entrusted to anthropologist Christina Papageorgopoulou and her colleagues at Democritus University of Thrace. They turned to the well-preserved skull found in Petralona, Greece, a treasure trove of anatomical information that has played a pivotal role in unraveling the mysteries of our ancient relatives.

"The Petralona skull is one of the most anatomically complete human fossils of the Middle Pleistocene and a key paleoanthropological finding in Europe," emphasized the researchers. It was serendipitously discovered in 1960 during an amateur exploration of Petralona Cave, nestled in the rugged landscapes of Chalkidiki, Northern Greece.

The skull is kept in the Museum of Geology, Paleontology and Paleoanthropology of the Aristotle University in Thessaloniki

Currently housed in the Museum of Geology, Palaeontology, and Paleoanthropology of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, the Petralona skull has yielded critical insights. The scientists deduced that this skull belonged to a male individual, judging by its sexually dimorphic characteristics. Furthermore, the closure of cranial sutures indicated a young age, likely no older than 35 years, with an estimated body mass of approximately 52 kilograms.

To bring the face of the Petralona man to life, the team employed a cutting-edge Artec Spider 3D scanner to digitize a cast of the original skull. While the facial skeleton remained intact and undistorted, minor deformations in the rear of the vault and temporal bones had no bearing on the facial morphology. However, a key piece was missing—the mandible. In this critical juncture of reconstruction, the researchers turned to the Mauer jaw, often referred to as the holotype specimen of Homo heidelbergensis. This ancient relic, dated to approximately 609,000 years ago, provided a vital missing link.

The resulting facial approximation of the Petralona man showcased characteristic features: a sloped forehead, massive brow ridges, and facial robusticity that set Homo heidelbergensis apart from both Neanderthals and anatomically modern Homo sapiens. This meticulous reconstruction provides an invaluable window into the past and enhances our understanding of our distant ancestors.

"This facial approximation of the Petralona man represents a milestone in paleoanthropological research, marking the first hominin facial approximation derived from Greek material," the researchers remarked. While acknowledging the inherent limitations of facial approximation techniques, especially when applied to archaic hominins, they underscored the immense potential of this method in cultural, educational, and scientific contexts.

In an age marked by rapid technological advancements, encompassing fields like medical imaging, geometric morphometrics, ancient DNA analysis, 3D scanning, image processing, and virtual reality, facial approximation stands poised to become an invaluable tool for the dissemination of cultural heritage and scientific exploration. The unveiling of Homo heidelbergensis's visage is not just a tribute to our ancestral lineage but also a testament to the power of cutting-edge technology in reconstructing the past.

The team's groundbreaking research, which ushers us closer to our ancient relatives, has been published in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, marking a significant milestone in our quest to understand the fascinating tapestry of human evolution.

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References:

Asterios Aidonis et al., 2023 Digital 3D facial approximation of the Petralona skull Methodological issues and applications Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 51: 104206; doi: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104206.

23,000 Years Ago: New Research Sheds Light on Early Human Presence in America

For decades, the question of when and how humans first settled in the Americas has been a contentious topic in the field of archaeology. The conventional wisdom, until recently, was that humans arrived in the North American interior around 14,000 years ago, coinciding with the formation of an ice-free corridor between massive ice sheets in Canada and the northern United States. However, groundbreaking research has challenged this narrative, pushing the timeline back by several millennia.

In a significant departure from the previously accepted timeline, a study published in September 2021 asserted that humans had set foot in the Americas approximately 23,000 years ago, a time when the last Ice Age was at its peak. This revelation added a substantial 7,000 years to the known history of human presence on the continent, effectively rewriting the prehistory of the Americas.

Critics of this extraordinary claim pointed to concerns about the accuracy of the radiocarbon dating method used in the 2021 study. They raised the issue of the "hard water" effect, which occurs when groundwater, isolated from the atmosphere for an extended period, contains carbon-14 that has already undergone radioactive decay, potentially skewing radiocarbon dates.

Image courtesy of USGS.

Acknowledging these concerns as an essential part of the scientific process, researchers embarked on a mission to retest and confirm their findings. Their efforts included innovative techniques and methodologies that shed new light on the ancient past of the Americas.

One of the key aspects of the new research involved dating fossilized pollen grains found in sediment layers both above and below the footprints discovered near White Sands, New Mexico. These common ditch grass seeds were subjected to radiocarbon dating, a well-established and reliable technique for dating organic materials. However, dating pollen grains presented a unique challenge due to their minuscule size, typically around 0.005 millimeters in diameter. To obtain a sufficient amount of carbon for dating, thousands of pollen grains were required.

To overcome this challenge, the researchers turned to medical science and employed a technique called flow cytometry. Normally used to count and sample individual human cells, this method uses the fluorescence of cells stimulated by a laser to identify and isolate them from a liquid stream. In this case, it was adapted to count and concentrate fossilized pollen grains for radiocarbon dating.

The footprints come from a group of people of different ages. National Park Service

After extensive and painstaking laboratory work spanning over a year, the researchers successfully dated the pollen, with a focus on pine pollen that was unaffected by the "hard water" effect. These new dates validated the original chronology of the footprints and conclusively demonstrated that old water effects were not at play at the White Sands site.

Beyond confirming the timeline of the footprints, the pollen analysis also provided insights into the vegetation that thrived when the people left their marks in the area. The plant species identified were consistent with what one would expect to find in Ice Age New Mexico.

As an additional layer of verification, the research team employed optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating. This method relies on the accumulation of energy within buried quartz grains over time, originating from background radiation. By measuring the light emitted by these grains when exposed to light in a controlled laboratory setting, scientists can determine the last time the grains saw sunlight, thus providing an age estimate. Remarkably, the OSL dates aligned with those obtained through other dating techniques.

In summary, the combination of radiocarbon dating, pollen analysis using flow cytometry, and OSL dating has provided a robust and convincing argument for the presence of humans in the Americas approximately 23,000 years ago. This research challenges long-held beliefs about the timing of human migration to the continent and underscores the importance of continued scientific exploration and inquiry.

The journey to understanding the history of human settlement in the Americas is far from over, but with each breakthrough, we inch closer to unraveling the mysteries of our past. This remarkable research not only advances our knowledge of ancient human migration but also highlights the power of interdisciplinary collaboration in unraveling the tapestry of our shared history.

What Was Earth Like in the Age of Giant Insects?

Earth in the Age of Giant Insects: A Fascinating Glimpse into the Carboniferous Era

The Earth has witnessed a remarkable history of life, with its inhabitants evolving and adapting to the ever-changing environmental conditions. One of the most intriguing chapters in our planet's story is the Carboniferous period, during which Earth was home to giant insects the size of crows and millipedes as long as cars.

In this article, we'll delve into the astounding world of Earth during the age of giant insects, exploring key insights into this captivating era.

Gigantic Insects and the Meganeura

Imagine a world where insects ruled the skies, and among them, the meganeura, a giant carnivorous insect with a wingspan of up to 75 cm, soared majestically. The Carboniferous period, which lasted from approximately 358 to 298 million years ago, was marked by the presence of these massive creatures.

These giant insects would have been a terrifying sight in the sky, far different from the insects we encounter today. Oxygen Levels and Gigantism One of the driving factors behind the gigantism observed in insects during the Carboniferous era was the extraordinarily high oxygen levels in the atmosphere, estimated to be as high as 35%.

This surplus of oxygen allowed insects to grow to such massive sizes because it enabled them to deliver oxygen directly to their tissues through a network of tubes called trachea. In essence, the high oxygen levels acted as a natural booster for insect growth.

Ecosystem Evolution

The Carboniferous period also marked a crucial turning point in Earth's ecosystems. It was during this time that the first seed-bearing plants evolved, leading to the creation of more diverse ecosystems than ever before. These plants played a significant role in shaping the habitats and food sources available to the giant insects of that era.

Continental Drift and Climate Change

The movement of landmasses during the formation of the supercontinent Pangea had a profound impact on ocean currents, wind patterns, and the global climate during the Carboniferous period. These changes in climate and geography likely influenced the distribution of habitats for giant insects, driving them to adapt or perish.

The Decline of Giant Insects

As intriguing as the age of giant insects may be, it eventually came to an end. The decline in rainforests and a reduction in oxygen levels led to the extinction of these colossal creatures. The changing environment favored smaller insects that could thrive in the new conditions.

This shift marked the end of an era that had seen insects grow to unparalleled sizes.

Environmental Awareness and Restoration

While we can only imagine the sights and sounds of the Carboniferous era, it's crucial to draw connections to our modern world. Understanding Earth's history can inspire us to take better care of our planet. Platforms like Planet Wild's videos not only raise awareness about environmental issues but also provide actionable ways for viewers to help restore global ecosystems.

By learning from Earth's past, we can work towards a more sustainable and balanced future.

The age of giant insects during the Carboniferous period offers a captivating glimpse into Earth's prehistoric past. The combination of high oxygen levels, evolving ecosystems, and changing climates created an environment where insects reached astonishing sizes.

However, as the world transformed, so did its inhabitants, ultimately leading to the extinction of these gigantic creatures. Today, we can reflect on this remarkable era and use it as a source of inspiration for our ongoing efforts to protect and preserve our planet's delicate ecosystems.

The Enchanted Crystal Caves of Mexico: Uncovering the Mysteries Beneath the Earth

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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There is a hidden world of glittering beauty in the very center of Mexico, a world where light dances off walls of sparkling crystals and the air is filled with the soft hum of the earth's energy. Mexico's crystal caves are a natural wonder, a place where the seemingly impossible becomes possible and where the earth's mysteries appear to be revealed in the caves' glimmering light.

Nothing else on Earth compares to these caves. Every inch of wall space is adorned with glistening crystals, each one a work of art formed by nature over eons of time. Unusual geological formations, such as soaring crystal columns and glistening pools of water, can be found throughout the caves.

Discovery and Initial Exploration

In 2000, miners excavating new tunnels for the Naica mine broke into the cave, revealing a world unlike any seen before. The conditions were extreme, with temperatures soaring up to 136°F (58°C) and humidity levels nearing 100%. Such conditions made initial explorations incredibly challenging, with humans able to withstand the environment for only short periods, even with protective gear.

A Window into the Earth's Past

The crystals' sheer size suggests they grew at an exceptionally slow rate. Scientists believe these giants took nearly a million years to reach their current size. The conditions in which these crystals formed are unique:

1. Anhydrite Saturation: The underground chambers were filled with mineral-rich water, where anhydrite (a dehydrated form of gypsum) was abundant. As the temperature dropped, the anhydrite began to dissolve, leading to the formation of gypsum in crystalline form.

2. Consistent Conditions: The stable temperature and mineral-rich environment, maintained by the magma below, allowed for the uninterrupted growth of the crystals over hundreds of thousands of years.

Legends told from one generation to the next are where the real intrigue of the crystal caves lies. The indigenous people of Mexico have revered these caves for centuries, believing that their mystical energy and the spirits who guard them are the key to unlocking the secrets of the universe. There have been stories told about people who ventured into the caves and were never seen again, and some believe that supernatural events have taken place there.

For decades, the mystery of the crystal caves has captivated researchers and explorers. Some people think the caves are connected to a system of tunnels below the ground that the ancient Mexicans used as a safe haven. Others argue that the caves are linked to the region's ancient civilizations and contain the secrets to harnessing the earth's energy.

The crystal caves have long been the subject of speculation and legend, but one thing is certain: they will never cease to amaze and perplex visitors. The crystals are a destination for those in search of the planet's hidden secrets, thanks to both their aesthetic appeal and the strange events that have been reported there. The crystal caves of Mexico are a once-in-a-lifetime experience for any curious mind, whether you're a scientist, an explorer, or just someone who finds the unknown fascinating.

Not everyone has what it takes to make the trek to the crystal caves. The caves are buried deep within the Mexican jungle, making the journey there difficult and dangerous. Anyone who makes the effort will be rewarded with a glimpse of a mysterious and magical world. You will never forget the caves; the energy that permeates the air and the way the light dances off the walls are unlike anything you have ever experienced.

In conclusion, Mexico's crystal caves are a magical place where the fantastic becomes possible and the earth's deepest mysteries appear to be revealed in the glimmering light. Regardless of whether or not you believe the supernatural tales told about the caves, there is no denying that they are a place of unparalleled beauty and mystery.

Scientists were "flabbergasted" to discover intricate dinosaur tracks covering a cliff in Alaska

In Alaska, a 20-story rock face known as "The Coliseum" is covered in numerous layers of dinosaur footprints, including a tyrannosaur.

The cliff face, known as "The Coliseum," in Denali National Park and Preserve. Its surface is covered in fossilized dinosaur tracks. (Image credit: Patrick Druckenmiller)

The wall of a 20-story cliff in Alaska is covered in the fossilized footprints of dozens of dinosaurs, giving the impression that the animals defied gravity to walk across its surface, but a geological process is actually to blame. This discovery has "flabbergasted" researchers who have been studying the area.

Currently, the rock face in Denali National Park and Preserve rises at a height of around 218 feet (66 meters). But in the late Cretaceous, some 70 million years ago, the rock was muddy muck that probably surrounding a watering hole on a huge floodplain. This explains the wide range of dinosaur footprints found on the cliff face, including those of young dinosaurs and adults of several big, plant-eating, duck-billed, and horned dinosaurs, as well as carnivores like raptors, nonavian flying reptiles, and at least one tyrannosaur.

The tracks were hauled up and deposited on their side as the ground bulged upward during a tectonic plate collision, similar to how the bonnet of a car folds under the force of a collision, long after the dinosaurs had left their mark in the region. According to the National Park Service, this tectonic activity was a component of the geological turbulence that gave rise to the 600-mile-long (966-kilometer) Alaska Range next to Denali National Park.

A 3D reconstruction of a suspected tyrannosaur footprint discovered at The Coliseum. (Image credit: Dustin Stewart)

Due to the variety of dinosaurs that probably interacted with one another near the water's edge, the location has been given the moniker "The Coliseum" by researchers. The journal Historical Biology released the team's analysis of the site on July 27, 2023. The word "coliseum" refers to a theater, stadium, or other sizable public area.

A seven-hour hike from the closest road separates the cliff from the remainder of a vast rocky outcrop. Due to the fact that most of the footprints had been filled in by other sediments, prior researchers who found a set of tracks at the base of the cliff missed the intricate patchwork of footprints that was looming above them. However, when their colleagues arrived at the location, they discovered the covert tracks.

According to research co-author Pat Druckenmiller, a vertebrate paleontologist at the University of Alaska Fairbanks and curator at the University of Alaska Museum of the North, "When we first went out there, we didn't see much either." However, in a particular setting, the imprints were much easier to see.

Dustin Stewart, a paleontologist at Paleo Solutions and a former student at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, was the study's primary author and said in a statement, "When the sun angles itself perfectly with those beds, they just blow up." Immediately, he continued, "all of us were just flabbergasted." "We were panicking."

The Coliseum is part of an even larger rocky outcrop. The cliffs were lifted into the air by a tectonic plate collision. (Image credit: Patrick Druckenmiller)

The scientists noticed that the imprints were remarkably precise upon closer examination. Druckenmiller declared, "They are lovely." "You can see the skin's texture and the toes' shape."

The traces that were laid beneath those on the rock's surface were also found by the researchers.

Stewart remarked, "It's not simply one level of rock with tunes on it. It is a chronological progression. There have been other dinosaur footprints discovered in Denali National Park, but "nothing of this magnitude," he continued.

Along with petrified vegetation, pollen, and crustaceans, the cliff also has bird tracks from wading. The findings, according to the researchers, will enable them to create a thorough picture of the environment 70 million years ago. According to Stewart, "all these little hints put together what the environment looked like overall."

On the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, reexamine the Himalayasaurus

The mysteries of an ancient monster are hidden on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, sometimes known as the "Roof of the World."

Himalayasaurus fossils and a restoration diagram /Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Chinese paleontologists first discovered ichthyosaur fossils on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau more than 50 years ago while conducting research missions there. However, the international paleontological community has continued to be dubious regarding the existence of this ichthyosaur, known as "Himalayasaurus," due to the fossils being scattered bones and inadequate preservation brought on by the restrictions of the time and environment.

After years of work, researchers announced in May of this year that they had once again discovered and verified Himalayasaurus fossils from the Triassic period (roughly 252 to 201 million years ago), building on the foundation established by the previous generation of scientists conducting fieldwork on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.

These discoveries have major ramifications for understanding the ancient habitat of the Tethys Ocean and the environmental changes that occurred on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau over 200 million years ago, as well as for improving and enriching the evolutionary history of life based on Chinese fossil materials.

What type of animal is an ichthyosaur? The ichthyosaur was an ancient aquatic reptile that existed in the Mesozoic oceans, according to the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau expedition team from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Its look is many million years older than that of dinosaurs. They evolved into enormous bodies that were over 10 meters in length after evolving in the waters more than 200 million years ago. Thus, ichthyosaurs are appropriately regarded as the masters of the Mesozoic oceans since they are the earliest large-bodied vertebrates known in the history of existence.

A file photo shows the fragments of ichthyosaur ribs discovered on the coast of an island near Vladivostok in Russia. /CFP

Meanwhile, a group of biology students discovered pieces of ichthyosaur ribs from 230 to 240 million years ago in 2022 on the coast of an island near Vladivostok, Russia.

"Ichthyosaur bones have now been found on Russian islands three times," The two ichthyosaur bone fragments have been sent to the museum, according to a representative of the Primorsky Krai Maritime Museum.

Extinct sea reptiles called ichthyosaurs looked like fish and dolphins. 2014 saw the initial finding of ichthyosaur remains on Russian islands. Another pair of ichthyosaur bones was discovered on the islands in 2020, and it was first estimated that they lived about 247 million years ago.

2-million-year-old Hominid Fossils Reveal Oldest Human Genetic Data Ever Discovered

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The paper is presently accessible as a preprint on bioRxiv.

Using preserved teeth belonging to a prehistoric human species that lived in South Africa more than two million years ago, scientists have been able to extract genetic information. Scientists can now better comprehend how this long-extinct creature fits into the human family tree thanks to the data, which is by far the earliest genetic information ever obtained from any hominid.

The researchers explain their findings in a publication that has not yet been published and state that no African hominid sample older than 18,000 years old has ever yielded ancient DNA. After overcoming that obstacle, the authors continue by presenting protein sequencing data from the tooth enamel of four members of the species Paranthropus robustus, each of whom lived approximately 2.42 million years ago.

The teeth were found in the Swartkrans cave, 40 km (25 miles) northwest of Johannesburg. It is thought that rapid floods caused them to gather there before "extensive cementation" helped to preserve the enamel proteins over millions of years. This made it possible for the scientists to sequence hundreds of amino acids in each tooth using a technique called mass spectrometry, providing crucial details on the evolutionary connections between P. robustus and other hominids.

The sequences that we were able to recover, according to the study's authors, "put Paranthropus both within the clade of hominins and as an outgroup to the clade encompassing Homo sapiens, Neanderthals, and Denisovans." The ancient South African species, then, is a distant relative of the more closely related species that arose in Eurasia in the previous few hundred thousand years, including contemporary humans, but it is still very much a member of the human family.

Paranthropus boisei - steps of forensic facial reconstruction

Author: Cicero Moraes

A fascinating finding from the analysis was that one of the African foursomes "may be more distantly connected to the other three individuals than they are to each other." Although they are unable to confirm it, the researchers surmise that this outlier may have even belonged to a unique Paranthropus group.

Fascinatingly, the authors of the study were able to identify two of the specimens as males despite the fact that one of them had previously been classified as a female based on the size of its bones, thanks to the discovery of a protein encoded by a gene that is only found on the Y-chromosome. The other two individuals, who were female, had larger levels of the X-chromosome variant of this protein than did the other two.

To accurately place P. robustus within the human family tree or sort out all of the ancient hominin's evolutionary relationships, however, the genetic data gathered by the researchers is ultimately insufficient, despite the fact that it has allowed them to learn important details about the owners of the ancient chompers. The recovery of [two-million-year-old] phylogenetically informative genetic material in African hominins can be regarded as a potentially game-changing advancement for palaeoanthropology, the study's authors write, "despite these constraints."