The ideal site for a monastery was one close to both water and woodland, a point frequently noted by medieval monastic writers. Orderic Vitalis, born near Shrewsbury in 1075 and sent at the age of five to the Norman monastery of St Évroult, was particularly clear about this dual requirement. Water was essential for washing, sanitation, drinking, making ink, and producing lime mortar, while wood was needed for construction and, at least occasionally, for warmth.
Throughout the Middle Ages, the Benedictine way of life was the most widespread form of monasticism, though many other orders also existed. The Rule of St Benedict, set out in 73 chapters, provided guidance on how monks should live. It emphasised preparation for the world to come, obedience, humility, and spiritual discipline.
Monks were forbidden to own personal property or wealth, even though monasteries themselves could become extremely rich. In theory, comfort was not a priority. In fact, medieval religious culture often linked physical hardship with spiritual merit: the greater the discomfort, the greater the perceived spiritual value. This belief was especially evident among the Cistercians, who emerged as a distinct order at the end of the 11th century. Although they followed the Benedictine Rule, they placed particular emphasis on austerity in every aspect of daily life.
Attitudes towards cold must be understood within this framework of regulation and restraint. The Rule of St Benedict made only limited allowances for cold weather, acknowledging that monks in colder regions would need additional clothing. Generally, the main seasonal difference was the use of a thicker, woollen cowl in winter instead of a lighter one.
Benedict wrote in sixth-century Italy, where conditions were very different from those experienced in northern Europe during the later Middle Ages. Monasteries in these regions could be bitterly cold. Orderic Vitalis vividly described the impact of winter at the end of the fourth book of his Historia ecclesiastica. After recounting conflicts along the Normandy–Maine frontier, he reflected that human suffering was too vast to record fully. Exhausted and numbed by the cold, he explained that he would end his book there and continue writing only when the warmth of spring returned.
Despite the general lack of heating, one room in a monastery was kept warm during winter: the calefactorium, or warming house. This space contained a fire and, in some cases, additional comforts. Fireplaces were rare in monastic buildings; churches and dormitories were unheated. The warming house was therefore both unusual and significant. Even when relatively large, it could accommodate only a limited number of monks at a time. It is easy to imagine small groups gathered quietly around the fire, seeking warmth in an otherwise cold environment—an image that is likely close to reality.
Although clearly important, warming houses are rarely mentioned in written sources. Even so, surviving buildings and documentary references provide valuable insights into monastic life. In medieval England, one example comes from the Cistercian abbey of Meaux in Yorkshire, founded in 1141. While no physical remains survive, an extensive chronicle does. Records from the abbacy of Thomas (from 1182 onwards) note the construction of a stone refectory, along with a warming house and a small kitchen. Their inclusion in the chronicle highlights how highly they were valued. Notably, while the refectory was built quickly with donated funds, the kitchen and warming house were completed more gradually as resources allowed.
Other warming houses survive more visibly. Rievaulx Abbey in North Yorkshire provides a strong example. Located next to the refectory, its warming house underwent significant alterations between the 12th and 16th centuries. Eventually expanded to two storeys, the complex also incorporated facilities for washing clothes during winter.
Durham offers further insight through The Rites of Durham, a detailed 16th-century account preserving memories of monastic life before the Reformation. It describes the warming room—called the common house—as being located on the right-hand side of the cloister exit. Inside, a fire was kept burning throughout the winter. This was the only fire available to ordinary monks, apart from those reserved for senior officials and masters.
Although medieval buildings were notoriously difficult to heat, the existence of warming rooms demonstrates the value placed on warmth. At Durham Cathedral Priory, the common house also appears to have offered modest seasonal comforts. Around Christmas, monks were reportedly given figs, raisins, cakes, and ale, all to be consumed in moderation.
