The "Kafkania pebble": Is this the first ever Early Greek Liner B inscription?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Hailing from the Mycenaean civilization of the Late Bronze Age, the Linear B script, deciphered in the mid-20th century by British cryptographer Michael Ventris, offers invaluable insights into the roots of the Greek language. As an evolved form of the Minoan Linear A script, Linear B, though syllabic in nature, played a pivotal role in administrative tasks, recording transactions, and maintaining inventory. Its legacy, firmly embedded in thousands of clay tablets, provides an extraordinary window into the socio-economic and religious dimensions of life in Mycenaean Greece around 1450 BCE.

The Kafkania pebble is a tiny, rounded river stone that measures about 5 centimeters (2.0 in) in length and is etched with Linear B symbols and a double axe symbol. It was discovered on April 1, 1994, at Kafkania, about 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) north of Olympia, in an archaeological environment from the 17th century BC.

If it were authentic, it would be by far the first piece of Linear B writing to exist on the Greek mainland. Moreover, the Kafkania pebble would have needed to be there two or more millennia prior to the oldest Linear B writings. However, it is almost certainly a recent counterfeit or fraud.

Inscription

The stone has a brief inscription on it written in Linear B using eight syllabic characters that could mean a-so-na, qo-ro-qa, or qa-jo. A double-axe symbol is displayed on the reverse side. Some claim that the inscription is in Mycenean Greek; however, this assertion is still debatable. Such a singular instance of linear B writing has been hypothesized to represent, at best, an early level of Mycenaean writing at the time of genesis.

G. Owens contends that the inscription is not Mycenaean but rather Minoan in origin. The text could have been composed by a Minoan for a Mycenaean. There is no proof that Mycenaean Greek writers existed prior to the Knossos Linear B repository.

Forgery

Several specialists in Mycenaean epigraphy have expressed serious doubts about the authenticity of the inscription; indications that it is a modern forgery include:

• Inscriptions on pebbles are otherwise unknown in Mycenaean and Minoan epigraphy.

• The "rays" surrounding the axe have no parallels in Mycenaean or Minoan iconography.

• Most of the symbols are "carefully executed" but one appears to be a "random graffito".

• Its context, imbedded in a wall, is peculiar and unprecedented.

• Linear B is otherwise consistently written left-to-right, but the inscription is apparently written in boustrophedon.

• The writing style appears anachronistic.

• It is unlikely on historical grounds that Linear B writing then existed in the northwest Peloponnese.

• Finally, the pebble was apparently discovered on the morning of April Fool's Day. If it is indeed a forgery, the symbols spelling a-so-na may spell out the name Iasonas, the first name of the son of Xeni Arapojanni and Jörg Rambach, the alleged discoverers of the pebble.

Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mycenaean Crete? A skull of a young girl puzzles experts

By Archaeology & Arts

In Aulis, it was perhaps a fair wind that had to be secured by Iphigenia’s sacrifice, but in ancient Kydonia, on the Kasteli hill of Chania in Crete, it was an earthquake and the chthonic deities that, according to the customs and “logic” of the time, needed to be placated by the ancient Kydonians resorting to human sacrifice(s)…

Almost 40 years ago (1979) in Knossos, the British scholar of Minoan culture Peter Warren had located children’s bones with knife traces on them – a finding interpreted as “cannibalism”—and in Archanes of the same period, the late archaeologist Yannis Sakellarakis had also found the bones of a young man killed by a knife and had interpreted it as a ritual sacrifice. Both scholars had been taunted at the time as “insulting” the superior Greek race, making scientists even today exceptionally skeptical about such interpretations and conclusions. However, Maria Vlazaki-Andreadaki, archaeologist and excavator these last ten years at ancient Kydonia is very clear about the above. “We cannot avoid mentioning human sacrifice in Minoan Crete. Finding the bones of the young woman, studying them, reassembling them on the skull, and observing their being split with a sharp instrument at their ‘seams’ in conjunction with ritual acts, should not be surprising, since Greek mythology has abundant examples of purifying sacrifices of virgins, in society’s effort to face a great disaster, in times of famine or other exceptional circumstances and often before the outbreak of war. The myths of virgins in the role of scapegoat, perhaps dating back to Mycenaean times, are presented as acts of deep submission and devotion to the divine, as acts of awe and purification, as a kind of negotiation with the supreme powers and not as savage and unscrupulous slaughter,” says Mrs. Andreadaki-Vlazaki to the Athens and Macedonian News Agency.

The skull of a young girl was found among animal skulls, but not whole however. Photo credit: ANA-MPA / Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki

“Ritual human sacrifice in the Mycenaean palace of Kydonia” was the topic of the lecture given at the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki in 2017 by Mrs Andreadaki-Vlazaki, head of the excavations in the region. She may have been in Northern Greece in her position as Secretary General of the Ministry of Culture and Sports (she opened two exhibitions in Thessaloniki and visited the archaeological site of Dion), but chose her long-standing scientific status for a most interesting lecture attended mainly by colleagues, archaeologists and professors of the Aristotle University, whose questions she answered after her talk.

The Minoan-Mycenaean palace of Kydonia, Crete

– How had the sacrifice taken place? – Had the woman first been put to death and then dismembered? – Were the bones of the human head found at the same place (altar?) as the bones of sacrificed animals?- Is this ultimately the first confirmed human sacrifice of the Mycenaean world?

Though Mrs Andreadaki-Vlazaki was clear, her replies were restrained. She prefers to talk in detail about two more Linear B tablets found on the southwest end of the excavation on Katre Street, about the seal, unique in Minoan art, of the “Despotis Theron” [Master of the Animals] (1420-1400 BC), depicting a young man standing with the city at his feet, about five pairs of wild goat horns and the four vases, typical samples from Kydonia workshops dating to the first half of the 13th century BC. She attributes the marking of the time of a particular event that took place in the palace courtyard and was sealed by a great disaster (according to geophysical prospection and calculations by professors of the Technical University of Crete, the earthquake’s magnitude was between 6.5-7.5 on the Richter scale and completely destroyed the settlement) to the blood and bloodless sacrifices and their rituals in the region, to bone deposits, the Archive of the City at the entrance to the palaces, the magnitude of the earthquake (6.5-7.5 on the Richter scale) to the “tasteless” – the inedible sacrifice…

“It is reasonable for the same people to come after the earthquake, to remove the pieces of the broken floor and make a macabre sacrifice in the actual ceremonial courtyard; a sacrifice to the chthonic powers to be protected by them and be removed from the evil. This sacrifice consisted of animal parts and … a human life! A woman was offered up to the chthonic gods. And to avoid them being consumed by anyone, the slaughtered remains were cut up and covered with stones and slabs (perhaps a custom of the time—especially in sacrifices to the chthonic gods) …” says Mrs Andreadaki-Vlazaki to the Athens and Macedonian News Agency.

The skull of a young girl was found among animal skulls, but not whole however. Photo credit: ANA-MPA / Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki

“What we expected was uncovered from under the stones in the eastern part: the skull of a young girl among animal skulls, but not whole however. It was cut up, like all the other bones. It was opened up exactly on the suture lines/joins, preceded by a sword cut on the right parietal and occipital bones, and then scattered among animal skulls (of at least two goats and a pig). It is true. The human skull had been cut up, perhaps the rest of the body as well and in the same way as the animals. The two parietals, the occipital and the frontal bones that have come to light are not shattered but opened up on their natural sutures and scattered. Close to them is the right lower jaw. It is a shocking image”. the speaker pointed out during her lecture in the packed Manolis Andronikos Hall of the Museum.

“From the evidence presented, it is thought that three occurrences took place during the last days in the court yard:

1. An earthquake came first, followed by a fire that burned everything,

2. Elevated sections were removed from parts of the floor and the deposition was made right here, after the final sacrifice made up of the young woman, 43 sheep and goats, 4 pigs and an ox; the culmination of that time’s human agony and superstition, so as to placate the demons, chthonic powers and deities.

3. After the slaughtered remains were deposited, a great aftershock occurred and destroyed everything left standing without being accompanied by a fire, so that is why the bones show no signs of being burnt. This last seismic episode led to total destruction, sealing the entire ruined building and thus keeping this moment frozen in time until now, when we have inevitably disturbed it …”, Mrs Andreadaki-Vlazaki pointed out, reminding her colleagues, archaeologists and excavators, that … “An excavation is a ‘disaster’, we archaeologists say and perhaps we are not always ‘unfair’…”

The Mycenaean Epithet "Aswiya/Asia": From a simple toponym to the later name of an entire continent

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by dimosthenis vasiloudis

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Where does the name "Asia" come from, mentioned in the Mycenaean texts? What are the Anatolian contributions to Mycenaean Greek religion? How did the name of an entire continent arise from an epithet of a deity?

Asia, a vast continent with innumerable cultural, linguistic, and topographical features, draws its name from a seemingly unassuming ancient epithet. The name 'Asia,' as it is understood in its present usage, has its roots in the Mycenaean age, the era preceding classical Greece by several centuries. The term ‘Aswiya,’ derived from Hittite and Luwian languages, emerges as a significant name within the Mycenaean administrative archives, leading historians to trace its transformative journey from being a simple toponym to the name of the largest continent.

The Mycenaean Epithet 'Aswiya' and its Origin

On Mycenaean tablets, a large number of deities are mentioned, frequently in relation to the dedication of sacrifices and objects. While some of these gods are uniquely Mycenaean, others date back to the first millennium BC.

"Potnia," one of the most popular Mycenaean theonyms, undoubtedly refers to a number of female deities who are the Great Mother's offspring. Potnia daburinthoyo (lady of the labyrinth), Potnia aswija (lady of Asia), Sitopotnia (lady of grain), and Potnia hikkweia are the result (lady of horses).

by Simeon Netchev, World History Encyclopedia

Kwerasia (Therasia) and Thehia Mater (Divine Mother or Mother of the gods) must both fall under the same religious category. Kwerasia (Therasia) must be associated with Potnia of beasts (the woman of wild creatures).

The term 'Aswiya,' as found in the Mycenaean records, is closely associated with the Hittite and Luwian term 'Asuwa,' which denoted a confederation of states in western Anatolia during the late Bronze Age. This epithet was documented in a series of tablets discovered in the Mycenaean palatial archives, such as those in Pylos and Knossos. The tablets provide a glimpse into the intricate diplomatic relationships, trading networks, and power dynamics between these ancient civilizations.

The original geographical designation of 'Aswiya' or 'Asuwa' is believed to have been relatively limited, referring primarily to regions on the Aegean Sea's eastern coasts and western Anatolia. The term's precise location remains a subject of scholarly debate, but it is generally agreed that it centered around the Troad and extended southward along the Aegean coastline.

A specific offering of perfumed oil to a "Potnia Aswiya" (Asian Heavenly Lady/Despoina) is mentioned on a tablet at Pylos (Fr 1206). This is significant not only because it refers to the Anatolian toponym Aswiya or Assuwa but also because of the enormous quantity of oil offered—150 liters, according to estimates.

Evidence of a religious syncretism shared between the Mycenaean world and the Anatolian East

Mycenae: Ivory sculptural group of child with two kneeling females wearing flounced skirts. 15th c. BC, Athens, National Archaeological Museum, 3" high

The term is most likely to refer to "Asia" rather than the Greek location "Assos," making this Potnia one with an overtly foreign, in fact "Asian," name. This adjectival title is one of only two for Potnia (with i-qe-ja). Additionally, this word may have a predecessor in Linear A, which is close in date to the related word's earliest occurrences in Hittite annals.

The epigraphic, scribal, and archaeological details of the tablet that refer to an "Asian deity" strongly support the idea that it is of foreign origin. The tablets that were discovered in Room 38 rather than Room 23 (behind the megaron), where the majority of the oil jars and tablets were kept or discovered, provide information on Potnia Aswiya and her offerings.

In the major repository for the distribution of perfumed oil to Poseidon at Pakijana, the Dipsioi, etc., this distinguishes Aswiya from deities more common at Pylos. This puts her in close proximity to Ma-te-re te-i-ja, or "Divine Mother," another foreign deity, if not the Mother of the Gods.

Her fascinating title alludes to a distant ancestor of the Meter Theion that was brought from Anatolia to classical Greece. She is reported in Fr 1202a from the same chamber (38), with a comparable high amount of oil (sage-scented) and a similar emphatic quantity as her "Asian" sister.

As a single month or festival (me-tu-wo ne-wo) is designated for ma-te-re te-i-ja, this huge sum, which dwarfs all other gifts or allotments to deities in the same set of tablets, cannot be some sort of annual assessment. The identical hand, the sole scribe present in both the Room 23 and the Room 38 records, and obviously a pro in the perfume business, further connects these two exotic goddesses.

So, the two goddesses are united by the findspot, accountant, large amounts of oil, and the foreign, if not Anatolian, links of their names, which distinguish them from other gods named for oil distribution at Pylos, whose records were discovered in Room 23.

Where exactly was the Assuwa region?

A region in western Anatolia (Asia Minor) is referred to as Assuwa in Hittite writings. Most famously, it was employed as a political name to denote the "Assuwan Confederacy," which was founded by 22 states to oppose the Hittite ruler Tudhaliya I or II.

It is thought that Aswiya or Assuwa is where the Greek word Asia originated. Some have claimed that this is evidence of an offering made to a foreign deity who had a site of worship in Messenia, possibly in conjunction with the Aswiyan women who are currently employed by Pylos. This is further asserted to be proof of religious syncretism between Pylos and the East in the form of "transported deities.”

Assuwa has frequently only been identified by modern scholars as existing in the northwest corner of Anatolia, in a region centered to the north or north-west of the future Arzawa. As a result, it has become difficult to include Caria, Lukka, and/or Lycia because these regions are obviously in south-western Anatolia. By including them, Assuwa would have encompassed regions to the north and south of Arzawa. Yet, it's possible that the Assuwa confederative organization had states in two or more geographically distinct regions without a shared land border.

The "Asian meadow" that Homer alludes to, a plain in Lydia, must also be implied by the word "Asia." Later, the word came to mean "Asia Minor" and "continent Asia."

The Transformation of 'Aswiya' into 'Asia'

The evolution of the term 'Aswiya' into 'Asia' is a testament to the dynamic interplay of language, geography, and history. Over centuries, as civilizations rose and fell, the term 'Asia' began to be used by the Greeks in a broader context than its original Mycenaean designation. The Ionian Greeks, residing in the western part of Asia Minor, were among the first to use 'Asia' to describe the lands to their east, initially referring to the areas ruled by the Persian Empire.

The Achaemenid Persians themselves seem to have adopted a version of the term, using "” to refer to the province that roughly corresponds to modern-day Turkey. This Perso-Greek usage of 'Asia' became increasingly prevalent throughout the Hellenistic period, especially after Alexander the Great's conquests, which spread Greek culture and language far and wide.

From the Greeks to the Romans

As the torch of empire passed from the Greeks to the Romans, so too did the term 'Asia.' The Romans initially used 'Asia' to denote the province of Asia Minor, their first acquisition in Anatolia, conquered in the 2nd century BC. This Roman province of 'Asia' comprised most of western Anatolia and was one of the wealthiest and most densely populated regions in the empire.

Locator map of the Asia province in the Roman Empire (125). Milenioscuro - Own work

However, as the Roman Empire expanded eastward, incorporating vast territories spanning three continents, the term 'Asia' began to be applied to an increasingly large geographical area. By the time of the late Roman Empire, 'Asia' had become a catch-all term for the lands to the east of the Roman world, encapsulating the enormity and diversity of the continent that we now know as Asia.

The Transition from the Romans to the Modern Western World

The term 'Asia,' as we understand it today, continued to evolve well after the fall of the Roman Empire, owing much to the advancements in geographical knowledge and global exploration in the subsequent centuries. During the Middle Ages, European explorers and cartographers began using 'Asia' to refer to the vast lands east of the Ural Mountains, the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea, reflecting a more modern understanding of continental boundaries. As the Age of Discovery dawned in the 15th century, propelled by advancements in navigation and seafaring, 'Asia' started encapsulating regions even further east, including the Indian subcontinent, the Far East, and the islands of the Pacific. This continental understanding was eventually formalized in the Western tradition through the works of influential scholars and geographers, such as Ptolemy and later, Mercator. The once Mycenaean toponym, 'Aswiya” has thus journeyed across millennia through the lenses of Greeks, Persians, Romans, and countless others before being adopted by the modern Western world to represent an incredibly diverse continent rich in culture, history, and natural splendor.

The story of 'Aswiya' and its evolution into 'Asia' is a fascinating journey through time, mirroring the ebb and flow of empires, the transference of cultural influence, and the transformation of geographical understanding. It demonstrates the enduring power of names and their ability to encapsulate complex historical narratives within a few letters. From a simple Mycenaean epithet referring to a region in western Anatolia, 'Asia' has evolved to designate the largest and most diverse continent on Earth, home to more than half of the world's population.

Is Dispilio Tablet The Oldest Known Written Text?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Proto-writing, writing, or natural alteration?

In the realm of archaeology, discoveries have a unique power to challenge conventional beliefs and rewrite the annals of history. The Dispilio Tablet, unearthed over a decade ago in northern Greece, stands as a testament to the enduring mysteries of our past, casting doubt on the established timeline of human writing. Contrary to conventional wisdom, this wooden relic suggests that writing may have flourished in the region much earlier than previously thought, defying the conventional narrative of Sumer as the cradle of civilization.

The Discovery

The enigmatic Dispilio Tablet made its grand debut in 1993, courtesy of the distinguished professor of prehistoric archaeology, George Hourmouziadis. It was found nestled within a Neolithic lake settlement in Macedonia, Dispilio, a stone's throw away from the ancient city of Kastoria. This settlement bore the footprints of a thriving community that flourished some 7,000 to 8,000 years ago.

Yet, what truly sets the Dispilio Tablet apart from the other artifacts scattered across this ancient site is the presence of an unknown written text etched onto its surface. This inscription opens a window into a world far older than the Mesopotamian cradle of script.

The antiquity of the Dispilio Tablet was not determined through mere guesswork but with the precision of scientific methodology. Utilizing radiocarbon dating (the C12 method), scholars dated this wooden enigma to the astonishing year of 5260 BC. This revelation positions the tablet as a relic that predates the Sumerian script by a considerable margin.

A: samples of carved "signs" on the wooden w:Dispilio tablet and clay finds from Dispilio, Greece.

B: samples of Linear A signs.

C: samples of signs on Paleo-European clay tablets.

The Script

The engravings adorning the tablet present us with a form of writing that predates the Mycenaean Linear B script, famously associated with ancient Greece. Yet this ancient script remains a mystery, a linguistic puzzle waiting to be solved. Professor Hourmouziadis has postulated that this writing system may have served as a means of communication, possibly conveying information related to possessions through symbolic representation.

The Challenge of Decipherment

Decoding the Dispilio Tablet is a formidable task, akin to searching for a needle in a linguistic haystack. Without the discovery of a new-age Rosetta Stone, shedding light on its meaning remains an uphill battle. The moment the tablet was uprooted from its aquatic abode and exposed to oxygen, the inexorable process of deterioration began. Today, preserving this artifact is of paramount importance, as it serves as a time capsule for an epoch long gone.

What truly amazes me is the resilience of the Dispilio Tablet. This wooden relic has weathered the millennia, resting at the bottom of a lake for 7,500 years, until its rediscovery shook the foundations of our understanding of ancient writing.

The Dispilio Tablet stands as a silent testament to the enigma of our past, a tantalizing glimpse into the potential richness of human history. As we stand at the precipice of decipherment, this ancient script may someday yield its secrets, enriching our understanding of ancient Greek culture and civilization. Until then, it remains a symbol of the enduring mysteries that beckon us to delve deeper into the annals of history.

Other Neolithic balkan scripts that remain enigmatic

The enigmatic Neolithic Balkan script, also known as the Vinča symbols, is a fascinating testament to the intellectual curiosity of ancient civilizations in the Balkan region. Dating back to around 5,500 to 4,000 BC, these symbols were discovered at various archaeological sites, with the most significant finds located in Vinča, a village in modern-day Serbia. These symbols, often etched onto pottery and figurines, exhibit a remarkable level of complexity for their time, suggesting a system of communication that predates the advent of many other known scripts.

Despite extensive research and analysis, the Vinča symbols remain a cryptic enigma. Their meaning and purpose continue to elude scholars, leaving room for a multitude of theories. Some speculate that they may represent a primitive form of writing or a symbolic language, while others suggest they could have had religious or ritualistic significance.

The intricate nature of these symbols, with over 700 distinct characters identified so far, presents a tantalizing puzzle that invites further exploration and decipherment. As our understanding of ancient scripts and cultures continues to evolve, the Vinča symbols stand as a testament to the enduring mysteries of human history, awaiting the day when their secrets will be unlocked and shed light on the enigmatic past of the Neolithic Balkans.

The "Troy Observation Terrace" that offers an ideal view of the Trojan Skamandros plain

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Busts of the Achaean (Mycenaean Greek) and Trojan heroes of the Trojan War can be found in the Troy Observation Terrace (Truva Seyir Terası), located in the village of Tevfikiye, one kilometer away from the archaeological site of ancient Troy.

The observatory offers an ideal view of the mythical plain of the Skamandros River (Turkish: Karamenderes). The city of Troy itself was located on a hill in this particular plain, where the homeric battles of the Trojan War took place.

The Achaean Greeks set up their camp near the mouth of the river Scamander, where they ran aground their ships. The site of the ancient city today is about 15 kilometers from the coast, but the ancient estuary of Skamandros 3,000 years ago was about 5 kilometers further inland, opening into a bay that has since been silted up.

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The building of the observatory resembles the prehistoric architecture of the palaces of Troy, with its characteristic columns and wall ends, as we know exactly from the representations of the Homeric city.

Troy VI was a city with robust fortifications, and architecturally sophisticated palace complex and common houses; obviously the capital of an extensive and prosperous state which controlled the Straits of Hellespont (modern Dardanelles) and the regions of the Thracian Peninsula and Troas (and a few more districts and islands).

An illustration shows Troy more than 3,000 years ago, corresponding with the era described by Homer. The inner city housed the ruling elite. The lower city was discovered only in the 1990s, and it expanded the settlement’s overall footprint tenfold. Findings suggest that Homeric Troy was home to as many as 10,000 people, and there is evidence that Anatolians from elsewhere sought refuge there during attacks by invading Greeks. 

Christoph Haußner, München

In general Troy VI fully meets the descriptions of the Homeric epics and other epics of the Trojan Cycle considering the richness and power of Troy. Troy VI survived for six centuries of prosperity and security behind her sturdy walls. The towers of the citadel walls were built around 1300 BC, several decades before her destruction, possibly due to increased danger because of Hittite, Achaean, Thracian, Phrygian and other aggressors.

Illustration showing daily life in the ancient city of Troy, believed to be located in modern-day Turkey. The city of Troy was the site of the famous Trojan War. Credit

CHRISTIAN JEGOU / SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

Tevfikiye village turned into a Troy-era archaeology park

Tevfikiye village in the northwestern province of Çanakkale has been turned into an archeology village depicting the Troy era. 

As part of a protocol signed by the Çanakkale Governor’s Office on Nov. 21, 2017, the village became an archaeology park due to its buildings and structures reminiscent of the Troy era as well as its rich history and mythological values. The goal is to make people visit the village during their tour to the ancient city of Troy and buy organic products and souvenirs from locals. 

According to the recent history of the village, Bulgarian immigrants who wanted to save their lives from the 1877-1878 Ottoman - Russian War settled here. In the meantime, it is known that the famous Schliemann also made excavations when they came, and those who came made their living by working with Schliemann, that is, in excavations.

The settlers built their houses with reeds and stones they brought from the excavation site . When the population increased, they wanted to become a village in 1891. In fact, the village mosque was built from the natural stones of the ancient city by a Greek craftsman from İntepe/Erenköy in 1895. The square, created at a spot that overlooks the wide Troy plain and called the “square of Troy,” was recreated as an observation area. The busts of the Troy-era heroes such as Sarpedon, Priamos, Paris, Helen, Homers and others were placed in this square.

A building in the garden of the village’s coffeehouse was renewed with the concept of the Troy house. A miniature waterfall was created in a field between the Troy Square and the mosque. The wedding hall in the village square was transformed into a museum and a culture and arts center. 

What You Must Do in Tevfikiye Archaeo-Village

• Make sure to take pictures in front of the ancient-looking houses with the symbols and inscriptions about the Trojan heroes and the history of Troy.

• See the health center and wedding hall decorated similarly to the Trojan 6 period.

• Visit the village's old mosque, made from the stones of the Ancient City of Troy by a Greek master.

• Check out the busts of Trojan heroes in the square overlooking the famous Trojan Plain . Enjoy the view between Sarpedon, Priam, Paris, Helen, Hector, Homer, Achilles, Agamemnon, Aias, Patraclos, Odysseus.

• Enter the House of Troy. In this house, which is one of the most beautiful tangible cultural items ever built, stand at the door of the house, wander through the rooms, look out of the windows to feel the antiquity.

Troy, with its 4,000 years of history, is one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world. The first excavations at the site were undertaken by the famous archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in 1870. In scientific terms, its extensive remains are the most significant demonstration of the first contact between the civilizations of Anatolia and the Mediterranean world.

Troia, Dardanelles and islands

Throughout the centuries, Troy has acted as a cultural bridge between the Troas region and the Balkans, Anatolia, the Aegean and Black Sea regions through migration, occupation, trade and the transmission of knowledge. Moreover, the siege of Troy by Achaean warriors from Greece in the 13th or 12th century B.C., immortalized by Homer in the Iliad, has inspired great creative artists throughout the world ever since.

"What do we know about Mycenae?" The new Bronze Age Animated Documentary by Kings and Generals

Kings and Generals' historical animated documentary series on the history of ancient civilizations continues with a 3d tour of the main city of the Bronze Age Greece - Mycenae.

In the second millennium BC, Mycenae was one of the major centres of Greek civilization, a military stronghold which dominated much of southern Greece, Crete, the Cyclades and parts of southwest Anatolia. The period of Greek history from about 1600 BC to about 1100 BC is called Mycenaean in reference to Mycenae. At its peak in 1350 BC, the citadel and lower town had a population of 30,000 and an area of 32 hectares.

The first correct identification of Mycenae in modern literature was during a survey conducted by Francesco Grimani, commissioned by the Provveditore Generale of the Kingdom of the Morea in 1700, who used Pausanias's description of the Lion Gate to identify the ruins of Mycenae.

This new video showcases the architecture and structure of the city, focusing on the religious practices, defenses, culture, and daily life of the Bronze age Greeks.

The Treasury of Atreus: A Masterpiece of Mycenaean Engineering

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Architectural Marvels of the Mycenaean Era: Exploring the Treasury of Atreus

The Treasury of Atreus, also known as the Tomb of Agamemnon, stands as a magnificent example of Mycenaean architecture, epitomizing the grandeur and sophistication of the civilization that flourished during the Late Bronze Age in Greece. Nestled within the archaeological site of Mycenae, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, this tomb has aroused intrigue among historians, archaeologists, and geographers for centuries. This article delves into the vivid mentions in ancient geographies, notable archaeological excavations, and the intricate structural design of this monumental tomb that has stood through millennia.

Mentions in Ancient Geographies

The Treasury of Atreus has been a subject of speculation and reverence in ancient scripts and geographies. Pausanias, the Greek geographer and traveler, referred to the site in his works, but he did not associate it with King Atreus or Agamemnon, since he describes the graves of both rulers as being within the walls of Mycenae. The early historiographies tethered the tomb to Agamemnon, a figure prominently featured in Greek mythology and Homer's epics, which further reinforced the mythic status of the site in ancient and classical narratives.

Treasury of Atreus. Tomb of Agamemnon. Date: 1802–1804. Creator: Sir Robert Smirke, the younger (1781–1867), Yale Center for British Art.

Archaeological Excavations

The fascinating journey of archaeological explorations at the tomb site began in the 19th century with the involvement of prominent figures like Heinrich Schliemann. It was, however, not until the 20th century that systematic excavations began, unraveling the opulence and grandeur of Mycenaean Greece.

Several excavation expeditions have unearthed a wealth of artifacts, including intricately designed gold jewelry, pottery, and tools, all bearing testimony to the advanced metallurgical and artistic skills of the Mycenaean civilization. The artifacts brought to light have not only enriched museum collections worldwide but have also unveiled layers of historical narratives, enabling scholars to reconstruct the chronology and lifestyle of the era.

With an interior height of 13.5m and a diameter of 14.5m, it was the tallest and widest dome in the world for over a thousand years until construction of the Temple of Mercury in Baiae and the Pantheon in Rome.

History of the Tomb

Constructed around 1250 BC, the Treasury of Atreus is believed to serve as a beehive or tholos tomb, a signature burial structure of the Mycenaean civilization. Although the exact identity of the individual interred remains unknown, the tomb’s grandiose nature indicates that it was a resting place for a person of high stature, possibly a king or a noble.

The history of the tomb is intertwined with the myths and legends of ancient Greece, weaving a rich tapestry that merges the boundaries of history and mythology. With the passage of time, the tomb underwent transformations, from being a celebrated sacred site to experiencing neglect and eventual rediscovery, heralding it as a bridge between the mythic and historical worlds.

The stone lintel above the doorway weighs 120 tons, with approximate dimensions 8.3 x 5.2 x 1.2m, the largest in the world.

Structure

One of the most striking aspects of the Treasury of Atreus is its architectural brilliance. Designed as a tholos, or beehive tomb, it comprises a monumental façade with a relieving triangle above the doorway that helped distribute the weight of the massive stones used in its construction. The entryway, or dromos, is a long walkway bordered by carefully crafted stone walls, leading to the awe-inspiring façade adorned with richly carved lintels and jambs.

The interior is characterized by a corbelled vault, an architectural marvel and one of the finest examples from that period, showcasing the Mycenaean’s profound understanding of geometry and architecture. The chamber has a diameter of approximately 14.5 meters, making it one of the largest of its kind.

A distinctive feature is the use of "ashlar masonry," wherein precisely cut stones were used without mortar, highlighting the skilled craftsmanship of the workers. The walls encapsulate layers of history, bearing marks of artistic endeavors that echo the finesse of Mycenaean artisans.

Plan of the late "Treasury of Atreus" tholos at Mycenae. W. Taylour, The Myceneans. London 1966.

The Treasury of Atreus stands as a testament to the grandeur of the Mycenaean civilization, a monumental edifice that combines architectural prowess with historical depth. Engaging ancient narratives and fostering archaeological quests, this tomb has transcended time, offering a magnificent glimpse into a civilization rooted in grand narratives of heroism and mythical tales. As we continue to unravel its secrets, the Treasury of Atreus promises to remain a focal point in the study of ancient Greek civilization, beckoning scholars and enthusiasts to delve deeper into its majestic folds.

DNA Analysis shows Greece's Griffin Warrior was a Local Ruler of his Homeland

Ancient DNA reveals the Bronze Age leader was from the region

Archaeologists at the University of Cincinnati have found that the Griffin Warrior, an ancient Greek leader, most likely grew up close to the port city that would one day become his capital.

The results are part of three new studies that looked at the ancient DNA of the Griffin Warrior and 726 other people who lived before and during the Bronze Age to discover more about their origins and travels across three continents surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. The studies were published in the journal Science.

The papers show that between 5,000 and 7,000 years ago, people with ancestry from the Caucasus, a region between the Black and Caspian seas, moved west into Anatolia (now Turkey) and north into the steppes of Eastern Europe. The papers were co-authored by experts from all over the world and were led by researchers from Harvard University. People from Eastern Europe then began to disperse over the European continent, into Western Asia, and back to the Caucasus some 5,000 years ago. As they merged with the indigenous inhabitants, "speakers of the Greek, Paleo-Balkan, and Albanian languages arose from a tapestry of different heritages."

Make it stand out

UC Classics department head Jack Davis and senior research associate Sharon Stocker work at the tomb of the Griffin Warrior in Pylos, Greece. Photo/Robert McCabe/UC Classics

“When we look at the rise of Mycenaean civilization, the ancient DNA supports the notion that it was a local phenomenon, not something imported from the outside,” said co-author Jack Davis, a UC Classics professor and department head.

“The development of the state by the Mycenaean was indigenous to Greece,” Davis said.

“This research addresses a bigger question about population dynamics. Where did the Greeks come from? We had no way of addressing that question without looking at genetic relationships. ”

— Jack Davis, UC Classics Department Head

UC senior research associate Sharon Stocker supervised the excavations of the tomb of the Griffin Warrior and the tholos tombs she and Jack Davis discovered in 2015 and 2017. Photo/Jack Davis/UC Classics

The UC Classics project was hailed as the largest archaeological find in Greece in the last 50 years by Archaeology magazine.

Their discoveries carried on UC's illustrious legacy of Greek discovery. Homer mentions King Nestor in his epic poetry, and UC Classics professor Carl Blegen and his Greek colleague Konstantinos Kourouniotis previously uncovered the Palace of King Nestor at Pylos.

Davis and Stocker discovered a second astounding discovery of two neighboring gold-covered tholos, or beehive-shaped family tombs, in 2018 while continuing to work on the Griffin Warrior. The Tholos graves also included an abundance of priceless jewelry and cultural relics, similar to the Griffin Warrior's tomb.

In order to rebuild the warrior's features, Davis and Stocker consulted Lynne Schepartz, a former UC anthropology professor who is now affiliated with the University of Arizona. Ancient DNA research is currently being used to fill in the blanks concerning the Griffin Warrior's life in Greece 3,500 years ago.

According to Stocker, "He was a youthful, affluent man who played various functions: a religious or sacred duty, as an exceptional warrior, and as a leader of his people."

In 2016, researchers used forensic techniques to reconstruct the facial features of the Griffin Warrior. Photo/Lynne Schepartz and Tobias Houlton/University of Witwatersrand

He was one of Pylos's early Mycenaean kings. There had previously been rival aristocratic families, which is why there were numerous tholos graves, according to Stocker. Yet one of the first people to combine all of these societal functions was the Griffin Warrior.

The Griffin Warrior and Tholos tomb excavations were under the direction of Stocker.

"This study tackles a more significant issue of population dynamics. From where did the Greeks originate? Without considering genetic links, we had no way to respond to that question, Davis said.

Davis and Stocker once again turned to Schepartz to analyze the remains for the ancient DNA analysis.

Mycenaean tombs are challenging to analyze because of the burial practices that involved moving remains to make room for newer interments in formerly utilized tombs, according to Schepartz.

The Griffin Warrior's petrous bone, a portion of the skull close to the inner ear that frequently maintains ancient DNA, was sampled by Schepartz, a co-author of the Science papers.

secrets revealed by ancient DNA

Because it can reveal connections between people and their past locations, ancient DNA is a potent tool for researchers. Ancient DNA has been studied by UC researchers to understand more about the farming methods employed by the ancient Maya in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula.

According to Schepartz, "this kind of research is essential for our comprehension of the region's ancient history and the role of the Mycenaeans in establishing that history."

Two tholos graves and seven chamber tombs in the Palace of Nestor that were first excavated by Blegen held more people than archaeologists initially believed, according to Schepartz.

To find out more about the ancient Greek cuisine at Pylos, Schepartz put the samples through isotopic analysis. She discovered that men ate more protein than women did. Protein consumption was higher among those buried in tholos tombs than it was among those in chamber tombs. Diets high in protein are seen as a sign of good nutrition, which is frequently associated with money or prestige.

According to her, these findings are consistent with what is known about ancient Greek rituals.

For instance, male attendance at feasts that included meat has been documented, although female attendance may have been significantly less common.

For us, Stocker said, "the connections between the people interred in the Pylos tombs and the general populace truly interest us." "The only way to establish these ties is through ancient DNA."

Ancient DNA also confirms what UC academics have long hypothesized: that the Griffin Warrior originated in the area that he would later rule. The claim that Davis was an outsider or invader is disproven by the new evidence, according to Davis.

Although we have never been able to establish it other than through DNA analysis, Davis added, "We have always been dubious about that theory.

Blegen, the former department chair of UC Classics, had the forethought to conserve materials, which allowed UC to contribute to the study. Blegen demonstrated in Turkey that the sack of Troy during the Trojan War was one of the factual events on which Homer's Iliad was predicated.

More than 1,200 clay tablets with some of the earliest known European writing from 1250 B.C. were discovered by Blegen at Pylos while he was working there in 1939. World War II forced Blegen to put his research on hold, but he came back in 1952 to continue his study at Pylos and stayed in Greece until his death in 1971.

UC's startling discoveries have captured the imaginations of both historians and the public around the world. Photo/Smithsonian

Blegen was ahead of his time in realizing that better technology would be available in the future, according to Stocker. They were able to go back and take samples of the DNA he collected since he conserved every single piece of human and animal remains from his dig.

Similar to this, Stocker said, her team has taken measures to conserve excavated material at its locations for future archaeologists who will probably have access to more sophisticated tools or methods.

They take great care to preserve some of what we have, according to Stocker. "We are aware that technology will advance. It's crucial to protect them so that future generations can study them.

According to Stocker, anthropological studies are still in the early stages of using ancient DNA analysis. Sample sizes are currently too modest for statistical interpretation. Yet she is ecstatic with the direction the study is taking.

Why do Experts Advocate Revising the Indo-European Linguistic Theory?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Recent decades have seen a significant reorientation of scientific inquiry and discourse surrounding the theory of Indo-European linguistics.

The Indo-European Linguistic Theory has long been the foundation for understanding the history, development, and relationships between the many languages spoken across Europe and parts of Asia. Based on the idea that a single ancestral language, known as Proto-Indo-European, gave rise to the vast linguistic diversity we see today, this theory has provided valuable insights for historical linguistics, archaeology, and anthropology. However, recent findings have prompted some experts to propose a rethink of this influential theory, which could have wide-ranging implications for our understanding of language development and human history.

New evidence calls for a rethink.

Several factors have led scholars to reconsider the traditional Indo-European linguistic theory:

The Gravettian (30,000 to 20,000 years) is drawn in black and white; the subsequent Magdalenian (17,000 to 10,000 years) and Hamburgian (13,000-11,750 years) are in light blue and red. It is not known whether the spread of the Gravettian was a result of diffusion of people or cultures.

Source: Eugene E. Harris, Demic and cultural diffusion in prehistoric Europe in the age of ancient genomes

• New data from archaeology, genetics, and linguistics: With advances in technology and scientific methods, researchers have been able to uncover new evidence that challenges the conventional narrative of the Indo-European linguistic family. The discovery of previously unknown languages, DNA analyses, and the study of ancient texts have provided fresh insights into the possible origins and development of these languages, leading some experts to argue that the current theory is outdated.

  The foundation of the ideas up until this point—a number of linguistic presumptions—is severely questioned.

  The investigated historical languages' content is a very recent creation, and the so-called "protolanguage" reconstruction is destroyed by the temporally incongruous data (James Clackson).

  N.S. Trubetskoy believes that a group with such a protolanguage located in space (Urheimat) and time likely never existed because of their material culture, worldview, and social institutions.

• Inadequate explanation of linguistic diversity: Critics of the current theory argue that it fails to adequately explain the immense linguistic diversity found within the Indo-European language family. While the traditional theory posits a single ancestral language, it does not provide a satisfactory explanation for the complex linguistic differences between various Indo-European languages, which appear to have evolved independently of one another.

  The renowned archaeologist Herbert Kühn asserts that evidence of cultural fragmentation dates back to the Neolithic Era. The viewpoint of M. Alinei, who contends that the distinctive and extensive vocabulary of each IE language shows that this fragmentation had already occurred long before the development of Neolithic society, is on the same page.

  According to some linguistic theories, language's primary quality is preservation. Language, which is a social product rather than a living thing, occasionally changes, usually as a result of unusual and unique social processes. The idea of "linguistic waves" is a persistently popular one from the past (Wellentheorie, wave theory).

  A new perspective on the place of the IE protolanguage as part of the "wide-spread Proto-Indo-European linguistic continuum" is presented by findings like the network of cognate European hydronyms (confuting the one and only IE heartland).

  The findings of linguistic paleontology are also significant because they suggest that terms and names for fundamental components of the natural world, everyday items and tools, or human life and communication in general should likely be traced back to the origins of the "Speaking Man" (Homo Loquens), rather than to a period just before the Agricultural Revolution.

Map of Early Neolithic Europe, by Eupedia

Distribution of the Indo-European languages seen in terms of the wave theory (after Schmidt and Lehmann).

Old European hydronymic map for the root *Sal-, *Salm-

Old European hydronymic map for the root *al-, *alm-

• Alternative hypotheses: As scholars delve deeper into the linguistic, genetic, and archaeological evidence, they have put forth alternative hypotheses that challenge the traditional theory. For instance, some researchers propose that instead of a single Proto-Indo-European language, there may have been multiple ancestral languages that gave rise to the various branches of the Indo-European family. This would require a significant reevaluation of the current theory and its underlying assumptions.

  The IE problem's time frame has now dramatically expanded. Regarding the Paleolithic Age's language environment, there are many highly intriguing ideas and observations, both from an archaeological (and other) perspective. It is significant to consider that a first linguistic and cultural unification in Europe may have occurred during the Upper Paleolithic (Gravettian hypothesis), when the constant movement of hunter-gatherers may have forced linguistic stability and convergence (though probably not Nostratic), without this view amounting to an out-of-date immigration theory like those that predominated in the 20th century.

Implications for Language Study and Human History

A reconsideration of the Indo-European Linguistic Theory has the potential to reshape our understanding of language development and human history. If the current theory is revised, it could:

• Change the way we study languages: A new understanding of the origins and development of the Indo-European languages would require scholars to reassess their approach to studying these languages, from historical linguistics to comparative grammar and beyond.

• Impact theories of human migration: A revised theory could also have implications for our understanding of human migration and the spread of cultures across Europe and Asia. It may provide new insights into how ancient populations interacted and exchanged ideas, fostering a more nuanced understanding of human history.

• Encourage interdisciplinary research: As experts from various fields continue to challenge and refine the Indo-European Linguistic Theory, it may encourage more interdisciplinary research, bringing together linguists, archaeologists, geneticists, and other scholars to collaborate and share their knowledge.

The Indo-European Linguistic Theory has been a cornerstone of language and historical studies for many years, but new evidence and alternative hypotheses have prompted a growing number of experts to call for a reevaluation of its central tenets. As scholars continue to explore the complex web of linguistic, genetic, and archaeological evidence, it is essential to remain open to new ideas and to embrace the potential for a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the Indo-European language family and its place in human history.

The History of Writing: Tracing the Development of expressing Language by Systems of Markings

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by dimosthenis vasiloudis

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Protowriting, ideographic systems, or early mnemonic symbols came before more advanced writing systems in the evolution of writing in human societies (symbols or letters that make remembering them easier).

A subsequent development is true writing, in which the content of a spoken language is encoded so that another reader may reasonably reconstruct the identical utterance written down. It differs from proto-writing, which frequently forgoes recording grammatical words and affixes, making it harder or even impossible to reassemble the precise meaning intended by the writer unless a substantial amount of context is already known in advance.

Writing innovations

The idea that writing originated in a single civilization and was called "monogenesis" persisted for a long time. According to academics, all writing originated in Mesopotamia's ancient Sumer and spread around the world as a result of cultural diffusion. This argument holds that traders or merchants traveling between geographical locations passed on the idea of representing language by written signs, though perhaps not necessarily the specifics of how such a system operated.

The finding of ancient Mesoamerican scripts, far from Middle Eastern sources, demonstrated, however, that writing had been created more than once. In at least four ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia (between 3400 and 3100 BCE), Egypt (about 3250 BCE), China (1200 BCE), and lowland portions of southern Mexico and Guatemala, writing may have independently originated (by 500 BCE).

Some academics have suggested that ancient Egypt "The earliest authentic examples of Egyptian writing differ from Mesopotamian writing in both structure and style, indicating that they must have emerged independently. Although there is still a chance that Mesopotamian "stimulus dispersion" occurred, the influence could not have extended beyond the dissemination of an idea."

Because there is no evidence of communication between ancient China and the Near Eastern literate civilizations, as well as because Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches to phonetic representation differ, it is thought that ancient Chinese characters are independent creations.

The Vinča symbols.

The Rongorongo script of Easter Island, the Vina symbols from about 5500 BCE, and the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization are all controversial. Since none have been translated, it is unclear if they all represent real writing, protowriting, or something entirely different.

The earliest coherent texts date from around 2600 BCE, and Sumerian archaic (pre-cuneiform) writing and Egyptian hieroglyphs are usually regarded as the earliest authentic writing systems. Both developed out of their ancestors' proto-literate symbol systems between 3400 and 3100 BCE. The Proto-Elamite script belongs to roughly the same time frame.

writing methods

Writing systems are distinct from symbolic communication systems. For most writing systems, reading a text requires some knowledge of the spoken language that goes along with it. In contrast, it's not always necessary to have a prior understanding of a spoken language to use symbolic systems like information signs, paintings, maps, and mathematics. Every human group has its own language, which is thought by many to be a natural and essential aspect of mankind.

Writing system development has been intermittent, uneven, and delayed, and old oral communication systems have only been partially replaced. Writing systems generally develop more slowly after they are formed than their spoken counterparts and frequently preserve traits and idioms that have been lost to the spoken language.

Three writing standards are thought to apply to all writing systems. First, writing must be comprehensive; it must have a meaning or purpose, and it must make a point or be able to convey that message. Second, whether they are physical or digital, all writing systems must include some kind of symbol that can be created on a surface. In order to facilitate communication, the writing system's symbols must resemble spoken words or speech.

The greatest advantage of writing is that it gives society a way to regularly and thoroughly preserve information—something that the spoken word could not previously do as successfully. Writing enables communities to communicate knowledge, transmit information, and

stages of development

Sumer

An ancient civilization of southern Mesopotamia, is believed to be the place where written language was first invented around 3200 BCE.

Beginning with the Neolithic pottery phase, when clay tokens were used to keep track of particular quantities of animals or other goods, writing first appeared. These tokens were initially imprinted on the exterior of spherical clay envelopes, which were later used to keep them. Afterwards, flat tablets were gradually introduced in place of the tokens, and signs were recorded using a stylus. Towards the end of the fourth millennium BCE, Uruk was where actual writing was first discovered. Other areas of the Near East quickly followed.

The earliest recorded account of the development of writing is found in a poem from ancient Mesopotamia:

The Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and wrote on it like a tablet because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat the message. It has never been possible to write on clay before.

Enmerkar and the King of Aratta, a Sumerian epic written around 1800 BCE

Although there is agreement among scholars as to the difference between prehistory and the history of early writing, there is disagreement as to when proto-writing became "real writing." The criteria are somewhat arbitrary. In the broadest sense, writing is a way of keeping track of information. It is made up of graphemes, which in turn can be made up of glyphs.

Many centuries of shattered inscriptions typically follow the advent of writing in a particular region. The presence of coherent texts in a culture's writing system is how historians determine a culture's "historicity".

Standard reconstruction of the development of writing. There is a possibility that the Egyptian script was invented independently from the Mesopotamian script.

A conventional "proto-writing to true writing" system follows a general series of developmental stages:

Picture writing system: glyphs (simplified pictures) directly represent objects and concepts. In connection with this, the following substages may be distinguished:

• Mnemonic: glyphs primarily as a reminder.

• Pictographic: glyphs directly represent an object or a concept such as (A) chronological, (B) notices, (C) communications, (D) totems, titles, and names, (E) religious, (F) customs, (G) historical, and (H) biographical.

• Ideographic: graphemes are abstract symbols that directly represent an idea or concept.

Pre-cuneiform tags, with drawing of goat or sheep and number (probably "10"): "Ten goats", Al-Hasakah, 3300–3100 BCE, Uruk culture.

Transitional system: graphemes refer not only to the object or idea that it represents but to its name as well.

• Phonetic system: graphemes refer to sounds or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme is not related to its meanings. This resolves itself into the following substages:

• Verbal: grapheme (logogram) represents a whole word.

• Syllabic: grapheme represents a syllable.

• Alphabetic: grapheme represents an elementary sound.

Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC and among the earliest form of writing in Egypt. They are remarkably similar to contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.

The best known picture writing system of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols are:

• Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, c. 6600 BCE

• Vinča symbols (Tărtăria tablets), c. 5300 BCE[24]

• Early Indus script, c. 3100 BCE

In the Old World, true writing systems developed from neolithic writing in the Early Bronze Age (4th millennium BC).

Locations and timeframes

Comparative evolution

from pictograms to abstract shapes, in Mesopotamian cuneiforms, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters

Proto-writing

The first writing systems of the Early Bronze Age were not a sudden invention. Rather, they were a development based on earlier traditions of symbol systems that cannot be classified as proper writing, but have many of the characteristics of writing. These systems may be described as "proto-writing". They used ideographic or early mnemonic symbols to convey information, but it probably directly contained no natural language. These systems emerged in the early Neolithic period, as early as the 7th millennium BC, and include:

• The Jiahu symbols found carved in tortoise shells in 24 Neolithic graves excavated at Jiahu, Henan province, northern China, with radiocarbon dates from the 7th millennium BCE. Most archaeologists consider these not directly linked to the earliest true writing.

• Vinča symbols, sometimes called the "Danube script", are a set of symbols found on Neolithic era (6th to 5th millennia BCE) artifacts from the Vinča culture of Central Europe and Southeast Europe.

• The Dispilio Tablet of the late 6th millennium may also be an example of proto-writing.

• The Indus script, which from 3500 BCE to 1900 BCE was used for extremely short inscriptions.

The Dispilio Tablet

The Dispilio tablet is a wooden tablet bearing inscribed markings, unearthed during George Hourmouziadis's excavations of Dispilio in Greece, and carbon 14-dated to 5202 (± 123) BC.

It was discovered in 1993 in a Neolithic lakeshore settlement that occupied an artificial island near the modern village of Dispilio on Lake Kastoria in Kastoria, Western Macedonia, Greece.

Even after the Neolithic, a number of societies used proto-writing as a transitional form before adopting formal writing. Such a mechanism might have existed in the quipu of the Incas (15th century CE), often known as "talking knots". Another example is the pictographs created by Uyaquk before the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language developed the Yugtun syllabary around 1900.

Ancient writing

The Bronze Age saw the development of writing in a wide range of cultures. Indus script, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Cretan hieroglyphs, Chinese logographs, Sumerian cuneiform writing, and the Olmec script of Mesoamerica are a few examples. Around 1600 BCE, the Chinese script most likely evolved apart from the Middle Eastern scripts. It is also generally accepted that the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems, which include the Olmec and Maya scripts, had separate origins. In 2000 BCE, it is believed that the first real alphabetic writing was created for Hebrew laborers in the Sinai by assigning Semitic values to mostly Egyptian hieratic characters (see History of the alphabet and Proto-Sinaitic alphabet).

Ethiopia's Geez writing system is regarded as Semitic. With roots in the Meroitic Sudanese ideogram system, it is most likely of semi-independent origin. The majority of alphabets used today are either direct descendants of this one invention, many through the Phoenician alphabet, or were designed in direct response to it. The early Old Italic alphabet and Plautus (c. 750–250 BCE) were separated by around 500 years in Italy, while the Elder Futhark inscriptions and early works like the Abrogans (c. 200–750 CE) are separated by a similar amount of time in the case of the Germanic peoples.

Cuneiform writing

The first Sumerian script was derived from a system of clay tokens used to denote different types of goods. This had developed into a system of keeping accounts by the end of the fourth millennium BC, utilizing a stylus with a circular form that was impressed into soft clay at various angles to record numbers. A pointed stylus was used to gradually add pictographic lettering on this to show what was being counted. Writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the name "cuneiform") began to include phonetic features by the 29th century BCE and gradually replaced writing with a round stylus and a sharp stylus by about 2700–2500 BCE.

Cuneiform first started to represent Sumerian syllables around 2600 BCE. Ultimately, cuneiform writing evolved into a general-purpose system for writing numerals, syllables, and logograms. This alphabet was adapted to the Akkadian language starting in the 26th century BCE, and from there to others like Hurrian and Hittite. This writing system resembles Old Persian and Ugaritic scripts in appearance.

Hieroglyphics from Egypt

Literacy was concentrated among a well-educated elite of scribes, who played a crucial role in upholding the Egyptian empire through writing. To become scribes in the employ of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authority, one had to come from a certain background.

According to Geoffrey Sampson, the general concept of expressing words from a language in writing was likely transmitted to Egypt via Sumerian Mesopotamia. Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into being a little after Sumerian script, and, possibly [were], invented under the influence of the latter." Despite the significance of early Egypt-Mesopotamia links, "no definitive judgment has been established as to the genesis of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt" due to the lack of direct evidence. However, it is stated and agreed upon that "a very compelling argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt" and that "the evidence for such direct influence remains fragile."

Egyptian writing does suddenly appear at that time, but Mesopotamia has an evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to around 8000 BCE. Since the 1990s, discoveries of glyphs at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the conventional idea that the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one. These glyphs were discovered in tomb U-J at Abydos; they were written on ivory and most likely served as labels for other items discovered there.

Even though he acknowledged that Egypt's geographic location made it a receptacle for many influences, Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar maintained that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols originated from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and that in regards to writing, "we have seen that a purely Nilotic, therefore African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality."

Elamite writing

The unintelligible Proto-Elamite writing first appears around 3100 BCE. Around the latter third millennium, it is thought to have evolved into Linear Elamite, which was later supplanted by Elamite Cuneiform, which was adapted from Akkadian.

Indus script

Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a writing system used to record the as yet unidentified language(s) of the Indus Valley civilisation.

The Indus script has been assigned to markings and symbols discovered at numerous Indus Valley civilization sites due to the hypothesis that they were used to transcribe the Harappan language. It is disputed whether the script, which was in use from roughly 3500 to 1900 BCE, is a Bronze Age writing script (logographic-syllabic) or merely proto-writing symbols. According to analysis, it was written in boustrophedon or from right to left.

early SEMITIC ALPHABETS

Around 1800 BCE in Ancient Egypt, the first "abjads," which mapped individual symbols to individual phonemes but not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol, appeared as a representation of the language created there by Semitic workers. However, by that time, alphabetic principles had only a remote chance of being ingrained into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium.

Did the Proto-Canaanite alphabet take its symbols independently of the hieroglyphs?

It is only until the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script separates into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BCE), Byblos syllabary, and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BCE). These early abjads remained of minor significance for several decades. The untranslated Byblos syllabary most likely had some influence on the Proto-Canaanite, which in turn provided inspiration for the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BCE).

Anatolian hieroglyphs

The Luwian language was written down using Anatolian hieroglyphs, a native hieroglyphic script found in western Anatolia. Around the fourteenth century BCE, it initially appeared on royal seals of the Luwians.

Chinese characters

The corpus of inscriptions on oracle bones and brass from the late Shang dynasty is the earliest authenticated example of the Chinese script that has been found so far. The oldest of these is believed to date from about 1200 BCE.

There have been recent finds of tortoise-shell carvings from around 6000 BCE, such as Jiahu Script and Banpo Script, but it is debatable whether or not the carvings are complex enough to be considered writing. 3,172 cliff carvings from the period between 6000 and 5000 BCE have been found near Damaidi in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. They contain 8,453 different characters, including images of the sun, moon, stars, gods, and scenes of grazing or hunting.

Replica

of ancient Chinese script on an oracle turtle shell

These pictographs are thought to resemble the first Chinese characters that have been confirmed to be written. Writing in China would predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, traditionally recognized as the first manifestation of writing, by about 2,000 years if it were to be considered a written language. However, it is more likely that the inscriptions represent a type of proto-writing, comparable to the modern European Vinca script.

Early Greek and Cretan scripts

Cretan relics include hieroglyphic writing (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BCE, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). The Mycenaean Greek writing system, Linear B, has been decoded, but Linear A has not yet been. The three overlapping, but distinct, Aegean pre-alphabetic writing systems can be categorized according to their chronological order and geographic distribution as follows:

• Cretan Hieroglyphic / Crete (eastward from the Knossos-Phaistos axis) / c. 2100−1700 BCE

• Linear A / Crete (except extreme southwest), Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), Greek mainland (Laconia) and west Minor Asia (Miletus and maybe Troy) / c. 1800−1450 BCE

• Linear B / Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) / c. 1450−1200 BCE

The archaeological finds with signs of pre-alphabetic scripts in the Aegean

(Up) The finds with signs of Linear B script reach about 6,000 and constitute the majority of the pre-alphabetic written monuments of the Aegean.

(Middle) About 1,400 are the finds which imprint Linear A and make up a 11% of all pre-alphabetic inscriptions.

(Down) Cretan hieroglyphics occupies 2% of the available finds with only 400 finds.

Illustration: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Mesoamerica

The Cascajal Block, a stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing that predates the first Zapotec writing from around 500 BCE, was found in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere.

Stela 12 and 13

from the southern end of Building L, in the Zapotec city of Monte Albán, Outside of Oaxaca, Mexico.

The Maya script is one of numerous pre-Columbian scripts found in Mesoamerica, and it appears to have been the most well-developed and extensively deciphered. The earliest clearly identifiable Maya inscriptions date to the third century BCE, and writing continued to be used until just before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century BCE. A combination of logograms and syllabic symbols, utilized in Maya writing, is somewhat reminiscent of current Japanese writing.

IRON AGE WRITING

The Proto-Canaanite alphabet, which was used into the Iron Age, is all that the Phoenician alphabet is (conventionally taken from a cut-off date of 1050 BCE). The Greek and Aramaic alphabets were derived from this alphabet. They eventually gave rise to the writing systems that are currently used everywhere, from Western Asia to Africa and Europe. The Greek alphabet, on the other hand, was the first to use specific symbols to represent vowel sounds.

By Matt Baker

In the first centuries of the Common Era, the Greek and Latin alphabets gave rise to a number of European scripts, including the Runes, Gothic, and Cyrillic alphabets, while the Aramaic alphabet developed into the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac abjads, the latter of which spread as far as Mongolian script. The Ge'ez abugida originated from the South Arabian alphabet. According to some academics, the Indian Brahmic family also descended from the Aramaic alphabet.

GRAKLIANI HILL WRITING

At Georgia's Grakliani Hill, behind a fallen altar from a temple dedicated to a fertility goddess from the seventh century BCE, an obscure script was uncovered in 2015. Grakliani's other temples' inscriptions, which depict animals, people, or decorative features, are different from these ones. Although its letters are rumored to be connected to ancient Greek and Aramaic, the script has no similarities to any known alphabet. In contrast, the earliest Armenian and Georgian letters come from the fifth century CE, right after the respective nations converted to Christianity. The inscription looks to be the oldest local alphabet ever uncovered in the entire Caucasus region. An portion of the inscription measuring 31 by 3 inches had been unearthed by September 2015.

Grakliani script on the basement of altar of goddess of fertility (XI-X c. BC)

Vakhtang Licheli, director of the State University's Institute of Archaeology, claims that "The writings on the temple's two altars have been kept in remarkably good condition. While the pedestal of the second altar is entirely covered with writings, the first altar has few clay letters carved into it." Unpaid students made the discovery. Inscriptions from Grakliani Hill were sent to Miami Laboratory in 2016 for beta analytic radiocarbon dating, which revealed that they were created between c. 1005 and c. 950 BCE.

WRITING IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician script for use with their own language in the early eighth century BCE, the history of the Greek alphabet officially began. The Greek and Phoenician alphabets share a lot of similarities in terms of their characters, and both alphabets nowadays are written in the same order. The Phoenician system's adapter(s) added three letters to the conclusion of the series, known as the "supplementals." The Greek alphabet evolved into a number of different forms.

Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens

One was utilized in southern Italy and west of Athens and is known as Western Greek or Chalcidian. The other variant, known as Eastern Greek, was spoken by the Athenians and in modern-day Turkey before spreading over the rest of the Greek-speaking world. The Greeks initially elected to write like the Phoenicians, from right to left, but subsequently switched to left to right. The lines would then alternately read from left to right, then from right to left, and so on. On occasion, though, the writer would begin the next line where the preceding one ended. Up until the sixth century, this style of writing, called "boustrophedon," mirrored the course of an ox-drawn plough.

Italic scripts and Latin

Cippus Perusinus

Etruscan writing near Perugia, Italy, the precursor of the Latin alphabet

All of the contemporary European scripts have their roots in Greek. The Latin alphabet, named after the Latins, a central Italian people who came to rule Europe with the emergence of Rome, is the most widely used descendant of the Greek script. Around the fifth century BCE, the Etruscan civilization, which employed a multitude of Italic scripts descended from the western Greeks, taught the Romans how to write. The other Old Italic scripts have not survived in very large quantities due to the cultural hegemony of the Roman state, and the Etruscan language is largely extinct.

WRITING DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Roman rule in Western Europe fell apart, and the Persian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire became the main centers of literary development. Latin, which was never a major literary language, lost prominence quickly (except within the Roman Catholic Church). Greek and Persian were the two main literary languages, but Syriac and Coptic were also significant.

Arabic quickly became a significant literary language in the area as a result of the development of Islam in the 7th century. Greek's status as a scholarly language soon lost ground to Arabic and Persian. The Turkish and Persian languages now use Arabic script as their principal writing system. The development of the cursive scripts for Greek, the Slavic languages, Latin, and other languages was also greatly inspired by this script.

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system was also extended throughout Europe thanks to the Arabic language. The modern Spanish city of Cordoba had emerged as one of the world's leading intellectual hubs by the start of the second millennium and was home to the largest library at the time. Its location at the meeting point of the Islamic and Western Christian worlds encouraged intellectual growth and written exchange between the two cultures.

THE MODERN ERA AND THE RENAISSANCE

By the 14th century, Western Europe had experienced a renaissance, which had temporarily increased the significance of Greek while slowly restoring Latin's status as an important literary language. In Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, a comparable but smaller emergence took place. As the Islamic Golden Era came to an end, Arabic and Persian also started to slowly lose ground. In order to codify the phonologies of the various languages, the Latin alphabet underwent several alterations as a result of the rebirth of literary development in Western Europe.

Writing has undergone steady change throughout history, in large part because of the emergence of new technologies. Technology advancements such as the printing press, computer, mobile phone, and pen have all changed how and what is written as well as the medium in which it is generated. Characters can now be generated with a button press rather than a hand motion, especially with the development of digital technology like the computer and the smartphone.

Greece heralds deal to recoup 161 ancient treasures from US

Greece has struck a complex deal for the eventual return from a US billionaire’s private collection of 161 top quality ancient Greek artifacts dating from more than 4,000 years ago, marking a new approach in the country’s efforts to reclaim its cultural heritage.

Government spokesman Yannis Oikonomou said Tuesday that Greece’s Parliament will vote on draft legislation to ratify the agreement, which involves New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art, a top Greek museum and a Delaware-based cultural institute.

He said the deal will recognize Greece’s ownership of the 161 artifacts from the Early Bronze Age Cycladic civilization – known for its elegantly abstract but enigmatic marble figurines – that have been donated by a New York collector to the Delaware institute. The works will first be exhibited later this year at the Museum of Cycladic Art in Athens, and subsequently at the Metropolitan Museum, he said.

The Metropolitan Museum declined to comment.

Oikonomou did not name the US collector involved. But two people with knowledge of the agreement told The Associated Press that the artifacts were from the collection of Leonard. N. Stern, an 84-year-old pet supplies and real estate businessman and philanthropist. They spoke on condition of anonymity pending official announcements.

“Many of [the pieces] are extremely rare or even unique examples of the art and artisanship of the 3rd millennium BC Cycladic civilization, and offer new data to scientific knowledge of the period,” Oikonomou said in a statement after a Cabinet meeting discussed the deal Tuesday.

He provided no details on how the works had been excavated and exported from Greece, and described them as “unknown” artifacts. Archaeologists warn that antiquities of unspecified provenance are usually plundered and therefore devoid of any useful information on their function and cultural significance that a legitimate excavation would have provided.

Oikonomou said the agreement, which avoids any legal dispute or payment by the Greek government, could serve as a model for further restitutions. It’s expected to be tabled in Parliament early next week.

“This creates a procedure and a means that encourages other collectors of Greek antiquities to make similar moves … that don’t carry the disadvantages of a court process,” he said.

A Greek official said the 161 antiquities would be gradually returned to Greece for permanent display, but no precise time frame was available.

The Cycladic civilization flourished in the Cyclades island group of the Aegean Sea roughly between 3000-2000 BC. It’s best known for the iconic white marble figurines of naked female forms that inspired artists including Pablo Picasso and Constantin Brancusi. Their huge popularity among private collectors and museums worldwide sparked an orgy of illegal excavations across the Cyclades in the 20th century. Largely due to that, their precise original function remains unclear.

For decades, Greek authorities have strived to recoup antiquities illegally excavated and exported from the country, which can be sold for millions of dollars.

Athens has long and fruitlessly lobbied to get back large sections of the 5th Century BC sculptures that originally decorated the Parthenon Temple on the Acropolis and are now in the British Museum in London. [AP]

DNA Study Sheds Light on the Heartland of Indo-European Languages

Research suggests a family of languages now spoken from Europe to India originated between the Caucasus and eastern Anatolia. But identity of first Indo-Europeans remains a mystery

A new DNA analysis, published on Thursday, August 26th, on 777 ancient genomes from across the so-called Southern Arc, namely Southern Europe and West Asia, redirects the cradle of Indo-Europeans and sheds light on the Proto-Greek prehistoric past.

The new study, published this Thursday, August 26, 2022 in Science, reports on genetic data extracted from 777 individuals who lived across the so-called Southern Arc, namely Southern Europe and West Asia. According to other more recent DNA data of ancient Anatolians, which raised new questions about the “spread” of Indo-European languages, it seems that Anatolians did not mix with steppe pastoralists during the early Bronze Age. It’s the only place where Indo-European-related languages were spoken even though there was no steppe ancestry.

Ancient Anatolian peoples spoke the now-extinct Anatolian languages of the Indo-European language family, which were largely replaced by the Greek language during classical antiquity as well as during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods. The major Anatolian languages included Hittite, Luwian, and Lydian while other, poorly attested local languages included Phrygian, Palaic, Luwic, and Mysian.

Many partings, many meetings: How migration and admixture drove early language spread.

Westward and northward migrations out of the West Asian highlands split the Proto-Indo-Anatolian language into Anatolian and Indo-European branches. Yamnaya pastoralists, formed on the steppe by a fusion of newcomers and locals, admixed again as they expanded far and wide, splitting the Proto-Indo-European language into its daughter languages across Eurasia. Border colors represent the ancestry and locations of five source populations before the migrations (arrows) and mixture (pie charts) documented here.

The new Indo-European DNA research also shows that between five and seven thousand years ago there was a gradual increase of ancestry from the Caucasus in the Anatolian genome, probably by a series of migrations from the east, at the end of which about a third of the ancestry of Anatolians could be traced to somewhere in the Caucasus.

The fact that the same Caucasus component found in Anatolia comprises roughly fifty percent of the Yamnaya pastoralist genome further implicates the riddle of Indo-European languages. Given that this mysterious Caucasian link is the only ancestral commonality between the Yamnaya and the ancient Anatolians, it seems plausible that this enigmatic migration from the Caucasus brought the ancestral form of Indo-European to both of these peoples. Therefore, the homeland and the “first language” of Indo-Europeans must be placed somewhere in the Caucasus.

We must point out that these conclusions seem to primarily justify the eminent archaeologist Colin Renfrew and his Anatolian hypothesis, and they do line up quite well with contemporary archeological indications. The British archeologist compares the spread of the Indo-European languages to the spread of the Neolithic way of life from its Anatolian source in the seventh millennium BC (possibly the Caucasus).

Pylos Combat Agate” found in the Grave of the Griffin WarriorCredit: Photo Jeff Vanderpool. Courtesy

Renfrew also identifies this Neolithic demic diffusion with the spread of the Proto-Indo-European language and its subsequent differentiation into the daughter branches, i.e., the different Early Neolithic cultural phases across Europe.

The most interesting conclusion about prehistoric Greek populations comes from the new estimation of the Mycenaean steppe ancestry (about 1/10). The new study shows that this proportion is not uniform across the population. In fact, even among the elites, it was possible to find people who were not genetically related to Yamnaya (such as the genome of the so-called Griffin Warrior of Pylos).

According to experts, steppe migrants did not establish a rule over the natives and kept to themselves. Rather, they admixed with them, and there were still people without steppe ancestry with elite roles in mainland Greece, especially in Peloponnese. This means that during the later Mycenaean period in Greece, the new data suggest Yamnaya descendants had little impact on Greek social structure.

This explanation also once again confirms C. Renfrew and many other scholars, who have insisted throughout the last decades that the picture of the Proto-Indo-Europeans as warlike mounted nomads has been based not only on the misuse of linguistic paleontology but also on serious anachronism.

New DNA analysis shed light to Indo-European homeland

Credit: PeopleOfAr

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Detailed paleogenetic research sheds light on Southern Arc migration, farming, and language evolution.

In a trio of papers, published simultaneously in the journal Science, Ron Pinhasi from the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology and Human Evolution and Archaeological Sciences (HEAS) at the University of Vienna and Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg from the University of Vienna and Harvard University, Iosif Lazaridis and David Reich at Harvard University—together with 202 co-authors—report a massive effort of genome-wide sequencing from 727 distinct ancient individuals with which it was possible to test longstanding archaeological, genetic and linguistic hypotheses. They present a systematic picture of the interlinked histories of peoples across the Southern Arc Region from the origins of agriculture, to late medieval times.

Credit: University of Vienna

The first article by the international team looked at the origins and dissemination of Indo-European and Anatolian languages. The Indo-Anatolian language family's ancestral home is thought to have been in West Asia, according to genetic evidence, with secondary dispersals of non-Anatolian Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppe. People with Caucasian origin came into Anatolia in the west and the steppe in the north during the first stage, which took place between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago. These people may have spoken Anatolian and Indo-European languages in their ancestry.

Around 5,000 years ago, Yamnaya steppe herders with Caucasus hunter-gatherer and Eastern hunter-gatherer heritage set off a series of migrations across Eurasia that may be traced to all currently spoken Indo-European languages (such as Greek, Armenian, and Sanskrit). Their southern excursions into the Balkans and Greece, as well as their eastern expansions across the Caucasus into Armenia, left a mark on the region's Bronze Age inhabitants.

The Yamnaya herders' descendants mixed differently with the local people as they grew. Several types of genetic evidence can be used to pinpoint how Indo-European-speaking immigrants from the steppe interacted with locals to create the Greek, Paleo-Balkan, and Albanian (Indo-European) languages in Southeastern Europe and the Armenian language in West Asia. The Yamnaya had a significant influence on Southeastern Europe, as individuals with nearly pure Yamnaya heritage arrived shortly after the Yamnaya migrations began.

The Southern Arc's Anatolia core region, where large-scale data offers a rich picture of change—and lack of change—over time, yields some of the most startling findings. According to the findings, Anatolia was not significantly affected by the Yamnaya migrations, in contrast to the Balkans and the Caucasus. Due to the absence of Eastern hunter-gatherer ancestors in Anatolia, in contrast to all other places where Indo-European languages were spoken, no connection to the steppe can be established for speakers of Anatolian languages (such as Hittite and Luwian).

The southern Caucasus was impacted numerous times, even before the Yamnaya migrations, in contrast to Anatolia's startling impermeability to steppe migrations. "I was surprised to learn that the Areni Chalcolithic people, who were discovered 15 years ago in the excavation I co-led, had ancestry from gene flow from the north to areas of the southern Caucasus more than 1,000 years before the Yamnaya expanded, and that this northern influence would disappear in the area before reappearing a few thousand years later. This demonstrates that there is still a lot of information to be learned through new digs and fieldwork in Eastern Western Asia "Ron Pinhasi says.

"Anatolia was home to varied communities descending from both local hunter-gatherers and eastern populations of the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and the Levant," states Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg

"Variations of the same types of ancestry were shared by the inhabitants of the Marmara region, Southeastern Anatolia, the Black Sea, and the Aegean regions."

Credit: University of Vienna

The interconnections of the first farming societies

The second research project investigates the origins of the world's oldest Neolithic populations, which date to around 12,000 years ago. "The genetic findings support the idea that early farming groups had a network of pan-regional relationships. In addition, they offer fresh proof that the Neolithic transition was a difficult process that took place not just in one central region but also in Anatolia and the Near East, "Ron Pinhasi said.

It gives the first ancient DNA data for Pre-Pottery Neolithic farmers from the Tigris side of northern Mesopotamia, which is a critical region for the origins of agriculture and can be found in both eastern Turkey and northern Iraq. The island of Cyprus, which saw the earliest maritime migration of farmers from the eastern Mediterranean, also contains the first ancient DNA from Pre-Pottery farmers. Together with the first information from Neolithic Armenia, it also offers fresh information on early Neolithic farmers from the Northwest Zagros.

By filling in these gaps, the authors were able to examine the genetic history of these societies, for which archaeological research had previously documented intricate economic and cultural interactions but was unable to track mating practices or interactions that did not leave visible material traces. The findings demonstrate pre-Neolithic roots from hunter-gatherers in the Caucasus, Levant, and Anatolia, and they demonstrate that these early farming cultures created a continuity of lineage that mirrored the topography of West Asia. The findings also show at least two waves of migration from the Fertile Crescent's core to Anatolia's ancient farmers.

The historic period

The third piece demonstrates how ancient Mediterranean political systems maintained differences in lineage from the Bronze Age while remaining connected by migration. The findings indicate that while Italians before the Imperial period had a totally diverse distribution, the ancestry of those who resided in and around Rome during the Imperial period was nearly identical to that of Roman and Byzantine inhabitants from Anatolia. This shows that the heterogeneous but comparable population of the Roman Empire, both in its longer-lasting eastern component focused on Anatolia and in its shorter-lasting western part, was plausible drawn to a significant extent from Anatolian pre-Imperial sources.

"Our findings are rather unexpected considering that in a Science study I co-authored in 2019 on the genetic heritage of people from Ancient Rome, we discovered a cosmopolitan pattern that we initially believed to be specific to Rome. Now that we can see it, other parts of the Roman Empire were just as multicultural as Rome itself, "Ron Pinhasi argues.

'Ko-wa' (girls) – 'ko-wo' (boys): Two of the first Greek words revealed in Linear B script

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Linear B script of the Mycenaean civilization presents an intriguing glimpse into the early workings of written language in ancient Greece. Originating around 1450 BCE, this script is a derivative of the older, yet still undeciphered, Linear A used by the Minoans. Linear B, however, was deciphered in the 1950s by Michael Ventris, whose efforts shed light on the earliest known form of the Greek language. The script was mainly used for bureaucratic purposes, cataloguing inventories and transactions within the Mycenaean civilization. In essence, the Linear B script offers valuable insight into the socio-economic and religious facets of Mycenaean life during the Late Bronze Age.

The Homeric words for boys and girls were among the first to be deciphered by Michael Ventris, the man who deciphered Linear B script. The specific syllabograms that we present to you in the upper image were also accompanied on Mycenaean tablets by pictographs that resembled male and female figures.

Of course, the assistance of his partner and professor of classical literature, John Chadwick at this point was decisive. With his valuable help, it is possible to identify the Mycenaean terms (ko-wa) and (ko-wo) with the Homeric words "korai" and "koroi".

As can be understood, in Mycenaean Greek, an original form of the terms "korwai" and "korwoi" appears, with the "(w)" vowel (ϝ=γ) which has disappeared from the modern Greek language but it still preserved in some dialects.

This particular example helped both to further understand the spelling of Mycenaean written words and also the fact that Linear B is an elliptical script (its spelling excludes the existence of symphonic complexes).

As the research of the two Britons progressed, the reading of more and more words left no doubt that Linear B represented the first writing system of the Greek language.

The Genius of Michael Ventris: Extending Greek Civilization's Legacy by Seven Centuries

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The brilliant young British architect Michael Ventris deciphered the Mycenaean Linear B alphabet, adding seven centuries to Greek history.

On July 12, 2022, the world commemorated the birth of Michael Ventris, a brilliant British architect whose profound contributions to archaeology and linguistics extended the history of Greek civilization by seven centuries. Ventris's life and work are a testament to the power of interdisciplinary collaboration, perseverance, and the courage to challenge established paradigms.

Early Fascination with Ancient Languages and The Encounter with Linear B

Ventris's remarkable journey began at an early age. By the time he was just nine years old, he was already fluent in ancient Greek, Latin, French, German, and Polish. His linguistic prowess was a precursor to the groundbreaking discoveries he would later make in deciphering ancient scripts

At the age of 14, Ventris experienced his defining moment when he went to a Minoan art exhibition that Sir Arthur Evans, the renowned Knossos excavator, had organized. It was during this exhibition that he first encountered the enigmatic Linear B script, which would captivate his imagination. Linear B was distinct from the even older Linear A script, employing linear characters rather than hieroglyphs. Evans, a respected figure in the scientific community, proposed that Linear B was a separate language, not Greek.

The quest to understand Linear B became Ventris's obsession. Even amidst the chaos of World War II, Ventris enlisted in the Royal British Air Force, where his expertise in deciphering Nazi secret codes sharpened his analytical skills. It was during these tumultuous years that he made strides towards unraveling the mysteries of Linear B, often referred to as the "Everest" of archaeology.

Ventris's background as an architect, rather than an archaeologist or academic, offered him a unique advantage. He approached Linear B with clarity of thought and a willingness to take risks. In the end, his bold assumption that Linear B was a free-flowing Greek language would come to pass.

John Chadwick

John Chadwick (21 May 1920 – 24 November 1998) was an English linguist and classical scholar who was most notable for the decipherment, with Michael Ventris, of Linear B.

Collaboration with John Chadwick

To unlock the secrets of Linear B, Ventris sought the assistance of John Chadwick, a classical philologist at the University of Cambridge. John Chadwick, Ventris's collaborator, played a pivotal role in the decipherment of Linear B. His dedication to linguistics and philology contributed significantly to this groundbreaking achievement. Their collaboration led to the seminal work, "Documents in Mycenaean Greek," marking a turning point in their decipherment efforts. Ventris's determination and Chadwick's linguistic expertise were a formidable combination.

The Decipherment and Its Implications

Ventris successfully deciphered 65 of the 88 symbols of Linear B, formulated its fundamental orthographic rules, and unveiled the earliest Greek language, predating Homer by seven centuries. His achievement revolutionized our understanding of Greek history, pushing its recorded origins back to approximately 1450 BC during the Late Bronze Age.

🧒👧 'Ko-wa' (girls) – 'ko wo' (boys): Two of the first Greek words revealed in Linear B script by Ventris and Chadwick!

Revising the History of Greek Civilization

Ventris's work challenged established views about the Minoan Civilization, demonstrating that Crete was interconnected with the Mycenaean world during the period of the tablets. He also debunked the belief that Nestor's Cup was the earliest Greek text, revealing a more ancient history.

Michael Ventris's tragically short 34-year life left an indelible mark on the fields of archaeology, linguistics, and Greek history. His willingness to challenge conventional wisdom, combined with interdisciplinary collaboration, extended the timeline of Greek civilization by seven centuries. Ventris's legacy reminds us that curiosity, innovation, and perseverance can unlock the secrets of the past and reshape our understanding of human history.

Mycenaean Echoes in El-Amarna: Aegean Warriors in the Egyptian Army of 18th Dynasty?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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An Enigmatic Papyrus from El-Amarna: A possible Egyptian representation of Mycenaean warriors

Egypt, the cradle of ancient civilizations, has provided a constant stream of archaeological riches that never fail to bewilder us. The city of El-Amarna, the short-lived capital established by the heretic Pharaoh Akhenaten, is a prime source of these treasures. The latest discovery is a rare papyrus that has captured the attention of scholars worldwide. The papyrus could possibly represent Mycenaean warriors, providing an intriguing new perspective on Bronze Age Mediterranean connections.

An Unusual Discovery

Unearthed during a recent dig at El-Amarna, the papyrus was found to be remarkably well preserved, thanks to Egypt's dry climate. The intricate hieroglyphics and vivid colors attest to the craftsmanship and sophistication of Egyptian scribes during the Amarna period (1353–1336 BC). Yet the true fascination lies not in the artistry but in the content: the papyrus depicts warriors bearing an uncanny resemblance to those from the Mycenaean civilization.

Those papyrus fragments, dated to the second half of the 14th century BC and currently being exposed in the British Museum, depict battle scenes between Egyptian and Libyan soldiers. In one of those fragments, we can see warriors bearing the typical Mycenaean Boar-tusk helmet and Egyptian or Aegean-style short-cropped oxhide tunics running on the battle front.

These can be paralleled in representations from the Aegean, suggesting that the painting may show figures wearing boar's tusk helmets and Mycenaean-style tunics. This interpretation of the battle scene argues that the Egyptian iconographic repertoire also included depictions of Mycenean features and adds to the evidence for direct, rather than indirect, contacts between the two cultures.

Fragments of two scenes of the painted papyrus, without text. One shows a fallen Egyptian overcome by a Libyan, while other Libyan archers rush on. The second shows registers of Egyptian infantrymen, some wearing helmets and/or short ox-hide tunics. Other unplaced fragments show parts of further infantrymen, and a tree. The scene includes other indications of landscape. The British Museum.

A Mycenaean Connection?

The Mycenaean civilization, centered in the Peloponnese of modern-day Greece, thrived during the Late Bronze Age (1600–1100 BC). Their warrior-centric society, chariot warfare, and iconic "boar’s tusk" helmets were immortalized by Homer's epic poems.

In the papyrus from El-Amarna, the warriors are illustrated with short, wavy hair, round shields, long spears, and distinctive helmets. The physical attributes and weaponry closely resemble Mycenaean depictions, particularly those found in frescoes from Pylos and Mycenae. Intriguingly, the possible representation of "boar's tusk" helmets, a Mycenaean hallmark, raises questions about the nature of the interaction between the two civilizations.

Cultural Interactions in the Bronze Age

During the Bronze Age, civilizations around the Mediterranean Sea, including the Egyptian and Mycenaean, established complex networks of interaction. This era saw significant trading, diplomatic exchanges, and, inevitably, warfare. Excavations have found Mycenaean pottery in Egypt and vice versa, proving the existence of trade relations.

Moreover, the Amarna Letters—a cache of clay tablets from the 14th century BC—provide evidence of diplomatic correspondence between Egypt and states in the Aegean, possibly including the Mycenaeans. But depictions of Mycenaean individuals in Egyptian artifacts are rare, making this papyrus potentially ground-breaking.

Illustration of a Mycenaean Greek warrior with the distinctive boar-tusk helmet at the fall of Troy

Implications of the Papyrus

If the interpretation of the papyrus holds true, it could signify that the Mycenaeans had a more substantial presence or influence in Egypt than previously thought. The warriors could represent mercenaries, allies, enemies, or simply a demonstration of cultural knowledge. The pictorial representation suggests a more direct interaction, implying that the Mycenaeans were not just abstract entities in Egyptian perception but had a tangible presence.

This discovery could be a step towards recognizing a previously unknown degree of interconnectedness between the Bronze Age civilizations of Egypt and Mycenae. As scholars continue to investigate, this enigmatic papyrus will serve as a tantalizing puzzle piece in the vibrant mosaic of Bronze Age history.

The Mycenaean boar-tusk helmet

The distinctive Boar-tusk helmet of the Mycenaean warrior elite could be a strong evidence of the presence of those fearsome Aegean warriors in the plains of Egypt, supported also by the large quantities of Mycenaean pottery that have been also found in El-Amarna, in the same period. Both evidence suggest some degree of cultural contact between the Mycenaeans and the Egyptians of the Late 18th Dynasty.

Mycenaean helmet with wild boar teeth

The so-called ‘odontophracto’ helmet is considered a Mycenaean invention and was a basic part of the armor, at least until the 13th century.

According to the Homeric description, the helmet consists of the "kynei", a dog's skin leather cap with a wool lining, which is protected by superimposed rows of specially worked boar's teeth.

Mycenaeans seem not to have been included amongst the Egyptians' repertoire of depictions of foreigners, although Minoans clearly identified on many Egyptian frescoes, such as those on many tombs and temples (tombs of Anen, Rekhmire, Puimre, Senenmut, Menkheperrasoneb, Abydos Temple of Rameses II).

We also know about the close involvement of Minoan Crete in international relations and cultural exchanges with the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt either through marriage, art, technology or exchange of gifts (Minoan frescoes at Tell El-Dab'a).

Distant theaters of royal action in the Bronze Age: The international policy of the pharaohs and the ‘Aegean List’

The usage of professional warriors from the Bronze Age (some of them of Hellenic origin) can be safely assumed as the complete retails of the organization and structure of the period armies are not quite clear to us. The employment of mercenaries cannot be excluded in the early Bronze Age but it becomes certain in the later stages. It is also known that earlier Aegean armies and navies, such as the Minoans, used mercenaries from Africa.

We do know that after the Egyptian Pharaoh Rameses II (r. 1279–1213 BC, about one century after the El-Amarna papyrus) defeated the Sherden sea pirates at the beginning of his reign, he hired many of them to serve as his bodyguard. It has been suggested that some of them were from Ionia. In the reign (1213–1203 BC) of his successor Merneptah, Egypt was attacked by their Libyan neighbors, and some experts believe that the Libyan army included mercenaries from Europe’s mainland. Among them were people termed ‘Ekwash, and it has been proposed that this meant Achaeans (Mycenaeans), but there is no certainty of that as other evidence points to an attempted encroachment by Libyans only upon neighboring territory.

The fresco ‘Captain of the Blacks’ at Knossos, thought to represent a Minoan officer with two spears, leading a troop of Nubian mercenaries, Heraklion Archaeological Museum, Crete, Greece.

Another important indication of the developed relations between Egypt and the Aegean is the famous "Aegean List" of Pharaoh Amenhotep III, an inscription of toponyms found at the base of a statue in the northern half of the West Portico of the great Peristyle Court in Kom el-Hettân, which seems to refer to areas and nations of the Aegean that were probably visited by an Egyptian merchant or diplomatic mission.

Each statue base bears a different series of toponyms written within “fortified” or “crenellated” ovals and superimposed on bound captives—a standard Egyptian way of denoting foreign places. Together, they represent roughly half of the known outside world.

The order in which the toponyms are to be read is crucial. In the center of the front side, two bound prisoners support Amenhotep III’s prenomen and nomen. The two place names to the right should be read first, since they face the same direction as these cartouches; they are kftiw, i.e., Keftiu, identified as Crete, and tny (ti-nA-y-w), i.e., Tanaja (Danaia, the Danaoi-Land, meaning the land of Danaans, the homeric Achaeans), identified as mainland Greece. Both are known from other Egyptian sources from the time of Thutmose III onward, and their identification is accepted by most scholars.

The Aegean List’s other toponyms are unique; not one of them appears in any other Egyptian source, either before or after Amenhotep III’s reign. All scholars agree that these names denote sites and regions in the Bronze Age Aegean, but their identification is sometimes challenging. Some of them are translated as Amnisos, Phaistos, Knossos, Lyktos, Kydonia, Mycenae, Pisaia, Kythera, Methara, or Messana(?), Thebes, Tegea, or Dikte(? ), and Eleia, or Ilios (Troy)(?).

The Aegean List remains of critical importance as a clear indication that the Egyptians had substantial knowledge of specific Minoan and Mycenaean sites during Amenhotep III’s reign.

The extroverted and aggressive Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt

The Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt is classified as the first dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt, the era in which ancient Egypt achieved the peak of its power. The Eighteenth Dynasty spanned the period from 1550/1549 to 1292 BC. This dynasty is also known as the Thutmosid Dynasty after the four pharaohs named Thutmose.

The Eighteenth Dynasty empire conquered all of Lower Nubia under Thutmose I. By the reign of Thutmose III, the Egyptians had directly controlled Nubia up to the Nile River, the 4th cataract, With Egyptian influence and tributaries extending beyond this point. The Egyptians referred to the area as Kush, and it was administered by the Viceroy of Kush. The 18th dynasty obtained Nubian gold, animal skins, ivory, ebony, cattle, and horses, which were of exceptional quality. The Egyptians built temples throughout Nubia.

After the end of the Hyksos period of foreign rule, the Eighteenth Dynasty engaged in a vigorous phase of expansionism, conquering vast areas of the Near East, with Pharaoh Thutmose III submitting the "Shasu" Bedouins of northern Canaan and the land of Retjenu, as far as Syria and Mittani, in numerous military campaigns circa 1450 BC.

The El-Amarna papyrus presents a captivating glimpse into the cross-cultural encounters of the ancient world. As the world waits for more comprehensive analyses and potential verification of the Mycenaean representation, the papyrus holds its secrets close, reminding us that history often reveals itself in fragments and whispers rather than in complete narratives or loud declarations. Its tantalizing hints of an interlinked Mediterranean world make the papyrus an invaluable addition to our understanding of the vast tapestry of human history.

The Spectacular Shipwrecks of the island Sapienza in Greece

The islets located to the south and west of the coast of Messinia in Greece are not well known to the public, but they hide their own surprises, with Sapienza being the most typical example among them.

Sapienza belongs to the so-called Messinian Oinousses and is located off the southwest coast of Messinia, directly opposite Methoni, near the deepest point of the Mediterranean. No one lives there anymore.

The heart-shaped islet near the lighthouse of Sapienza

Sapienza is located on a maritime route which, since ancient times, was of great commercial and strategic interest, as it connected Italy with the Middle East. At the same time, however, it was also a difficult area, full of strong sea currents, strong winds and difficult rocks. As a result, several shipwrecks occurred on the coasts and off the island, some of which are considered important from an archaeological point of view.

The exceptional findings found in them make the Methoni marine area one of the most important underwater archaeological sites.

 

The latest sea surveys in the bay of Methoni and the island of Sapienza in Messinia have brought to light unknown wrecks that have been lying on the seabed for hundreds of years, while both known wrecks on the northern shores of the island of Sapienza have been mapped in detail for the first time.

Geoarchaeological investigations were also carried out in the submerged settlement of the Middle Bronze Age that has been identified in the bay of Methoni.

The identified shipwrecks belong to the most recent times and one to the era of the Turkish occupation.

The scanner even showed "metallic targets", probably cannons. The findings will be examined in detail in the future.

The two shipwrecks (along with a third, older one) were found on top of the Bronze Age settlement, part of which is buried under the bottom sand and is ultimately larger than archaeologists had previously thought.

Shipwreck of Sarcophagi

On the neighboring islet of Sapienza, on its northern shores, the two known shipwrecks of Roman times were captured in detail for the first time.

The first is known as the Shipwreck of Sarcophagi because it carried stone sarcophagi. The shipwreck is lying at a depth of 15 m. ts cargo contains a number of stone sarcophagi including their covers. The sarcophagi are intact except for one, which probably ruined when the ship sunk. The sarcophagi measures 2.20 x 0.80 m.
The sarcophagi bear reliefs; their decoration is simple containing floral motifs, boukranion etc. The covers are curved with simple, shaped decoration at the edges. The shipwreck is dated to the 3rd century AD.

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Shipwreck of columns

The second is called Shipwreck of Columns because there were some columns made of red granite.

Around 1920, local fishermen located archaeological finds lying on the seabed close to the northern cape of Sapienza (Cape Karsi), opposite the village of Methoni.

In 1925, the lawyer and historian Dionisios Potaris (1860–1922), following fishermen's indications, located and recorded the ‘marbles’, in a distance of 50–60 m from the northern shore of Sapienza and in a depth of 6-7 m. He correctly assumed that the pile of marbles was actually a shipwreck transferring antiquities.

The ‘shipwreck of columns’ lies at a depth of 10 m, close to Cape Spitha. The columns are scattered over an area of 30 m2 and are 10 m away from the edge of the Cape. Parts of the columns are aligned and situated at the seabed, while other parts are scattered in a wider area around them.
34 fragmented, plain, single stone columns were located. Only one of them is intact, with a height of 8 m and diameter of 0.90 m. 28 parts of the columns are concentrated, and the remaining 6 are situated at a distance of 60 m from the rest.

The columns are made of reddish granite, similar to the columns positioned in the Fortress of Methoni. The admiral Francesco Bebo positioned this column in 1493/4 in memory of the recovery of the Fortress by the Venetians. Therefore, it is assumed that the ship sank earlier. This particular type of granite exists only in Egypt and in particular areas of Greece (Xanthi, Kavala, and Mykonos Island).

Studies of the column fragments showed that the columns were part of a building containing 16 columns that was demolished or collapsed.
The ship had these columns as part of its cargo. The fragments of the columns are broken irregularly, and they cannot be connected between them. Some of the columns are circular on top, as they were used for tying up the ships close to the ‘mole’.

The results of the geophysical survey are expected to provide important information on the wider location of their sinking.

In fact, in this particular area, it is planned to become an underwater archaeological park in the future.

The Spectacular Lycian Rock-Hewn Tombs: A Testament to Unique Architecture

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Nestled along the picturesque Turquoise Coast of southwest Anatolia (what is modern-day Turkey) and eastern Greek islands, the ancient Lycian civilization has left a breathtaking legacy carved into the very face of the landscape. The Lycian rock-hewn tombs, dating back to the 4th century BC, are a testament to the exceptional artistry and engineering prowess of this once-thriving society. These tombs, adorned with intricate facades and boasting extraordinary architectural designs, offer a glimpse into the rich history and culture of the Lycians, who considered their final resting place as important as their lives.

The Lycian Civilization

The Lycians were a unique civilization that inhabited the region now known as the Teke Peninsula in southwestern Turkey. They were an independent and proud people, with their own language and writing system, known as Lycian script. The Lycians were a seafaring people, known for their fierce resistance against invaders and their well-developed democratic system. They existed from around 2000 BC until they were eventually assimilated by the Greeks and the Romans.

The region's rugged terrain, with its numerous bays and natural harbors, provided natural defenses against invaders and enabled the Lycians to maintain their independence for centuries. The Lycian language belonged to the Luwian subgroup of the Anatolian language family. It is primarily known through inscriptions found on various monuments and artifacts. The Lycians used their own unique script, derived from the Luwian hieroglyphic script, which was later adapted into a more simplified alphabetic system.

Around 200 BC, the Lycian language vanished and was replaced by ancient Greek. Although the Lycian language became extinct, many of its inscriptions have been deciphered, offering valuable insights into Lycian society and culture.

The Lycians were known for their well-developed democratic system, which was organized into a federation of city-states referred to as the Lycian League. Each member city had its own local government and was represented in a central assembly, which made decisions on matters of common interest, such as defense and foreign policy. This political structure allowed the Lycians to maintain a certain level of autonomy and resist external threats, despite their relatively small size.

Lycian religion was polytheistic, sharing many gods and goddesses with neighboring civilizations such as the Hittites and Greeks. Some of the primary deities worshiped by the Lycians included Leto, Apollo, and Artemis, who were revered as protective and benevolent figures. The Lycians also had their own indigenous gods, such as the mountain god Sandas and the goddess Kubaba. Religious practices included temple worship, animal sacrifices, and elaborate burial rituals, as evidenced by the numerous rock-hewn tombs found in the region.

Lycian art and architecture were heavily influenced by neighboring cultures, such as the Greeks and Persians, while still maintaining a distinct Lycian style. The most iconic remnants of Lycian architecture are the rock-hewn tombs, which showcase a variety of styles, including house-style, temple-style, sarcophagus, and pillar tombs. Other notable examples of Lycian architecture include the ancient cities of Xanthos, Myra, and Patara, which feature well-preserved ruins, including temples, theaters, and city walls.

Lycian tombs differ from Hellenistic tradition in that they frequently blend in with cities, demonstrating Lycia's ties to eastern traditions, whereas in Hellenistic culture, the dead were buried outside of livable areas (often flanking main roads into the cities).

Lycian Rock-Hewn Tombs: A Unique Architectural Marvel

The Lycian rock-hewn tombs are carved directly into the sheer cliff faces and rock formations of the region, combining the natural beauty of the landscape with human artistry. These tombs come in various styles, reflecting the architectural diversity of the Lycian civilization.

• House-style tombs: These tombs resemble traditional Lycian houses, with a rectangular shape and a pitched roof. They often feature intricately carved friezes and ornamental details, such as geometric patterns, animals, and mythological scenes.

• Temple-style tombs: Inspired by ancient Greek temple architecture, these tombs have a distinct pediment, columns, and a porch-like structure. The best example of this style is the Amyntas Rock Tomb in Fethiye, which offers a stunning view of the city and the surrounding bay, the Royal Tomb at Pinara and the Painted Tomb at Myra. This temple-style tomb is not exclusive to Lycia and can be found in Caunos (some impressive examples can be found in the town of Dalyan) and other regions of Anatolia.

• Sarcophagus tombs: These tombs are characterized by a free-standing sarcophagus, often elevated on a pedestal or platform. The sarcophagus itself is elaborately decorated with reliefs and inscriptions, while the tomb's roof imitates the curved shape of a traditional Lycian wooden coffin.

• Pillar tombs: Unique to Lycian architecture, these tombs consist of a tall, slender pillar with a sarcophagus placed on top. The most famous example is the Harpy Tomb in Xanthos, where the sarcophagus is adorned with relief carvings of mythical creatures called Harpies.

The Purpose and Symbolism of the Tombs

The Lycians believed that their deceased ancestors played a crucial role in their lives and their connection to the afterlife. The rock-hewn tombs were designed to honor and protect the souls of the deceased, allowing them to maintain their status and wealth in the afterlife. The elaborate and monumental nature of these tombs is a reflection of the importance of the individual buried within and their role within Lycian society.

Their honored dead were buried in geographically high places like cliffsides to give them a "higher" location and make them closer to "heaven," as they also believed that their dead were carried to the afterlife by magical winged creatures that resembled sirens.

All Anatolian cultures created impressive monuments for their dead that were connected to ancestor worship. The soft limestone in the area is likely what helped the Lycians perfect this form of art. The Lycian people's stonemasonry is of note, and it plays a particularly important role in the creation of tombs.

Their fascinating funerary monuments can still be seen all over the landscape of Lycia today. The most recent count found 1,085 examples that are still in tact, with rock-cut tombs being the most prevalent type. The quantity and caliber of the tombs in Lycia are legendary.

Lycia is not the only place in the Mediterranean where rock-cut tombs have been discovered; others include the Palestinian and Nabatean region, Cyrenaica, eastern Anatolian Urartu, the Kurdish border region between Iran and Iraq, the area around Persepolis in Iran, Hegra in Saudi Arabia, and Beni Hassan in Egypt. These locations all have one thing in common: their geographic location, as this type of tomb is typically found in areas with steep cliffs and deep ravines.

Preservation and Tourism

Today, the Lycian rock-hewn tombs are a significant tourist attraction along the Turquoise Coast, drawing visitors from around the world to marvel at their unique architecture and immerse themselves in the ancient history of the region. The Greek and Turkish governments, as well as international organizations, have taken measures to preserve these invaluable historical sites, ensuring that they will continue to captivate and inspire future generations.

The Lycian rock-hewn tombs represent a mesmerizing fusion of artistic expression, architectural innovation, and cultural beliefs. As these ancient marvels continue to captivate and inspire generations of visitors, they stand as a timeless tribute to the extraordinary legacy of the Lycian civilization and the enduring power of human creativity.

On the Way to a New Museum of Underwater Antiquities in Piraeus, Greece

The Ministry of Culture and Sports announced that the Museum Council unanimously approved the architectural, static, electromechanical and museography preliminary studies and the modification of the building programme of the Museum of Underwater Antiquities on the Ietionian Coast of Piraeus. Thus the industrial Silo building on the site of the Piraeus Port Authorities (PPA) will be transformed into an innovative Museum of Underwater Antiquities highlighting the treasures of the Greek seas and becoming an emblematic cultural landmark in the country’s largest port.

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After the Council’s approval, Minister of Culture and Sports Lina Mendoni made the following statement: “A vision of decades is about to be realized, thanks to our cooperation with the PPA, the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation which financed the preliminary studies – and the project’s financing through the Recovery Fund. The unique wealth of the Greek seas acquires an ideal home in the old Silo building , which has been associated with Piraeus’ history since the mid-1930s. It is the most suitable place to house the numerous and already conserved underwater finds, which have remained for years in the Ephorate of Antiquities’ warehouses. The main purpose of creating the Museum of Underwater Antiquities is to highlight our country’s connections with the sea and the long history of Greek culture through the underwater findings. There are only a handful of museums in the world that exhibit exclusively marine antiquities. It is obvious that the Museum will be able to introduce Piraeus as one of the international cultural destinations”.

An ancient greek trireme Source: Tsolakis Architects

The Museum of Underwater Antiquities will house finds salvaged from all the Greek seas: Statues, parts of sculptures, hulls and ship components, rigging equipment, inscriptions, toiletries, utensils and table ceramics, tools and a variety of artefacts from underwater surveys, research and excavations, as well as items handed over by individuals or confiscated.

Experience of a Byzantine ship. Source: Tsolakis Architects

The Museum of Underwater Antiquities will offer visitors the experience of diving into the past, with stops in various periods of time, sunken settlements, shipwrecks, ship models, hulls and cargoes of merchant ships, maps and diagrams, digital applications and projections, with a special emphasis on educational activities and projects.

Sea Bottom and Shipwrecks. Source: Tsolakis Architects

With the planned new extension, the Museum facilities will exceed 13,000 sq.m. It will include  exhibition spaces for permanent and temporary exhibitions, spaces for educational programmes and scientific activities (amphitheatre, library, multimedia room), conservation workshops and service areas for visitors (reception hall, cloakroom, museum shop, cafeteria, restaurant, infirmary, administration offices).

By Archaeology wiki

Is the Phaistos Disc Fake? A Comparison With The Etruscan Disc of Magliano

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by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier discovered the Phaistos Disc in 1908. Since then, the disc has sparked scholarly discussions. Jerome Eisenberg, an art historian, is among those who think the disc is a fake. Shocking artifact or contemporary forgery?

The mysteries of the ancient world have long sparked the curiosity of historians and archaeologists, but alongside the quest for understanding lies the risk of deception. Among these potentially confounding pieces are the Phaistos Disc and the Disc of Magliano, both of which have stirred significant debate about their authenticity. Some, like Jerome M. Eisenberg, Ph.D., assert that these artifacts may not be as ancient as we believe. This article delves into the intriguing world of these enigmatic discs and the ongoing debates about their authenticity.

The Phaistos Disc: A Cretan Mystery

Phaistos Disc in now on display in the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, Crete. Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Unearthed in 1908 in the Minoan palace of Phaistos, located on the Greek island of Crete, the Phaistos Disc is an artifact that has mystified experts for over a century. It's a round clay disc about 15 centimeters in diameter, covered on both sides with a spiral of strange, stamped symbols. The symbols, 241 in total, represent 45 distinct signs, with everything from human figures and animals to abstract symbols, none of which match any known written language.

The disc is believed to date back to the second millennium BC, around 1700–1600 BC, during the middle or late Minoan Bronze Age. However, this dating has been a matter of speculation as it was inferred from the archaeological context rather than from the disc itself.

Controversially, Jerome M. Eisenberg, an expert in the detection of forgeries in ancient art, has suggested that the Phaistos Disc is a modern creation. He proposed that the disc was created by its finder, Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier. According to Eisenberg, Pernier might have been motivated by a desire for fame, or the rivalry between Italian and French archaeologists to discover significant Minoan artifacts.

The Disc of Magliano: An Etruscan Enigma

The Disc of Magliano, on the other hand, was discovered in Magliano, Tuscany, in 1882. It is a bronze artifact, around 10 cm in diameter, bearing inscriptions in Etruscan language arranged in two concentric spirals. The artifact, dated back to the late 6th or early 5th century BC, represents one of the longest known Etruscan inscriptions.

Unlike the Phaistos Disc, the language on the Disc of Magliano is known, but the text remains enigmatic due to the lack of an extensive understanding of Etruscan grammar and vocabulary. The authenticity of the Magliano disc is generally accepted, providing a fascinating contrast to the controversies surrounding the Phaistos disc.

Inscriptions are displayed in a spiral pattern toward the disc's center. It is one of the longest surviving manuscripts in the Etruscan language because it has over 70 words. According to one interpretation of the writing, it is the guidelines for presenting sacrifices to the deities Tnia, Maris, Calu, and Canthas.

The shape of the object is reminiscent of the famous Phaistos disk.

Comparisons and Controversies

Despite some similarities in form, the Phaistos disc and the disc of Magliano are fundamentally different. They were discovered in different regions, made of different materials, inscribed in different languages, and are from different periods. However, the enigmatic nature of both artifacts has made them subjects of fascination and controversy.

A significant reason why some argue that the Phaistos Disc is a forgery while the Magliano Disc is not lies in the circumstances of their discoveries. The Phaistos Disc was discovered during an official excavation by a known archaeologist, Luigi Pernier, who, according to Eisenberg, had the motive and opportunity to forge such an artifact. The Magliano Disc, meanwhile, was found by a farmer, and its inscriptions are in a known language, lending it more credibility.

Modern forgery or sensational artifact?

Jerome M. Eisenberg declares that the Phaistos disc is created by its “finder” Louis Pernier!

Archaeologists largely agree that the Phaistos Disc is genuine. The excavation records kept by Luigi Pernier are the foundation for the assumption of legitimacy. The later discovery of the Arkalochori Axe, which had glyphs that were similar but not identical, lends credence to this notion.

Two academics have suggested that the disc could be a 1908 fabrication or hoax. The Times said that thermoluminescence dating has never been used to determine the date of manufacturing. Robinson says that in his 2008 analysis, he does not support the forgery accusations but instead claims, "It is essential to perform a thermoluminescence test on the Phaistos Disc. It will either prove that new discoveries are worthwhile to look for or it will discourage academics from wasting their time."

The Mavro Spilio ring, a gold signet ring from Knossos discovered in 1926, has a linear A inscription that was created in a spiral-delimited field, much like the Phaistos Disc. The sole known counterpart to sign 21 (the "comb") of the Phaistos disc can be seen on a sealing discovered in 1955. This is taken into account as proof that the Phaistos Disc is an authentic Minoan artifact.

According to Jerome M. Eisenberg, Ph.D., who studies the issue of counterfeiting in ancient art, the disc was made by its discoverer, Louis Pernier!

Yet, why would Pernier pull off such a prank? Federico Halbherr, an Italian archaeologist who worked with him, conducted excavations in Gortyna in 1884. The earliest European Law Code, "The Big Inscription," was discovered by Halbherr on the city walls. He also discovered numerous other artifacts with ancient Greek writing from the early 5th century BC. This discovery made Halbherr very well known.

SIR ARTHUR EVANS

Painted by William Blake Richmond (1842–1921)

Along with other archaeologists from Italy, Pernier was conducting excavations on the Messara plain. He was employed by Phaistos at the start of the 20th century, in the year 1900. This was at the same time that Arthur Evans began excavating at Knossos, where he soon found a large number of clay tablets containing Linear A and B inscriptions. There were high hopes that Pernier would come to a similar conclusion. It is highly likely that he had not discovered any inscribed material by 1908.

Luigi Pernier

What could he possibly do to gain sufficient fame and glory to compete with Evans and Halbherr?

What could he possibly do to become famous and successful enough to rival Evans and Halbherr? What might he possibly find? The fabrication of the Phaistos Disc, a relic with unintelligible pictographic writing, was his quick solution. Italian archaeologist Pernier He must have been well acquainted with the Magliano Disc throughout his studies in Italy, as it was the most frequently discussed scientific topic in the 1890s. The disc discovered by Italian archaeologists in the late 1880s resembles the Phaistos Disc in many ways. With the writing spiraling inward in Etruscan, the entire design is virtually round. At the time, the Etruscan language was still untranslated. Only two discs of this "model" have ever been discovered in the entire world: the Phaistos and the Magliano!

Why not test the Phaistos disc?

It's a fair question to ask why, with all the controversies surrounding the Phaistos Disc, no definitive tests have been conducted to confirm its age. To begin with, thermoluminescence dating, a common method for dating ancient ceramic objects, could potentially provide an answer.

However, this method is not without complications. Firstly, it involves heating a small sample of the material, which could cause irreversible damage to such a unique artifact. Secondly, thermoluminescence dating has its limits; it can indicate whether an object was fired in antiquity or recently, but it can't pinpoint a specific century within the ancient period. Therefore, even if the test confirms the disc was fired in antiquity, it would not settle the debate about whether it belongs to the Minoan period.

Furthermore, since the disc was allegedly found in a pit along with other artifacts (pottery, clay sealings, etc.), even proving that it was created in antiquity wouldn't necessarily prove it was ’t a forgery. An unscrupulous forger could have inserted a newly-created disc into an ancient archaeological context, thereby making it seem as if the disc and the other objects in the pit were all from the same period.

Why not dispel rumors that the famous Phaistos disc is a fake by finding out how old it is? The guardian of the disc, the Herakleion Archaeological Museum in Crete, won't permit it. This is the brief response to this query. Because of its singularity, it is regarded as immovable.

It is true that thermoluminescent batting would result in the least amount of harm to the disc since it only calls for drilling a small hole or two on the edge that could afterwards be filled in to make it nearly undetectable.

The story of the Phaistos Disc and the Disc of Magliano illustrates the challenges faced by historians and archaeologists when it comes to establishing the authenticity of ancient artifacts. The former, embroiled in a century-long controversy, represents the complications of authenticating an artifact when its discovery circumstances and characteristics arouse suspicion. In contrast, the latter, accepted as a genuine artifact, still poses linguistic riddles for the scientific community.

Both discs, whether authentic or not, contribute to our understanding of the past and how we approach the study of history. The controversies surrounding them underscore the necessity of rigorous scientific investigation in archaeology and highlight the delicate interplay between fact, interpretation, and sometimes, deception, in our quest to unravel the secrets of the past.