The Myth of the Basilisk, the King of Serpents

In the shadowy pages of medieval bestiaries and the whispered fears of European peasants lurked a creature of unimaginable terror: the basilisk — the so-called “King of Serpents.” Said to kill with a single glance, wither crops with its breath, and leave entire landscapes scorched and lifeless, the basilisk became one of the most feared and fascinating monsters of the Middle Ages.

But what exactly is a basilisk, and where did this myth begin?

Origins: A Monster Born of Error

The earliest mention of the basilisk appears in Pliny the Elder’s Natural History (1st century CE). Pliny described a small serpent from North Africa, no more than 12 inches long, with a crown-shaped mark on its head, hence the name basiliskos, Greek for “little king.”

According to Pliny, it had a deadly gaze and poisonous breath. Horses would die if they stepped where it had slithered. Even spearing one from horseback was dangerous — its poison would travel up the spear and kill the rider.

This already fearsome image was amplified in medieval Europe, blending with Christian symbolism, local folklore, and alchemical imagination.

The Basilisk’s Birth: Hatched in Blasphemy

Medieval texts gave the basilisk a dramatic — and unnatural — origin:

• A basilisk was said to be born when a toad or serpent hatched a rooster’s egg, a clear reversal of nature.

• Sometimes, it was a seven-year-old rooster that laid the egg during a planetary alignment — an impossibility meant to signal an omen of evil.

This perverse birth only enhanced the basilisk’s reputation as a creature of chaos, inversion, and sin.

Its Powers: Death by Sight, Breath, and Touch

The basilisk’s arsenal of death was terrifying:

• Its gaze could kill instantly — people, animals, and even other monsters.

• Its breath could rot fruit, crack stones, and poison water.

• Its touch could destroy entire villages.

Because of these powers, some said only one animal could defeat it: the weasel, whose strong scent and resistance to poison made it the perfect assassin. In some legends, weasels were sent into basilisk lairs as a last resort.

A Mirror and a Rooster: How to Kill a Basilisk

With such dangerous abilities, how could anyone hope to defeat a basilisk?

Two traditional methods appear in medieval texts:

1. A mirror – Since the basilisk could be killed by seeing its own reflection, brave slayers carried mirrors into its territory, tricking it into self-annihilation.

2. The crow of a rooster – As ironic as its birth, the creature’s natural enemy was said to be a rooster’s crow, which could kill it or drive it away.

These stories often carried a moral lesson: that pride and evil ultimately lead to self-destruction.

The Basilisk in Medieval Symbolism

The basilisk wasn’t just a monster — it was a symbol:

• Sin and heresy – In Christian texts, it was often used to represent Satan or deadly temptation.

• Pride and hubris – As the “king” of serpents, its downfall by its own reflection or a humble weasel reminded believers of the dangers of arrogance.

• Corruption – Its very breath could rot and pollute, much like moral decay in society.

Basilisks were featured in medieval bestiaries, cathedral carvings, sermons, and alchemical manuscripts, always as a warning.

The Basilisk Today: From Folklore to Fantasy

Though belief in real basilisks faded with the Enlightenment, the creature found new life in literature, video games, and modern fantasy:

• Harry Potter famously featured a giant basilisk in The Chamber of Secrets, combining medieval fear with modern flair.

• Dungeons & Dragons introduced the basilisk as a stony-gaze beast with a reptilian twist.

• The Witcher series reimagined it as a wyvern-like monster, blending folklore with brutal realism.

The Role of the Steppe Nomads in Ancient Warfare

From the windswept grasslands of Central Asia to the borders of the Roman Empire, the steppe nomads left hoofprints not only on the land but on the very course of ancient warfare. Tribes like the Scythians, Sarmatians, Xiongnu, and Huns introduced military innovations and psychological shockwaves that forced sedentary empires to adapt — or fall.

Masters of the Horse and Bow

The steppe nomads were born in the saddle. From childhood, they learned to ride, hunt, and fight — their lifestyle revolved around mobility, archery, and survival in vast, unforgiving terrain.

Their greatest weapons?

• The composite bow, crafted from horn, wood, and sinew, was short, powerful, and perfect for shooting while galloping.

• The horse, which they not only rode but bred selectively for endurance and speed.

• Tactics like feigned retreat, hit-and-run attacks, and encirclement that confused and exhausted slower infantry-based armies.

Their style of warfare was fluid, fast, and psychological. They could strike from hundreds of meters away and vanish into the plains before a counterattack could even be organized.

Scythians: Ghosts of the Steppe

The Scythians, who terrorized the Near East and the Greek world from the 9th to 2nd century BCE, were among the first to bring nomadic tactics to the forefront of Eurasian warfare.

Greek historian Herodotus described them as elusive and deadly, able to “fight from a distance and disappear when pursued.” When the Persian king Darius I invaded Scythian lands, his army found no cities to conquer and no decisive battle — only frustration and attrition. The Scythians weaponized the void, using scorched-earth tactics and mobility to outlast one of the ancient world's superpowers.

Huns: The Empire-Breakers

Centuries later, the Huns would strike terror into the heart of Europe. Under Attila the Hun, they ravaged Roman frontiers, extracting tributes and weakening the already-fractured Western Roman Empire.

The Huns took steppe warfare to new heights by coordinating large cavalry forces with devastating precision. Roman chroniclers described their savage speed, strange tactics, and piercing arrows — unlike anything seen in traditional Roman warfare.

Though often portrayed as barbarians, the Huns had a keen sense of political manipulation, diplomacy, and alliance-building. They forced the Eastern Roman Empire to build fortifications (like the Theodosian Walls) and even altered Roman military doctrine, which began to rely more on cavalry auxiliaries and mercenaries — many of them steppe-born.

Influence on Empires

Steppe nomads didn’t just raid empires — they reshaped them.

• The Parthians and later Sassanids of Persia adopted mounted archery and heavy cavalry tactics directly influenced by nomads.

• The Roman military began integrating more cavalry and flexible units after encountering Scythians and Huns.

• Even Chinese dynasties, like the Han and Tang, were forced to fortify borders (e.g., early Great Wall segments) and diplomatically engage with nomadic powers like the Xiongnu and Turkic tribes.

Empires learned the hard way: mobility could defeat mass, and terrain could be a weapon.

Legacy of the Steppes

The steppe nomads did not leave monuments, cities, or empires in the traditional sense — but they profoundly altered the tactics, strategies, and political borders of the ancient world.

Their style of warfare — mobile, decentralized, and adaptive — became the template for future conquerors, from the Mongols to Cossack raiders. Today, military historians still study the psychological warfare, mobility doctrine, and logistical minimalism of these ancient horse lords.

The Worship of Anansi, the Trickster God of Africa

In the heart of West Africa, beneath the rustling trees and vibrant markets, lives a figure both revered and feared: Anansi, the trickster spider god. More than just a mischievous character, Anansi is a central figure in Akan mythology (especially among the Ashanti people of Ghana), representing the dual nature of wisdom and deception — and the enduring power of storytelling.

Who Is Anansi?

Anansi is often depicted as a spider, a man, or a combination of both — sometimes with a human face and spider body. His name comes from the Akan word for "spider." He is neither a god in the sense of omnipotent creator nor a mere animal; he is a divine trickster, a cultural hero, and a spiritual force.

• Role: Anansi is the patron of stories, knowledge, and cunning.

• Personality: Clever, humorous, selfish, sometimes cowardly — but always a survivor.

• Domain: Stories, fate, cleverness, justice, and even creation in some myths.

Anansi’s Greatest Heist: How He Got the Stories

In one of the most famous tales, all the world’s stories belonged to Nyame, the sky god. Anansi wanted them for humankind. To win them, Nyame gave him an impossible task: to capture four deadly creatures — a python, a leopard, hornets, and a fairy.

Anansi, using his wits rather than strength, outsmarted each one and presented them to Nyame. In awe of his cleverness, Nyame granted him ownership of all stories, declaring them “Anansi stories” from then on.

This tale symbolizes how knowledge isn’t always won through power, but through strategy, patience, and wit.

Trickster with a Purpose

Anansi isn't evil — he's morally complex. His tricks often backfire, but they also expose hypocrisy, greed, or injustice. In African societies where oral traditions were key, Anansi served as a mirror for human behavior, especially in difficult times.

Through Anansi:

• Children learn life lessons wrapped in humor and suspense.

• Adults reflect on power, survival, and consequences.

• Societies preserve values in a form that entertains as it educates.

From Africa to the Americas: Anansi’s Journey

The legacy of Anansi traveled across the Atlantic with the enslaved African peoples, especially from Ghana and the Gold Coast, becoming a vital part of Caribbean, South American, and Southern U.S. folklore.

In Jamaica, he’s known simply as “Br’er Anansi” or just “Anancy.”
In Suriname, he appears as “Anansi Tori” (Anansi Stories).
In the American South, his influence blended with Native and European folklore, helping create characters like Br’er Rabbit.

For enslaved peoples, Anansi was a symbol of resistance — a powerless figure who outwitted the powerful, often with nothing but his brains and his mouth. He reminded people that freedom can begin in the mind, through cleverness, humor, and the preservation of one’s culture.

Anansi Today: From Folk Hero to Pop Culture Icon

Anansi’s influence lives on in:

• Children’s books, especially in Caribbean and African communities.

• Neil Gaiman’s “Anansi Boys”, where Anansi is reimagined as a modern-day god.

• Marvel and DC Comics, which have featured Anansi as a powerful mythical being.

• Folklore festivals and storytelling traditions, where he continues to spin tales and teach lessons.

The Myth of the Tarasque, the Dragon of France

In the heart of medieval Provence, where the Rhône River winds through quiet French towns, lives a legend that blends fire-breathing terror with saintly redemption — the story of the Tarasque, the infamous dragon of France.

A Beast Beyond Imagination

According to legend, the Tarasque was no ordinary monster. It emerged from the depths of the Rhône near the town of Tarascon, a fearsome hybrid said to have the body of an ox, six bear-like legs, a lion’s head, and a serpent’s tail covered in barbed scales. It could breathe fire, capsize boats, and devour travelers whole. Its origin? Some tales say it was the offspring of the Leviathan and Onachus, both mythical beasts from ancient lore — which only fueled its fearsome reputation.

The people of Provence lived in constant dread. Warriors, hunters, and even armies failed to bring the Tarasque down. It was more than just a monster — it became a symbol of uncontrollable chaos.

Saint Martha and the Power of Peace

Everything changed with the arrival of Saint Martha, the sister of Mary Magdalene and Lazarus, who, according to Christian tradition, came to southern France after fleeing persecution in the Holy Land.

Rather than fight the creature with weapons, Martha approached it with faith and compassion. She found the Tarasque in the forest, prayed, sang hymns, and calmed it with holy water and the sign of the cross. The once-terrifying beast grew docile. Martha then led it back to Tarascon, where terrified villagers — still thinking it dangerous — killed the beast.

Martha forgave them and preached a message of peace. The creature’s remains were buried, and the town took its name from the slain dragon: Tarascon.

Symbolism and Celebration

Over time, the Tarasque came to symbolize the taming of evil through faith, a recurring theme in Christian hagiography. But the legend also holds older, pagan echoes — dragons and serpents were long associated with natural disasters, chaos, or untamed nature.

In a fascinating twist, the Tarasque was eventually adopted as a symbol of the town’s identity rather than its shame. Since the 15th century, the Festival of the Tarasque has taken place in Tarascon each summer, featuring a giant effigy of the dragon paraded through the streets to music, laughter, and celebration. The event was even inscribed on the UNESCO list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2005.

From Fear to Folklore

The story of the Tarasque blends Christian legend, local folklore, and mythic archetypes — a monstrous beast, a saintly figure, and the eternal battle between destruction and harmony. Its transformation from terror to tradition shows how communities reinterpret fear, reshape their past, and embrace myth to define their cultural identity.

Fun Fact:
The Tarasque even appears in medieval bestiaries and is considered one of the few mythical dragons “defeated without violence.” Its tale continues to inspire books, artwork, and even modern fantasy role-playing games.

Early Human Ancestor ‘Lucy’ Was a Terrible Runner — And This One Tendon Might Explain Why

A new digital reconstruction of “Lucy,” the 3.2-million-year-old fossil of Australopithecus afarensis, reveals that our ancient relative may have struggled with speed — topping out at just 11 mph (18 km/h). But while Lucy may not have broken any land speed records, her anatomy is helping researchers better understand the evolutionary upgrades that turned humans into world-class endurance runners.

Using advanced musculoskeletal modeling, researchers analyzed Lucy’s skeleton to simulate how she might have moved. The results, published in Current Biology on Dec. 18, show that although australopithecines like Lucy were already walking upright around 4 million years ago, their running ability was limited compared to modern humans, who only evolved efficient bipedal locomotion around 2 million years ago with Homo erectus.

Lucy vs. Modern Runners

In the simulations, Lucy’s maximum running speed peaked at about 11 mph — well below a recreational human runner’s average sprint (13.5 mph or 22 km/h), and a far cry from Usain Bolt’s 27+ mph (43 km/h). Even more telling: she used nearly 2 to 3 times more energy than modern humans to sustain that speed, suggesting that australopithecines were not built for efficient long-distance travel.

Her short legs, long arms, and heavy upper body already hinted at a less streamlined gait. But the researchers also identified another likely culprit: a less-developed Achilles tendon and triceps surae — a group of calf muscles critical to running.

In modern humans, the long, elastic Achilles tendon acts like a spring, storing and releasing energy to make running smoother and less energy-intensive. Lucy’s anatomy, in contrast, lacked this springiness, meaning her stride required more muscle effort and burned more energy.

Rewiring the Engine

To test this theory, scientists created a model of Lucy equipped with a human-like Achilles tendon and more modern calf muscles. While this adjustment improved her efficiency somewhat, it didn’t make her much faster. The limiting factor, they found, was her smaller overall body size.

Still, the researchers say the findings underscore how essential the Achilles tendon and calf structure were in the evolutionary transformation from lumbering bipeds to efficient runners. These upgrades helped pave the way for the endurance running that would later allow early Homo species to chase prey over long distances on the African savanna.

“This highlights the critical role of the Achilles tendon and triceps surae in the evolution of human running mechanics,” the study notes. “Key elements of the human body plan emerged specifically to boost running performance.”

Discovery Beneath Antarctica: Scientists Unlock an 80-Million-Year-Old Lost World Beneath the Ice

For over 34 million years, Antarctica has been buried under a massive sheet of ice. But a groundbreaking new discovery by scientists from Durham University in the UK is rewriting what we thought we knew about this frozen continent.

Using radar data collected from multiple geological expeditions, researchers have uncovered a vast ancient landscape hidden beneath the ice of East Antarctica—a landscape that dates back 80 million years, long before the continent was frozen, and bears resemblance to modern-day Patagonia or even a tropical rainforest.

What the Scientists Found

The study revealed enormous flat plains sculpted by ancient rivers, pointing to a radically different past for the region. Researchers identified 31 distinct flat areas, covering nearly 40% of East Antarctica’s coastline.

“It’s one of the most mysterious geological formations on Earth—or on any planet in our solar system,” said Dr. Guy Paxman, lead author of the study.

A Landscape From Another Time

According to scientists, the climate in this forgotten world could have resembled that of Patagonia today—or perhaps something even more tropical if we go far enough back in time. The entire region resembles a “lost world” that has remained nearly untouched for tens of millions of years.

“What we’re seeing under the ice is an incredibly well-preserved imprint of the past—a window into another world,” added Professor Stewart Jamieson.

The Climate Change Connection

But this discovery isn't just about geological curiosity. The study found that the ice resting above these ancient flatlands moves significantly slower than in other parts of the continent.

This is critical information. As Antarctica’s ice loss accelerates due to global warming, understanding how geological features affect ice flow is vital. It can help scientists more accurately predict future sea-level rise and how our planet will respond to a changing climate.

Before Aesop: The First Cunning Fox in Human History Revealed Recently in Sumerian Myth

Enlil, Ishkur, and the Clever Fox: A 4,400-Year-Old Sumerian Myth of Captivity and Rain Restored

In a recent study published in the academic journal Iraq, Assyriologist Dr. Jana Matuszak has produced the first full critical edition and translation of a long-overlooked Sumerian tablet, shedding light on a mythic narrative dating back approximately 4,400 years. The tablet in question, designated Ni 12501, originates from the ancient city of Nippur and belongs to the Early Dynastic IIIb period (ca. 2540–2350 BCE), a formative era in Mesopotamian civilization.

Although the tablet was excavated as early as the 19th century, it was never fully published or analyzed. Part of the reason for this neglect may stem from its fragmentary condition—less than one-third of the original text survives—which has made interpretation difficult. Another obstacle was bibliographic confusion: when the tablet’s text was partly quoted by renowned Sumerologist Samuel Noah Kramer on the dust jacket of a 1956 book, he failed to include its museum registration number, identifying it only in a subsequent publication five years later.

Despite its damaged state, Ni 12501 offers a rare glimpse into the Sumerian mythological imagination—particularly through its narrative, which features prominent deities and unique motifs not seen elsewhere in the surviving corpus.

Historical and Religious Context

The tablet was inscribed around 2400 BCE, during a time when Sumer was composed of independent city-states, each governed by its own institutions and centered around a tutelary deity. As Dr. Matuszak explains, "Each city-state had one patron deity (who in turn had an entire family and staff)." In Nippur, this was Enlil, the head of the Sumerian pantheon, whose sanctuary dominated the religious life of the city.

Although politically autonomous, the city-states shared a common language, administrative traditions, and religious structure. Variations existed—such as different dialects of Sumerian and local panthea—but core deities like Enlil and Ishkur were widely known. Ni 12501, while seemingly part of a Nippurite tradition, fits into this broader Mesopotamian religious framework.

The Narrative: Ishkur in the Netherworld

The fragment centers on a myth in which the storm god Ishkur—often associated with seasonal rains and agriculture—is trapped in the netherworld (kur). His father, Enlil, convenes a divine assembly, seeking a volunteer to descend into the underworld and retrieve his son. Of all the gods, only Fox steps forward to undertake the perilous mission.

Fox, in a display of cunning, gains access to the netherworld by accepting—but not consuming—food and drink offered to him. Instead, he stores them in a receptacle, thus bypassing the binding rules of the underworld. The story abruptly ends here due to damage on the tablet, and it remains uncertain whether Fox ultimately succeeds in rescuing Ishkur.

Nonetheless, even in its fragmentary state, the myth resonates with themes common in later Mesopotamian and broader Near Eastern traditions: the daring descent into the netherworld, the clever trickster, and the restoration of order by an unlikely savior.

Themes and Symbolism

The narrative opens with a vivid tableau of agricultural abundance—"glittering waters," fish-filled rivers, and multicolored cows belonging to Ishkur—before shifting into desolation. Ishkur’s captivity seems to coincide with a cessation of natural fertility, represented metaphorically through the abduction of children by the kur, possibly alluding to drought and famine.

This transition from plenitude to scarcity, followed by the anticipated return of the storm god, may encode a cyclical agricultural myth, tied to the seasonal rhythm of rains and crop renewal. The motif parallels other ancient traditions involving dying and returning gods.

The character of the Fox—depicted here as both daring and shrewd—marks the earliest known instance of this animal as a trickster figure in Mesopotamian myth. The fox’s cleverness and willingness to do what other deities cannot recalls broader literary tropes of lowly or marginal figures achieving divine goals—a pattern seen in myths worldwide.

Significance and Legacy

As Dr. Matuszak notes, "The Nippur fragment Ni 12501... is the only narrative in which Ishkur plays a leading role." Although he appears elsewhere in hymns and god lists, he rarely occupies the central position reserved here. This makes the tablet all the more valuable, offering a rare window into both the evolving Sumerian pantheon and the myth-making of the time.

Moreover, the story reflects cultural realities: in southern Mesopotamia, rainfall was insufficient for agriculture, and extensive irrigation systems were essential. This likely reduced Ishkur’s relative importance compared to storm gods in rain-fed regions, such as the Semitic god Hadad. Yet in Ni 12501, Ishkur takes center stage, perhaps revealing a regional or localized devotional tradition in Nippur.

Toward a Fuller Picture of Sumerian Myth

Although much of the tablet is missing and its original context remains elusive, Ni 12501 is a valuable piece in the larger puzzle of Mesopotamian literature. Its motifs—captivity in the netherworld, divine rescue, agricultural abundance, and trickster heroism—resonate across the centuries in both Sumerian and later Akkadian mythologies.

Dr. Matuszak’s careful philological work underscores the continuing importance of revisiting understudied or neglected artifacts, especially those still housed in museum collections without full publication. Her edition of Ni 12501 not only revives a fragment of mythic storytelling but also reaffirms how even broken tablets can enrich our understanding of ancient worldviews.

Citation:
Jana Matuszak, “A Myth from Nippur about Ishkur’s Captivity in the Netherworld (Ni 12501),” Iraq 86 (2024): 1–26.

Were Roman Soldiers Giants? Clues Emerge from Oversized Footwear Unearthed Near Hadrian’s Wall

Exceptionally large Roman shoes — measuring up to 32 centimeters — have been discovered at Magna, a Roman fort near Hadrian’s Wall in northern England. The find includes eight oversized shoes, part of a larger cache of 32 leather shoes ranging from child to adult sizes.

What makes this discovery stand out is the unusually large dimensions of the footwear compared to nearby archaeological sites. At Vindolanda, for example, only 0.4% of the shoes unearthed measure over 30.5 cm. In contrast, at Magna, a striking 25% of the shoes exceed that length — a significant difference that has researchers curious.

So, who wore these giant shoes?

One theory is that they belonged to particularly tall Roman soldiers, perhaps chosen for specialized roles within the military. Another possibility is environmental: the harsh northern British climate may have required soldiers to wear thick socks or foot wrappings beneath their shoes, necessitating a larger size. Some of the shoes might have even been ceremonial, crafted for symbolic or imposing appearances.

The diverse population of Magna could also play a role. The garrison may have included recruits from across the vast Roman Empire, including regions where people were naturally taller or built differently.

Remarkably, the shoes survived nearly 2,000 years thanks to unique preservation conditions. Magna’s waterlogged ditches created an oxygen-free environment perfect for conserving organic materials. Add to that the Romans’ advanced tanning techniques — using tannins to make leather more durable — and you have the perfect recipe for archaeological time capsules.

This extraordinary footwear find offers new insight into the lives, appearances, and even possible symbolism of Roman soldiers stationed on the empire’s remote northern frontier.

Scientists Discover Giant “Fuses” Deep Inside the Earth That May Trigger Massive Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions are more than just destructive natural spectacles that disrupt air travel or damage property. At their most extreme, they can claim hundreds or even thousands of lives, smothering entire regions in deadly pyroclastic flows and ash. Beyond the immediate devastation, they can also drastically alter regional—and even global—climates, leading to ecosystem collapse and mass extinctions.

Now, researchers in Australia believe they’ve uncovered a major clue to what triggers these catastrophic events: colossal, mysterious rock masses buried nearly 2,000 kilometers beneath the Earth’s surface.

The “Continents” Beneath Our Feet

These gigantic 3D structures are as large as entire continents and tower up to 100 times higher than Mount Everest. They sit at the base of the Earth’s mantle, just above the molten outer core, in a zone where the pressure is so intense that the planet’s elements are compressed to extreme levels.

Scientists believe these massive formations may act like priming fuses—starting points for plumes of molten rock that rise toward the Earth's surface. When these plumes finally break through, they erupt with such force that they can alter life as we know it, spewing lava, gas, and rock fragments across vast areas.

Planetary Consequences

According to the research team, super-eruptions fueled by these plumes could drive rapid climate shifts, trigger mass extinctions, and amplify global warming through the release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.

The team from the University of Wollongong used computer models to simulate the mantle’s heat transfer over a billion-year timeline. Their study suggests that these mysterious rock bodies have likely existed for hundreds of millions of years—perhaps since the early days of the planet’s geological history.

Although they’re composed of rock like the rest of the mantle, these structures appear to be hotter and denser, which means they behave differently under the intense pressures found at such depths.

A Breakthrough in Volcanology

The discovery represents a major step forward in understanding large-scale volcanic activity and the inner workings of our planet’s most destructive natural processes. By studying these deep-Earth anomalies, scientists hope to one day predict or mitigate the effects of future super-eruptions.

In a world increasingly shaped by climate uncertainty and environmental change, knowing what’s brewing beneath our feet could be more critical than ever.

What Does the Latin Word Nostrum Really Mean?

The Latin word nostrum has deep roots stretching from the Roman Empire to modern-day usage. While it may seem like a relic of a dead language, nostrum continues to carry surprising relevance in medicine, politics, and cultural discussions today. But what does it actually mean—and why does it matter?

The Meaning and Origins of Nostrum

In Latin, nostrum is the neuter singular form (used in the nominative or accusative case, depending on syntax) of the possessive pronoun noster, nostra, nostrum, which simply translates to “our” or “ours.”

It appeared frequently in Roman expressions like:

• Mare nostrum – “our sea,” a Roman term of pride for the Mediterranean

• Corpus nostrum – “our body”

These expressions reflected ownership, identification, or collective control—highlighting the Roman view of dominion, unity, and shared identity.

From Grammar to Medicine: Nostrum as a “Cure-All”

Over the centuries, nostrum evolved beyond its literal meaning. In the world of medicine, particularly in English, nostrum came to refer to a questionable remedy—a drug or treatment with unverified effectiveness, typically promoted by someone without medical credentials.

In other words, a nostrum in this context is what we might call a “folk remedy,” “miracle cure,” or “snake oil.” In Greek, you might hear it called a μπολί, ματζούνι, or even a πατέντα—something unproven, but often marketed with bold claims.

Political and Cultural Shades of Meaning

The story doesn’t end in the apothecary. Today, nostrum is also used in political and ideological discourse, often with a sarcastic or critical edge. It describes ideas or proposals that are presented as all-encompassing solutions but lack depth, evidence, or practicality.

For instance:

• “The free market isn’t some nostrum that solves every issue.”

• “Nostalgia isn’t a nostrum for modern-day crises.”

In this way, the word has taken on the flavor of wishful thinking dressed up as policy—a catch-all promise that fails to deliver real results.

So, What Is a Nostrum?

• At its core, it means “ours” in Latin.

• The Romans used it to express territorial or collective identity.

• In medicine, it refers to an unproven or dubious treatment.

• In modern usage, it often points to oversimplified or hollow solutions, especially in politics or public discourse.

The word nostrum has traveled through time—adapting, shifting, and expanding in meaning. It reminds us that language is never static; it’s a living, evolving symbol of history, ideas, and human experience. What began as a simple possessive pronoun has become a potent shorthand for everything from empire to empty promises—proving that some words carry far more than just their dictionary definitions.

The Ancient Greek Superfood Making a Comeback: Why Lupins Deserve a Place on Our Plates Again

In ancient times, the humble lupin—known to the Greeks as thermos—was more than just a food source. Its name evoked not only warmth but also strength, power, and sustenance. This protein-packed legume (with levels reaching up to 40%) once played a central role in the diets of both Greeks and Romans. It was a favorite of the Cynic philosophers, a staple for the hungry Roman plebeians, and even a sacred food offered in the mysterious feasts of the goddess Hecate.

Yet today, this once-vital ingredient has nearly vanished from the Greek culinary consciousness—with one notable exception: the Mani region of the Peloponnese.

Lupins: A Forgotten Superfood Thriving in Mani

In Mani, locals affectionately dubbed “loupinophages” (lupin-eaters) continue the tradition. They snack on lupins as a meze or a casual bite during walks, keeping alive a connection to their ancient roots.

But beyond its cultural nostalgia, the lupin (Lupinus albus) is gaining global recognition as a superfood. It's one of the most promising alternatives to soy and other imported plant-based proteins. Thanks to modern cultivation in countries like Germany, Australia, and Italy, newer varieties of lupin are low in alkaloids—making them far easier to digest and process.

A Sustainable Solution for Modern Agriculture

Lupins are hardy and low-maintenance. They require minimal fertilization, thrive in dry climates, and actually enrich the soil by fixing nitrogen—boosting biodiversity while reducing the need for chemical inputs. In a world grappling with climate change and over-farming, lupins offer a sustainable solution.

So, why aren’t they widely grown in Greece?

Despite the efforts of researchers, farmers, and eco-conscious movements, lupins have yet to find their place in national agricultural policy or support programs. Without organized production, standardized packaging, or commercial infrastructure, they remain largely invisible to the average consumer.

Even among those who are familiar with lupins, few know how to properly prepare them. Traditionally, they are detoxified through a lengthy soaking process or by being submerged in seawater—methods that not only enhance their flavor but also connect us to centuries of culinary history.

Still Thriving in the Eastern Mediterranean

A story shared by Orestis Davias, who stumbled upon boiled lupins in a Damascus street market, shows that lupins never truly disappeared from the Eastern Mediterranean. There, known as tirmis, they are still enjoyed as a cheap and nutritious snack. Similar traditions exist in Portugal, Algeria, and Mexico.

Time to Bring Them Back

If Greece is serious about food sovereignty, sustainable agriculture, and honoring its culinary heritage, then lupins present a unique and promising opportunity.

• They’re suitable for both human and animal consumption.

• Perfect for organic farming.

• A potential draw for culinary tourism (imagine lupin meze in traditional tavernas).

The ancient term thermos didn’t just signify heat—it symbolized food that empowered the body. The Cynic philosopher Diogenes famously ate lupins as a symbol of simplicity and self-reliance—values that feel newly relevant in our age of overconsumption and food insecurity.

Perhaps it’s time to stop thinking of lupins as just a “Lenten food” and instead reintroduce them into our everyday diets, farming systems, and cultural identity. Greece has every reason to invest in this ancient, nutritious, and climate-resilient legume that our ancestors once held in such high esteem.

Atlantis: Archaeologist Claims to Have Found the Lost City Near Cádiz, Spain

A new claim by an archaeologist just off the coast of Cádiz, Spain—mere miles from the Strait of Gibraltar—is once again bringing the ancient legend of Atlantis back into the spotlight.

In his Socratic dialogues Timaeus and Critias, Plato describes a wealthy and technologically advanced island civilization with a powerful navy—Atlantis. Said to have existed roughly 9,000 years before Plato’s time, Atlantis was home to massive temples and immense harbors. According to the story, the mighty city was eventually swallowed by the sea, disappearing around 11,600 years ago.

While most scholars consider Atlantis a philosophical allegory or symbolic myth, archaeologist Michael Donnellan now believes he has located evidence of the real civilization, according to a report by the Daily Mail.

The Discovery Beneath the Waves

Donnellan presented his findings at the Cosmic Summit in North Carolina—a festival focused on alternative archaeology and hidden histories. As part of his presentation, he also premiered a documentary showcasing his expedition.

Over the past eight years, Donnellan has explored the area using advanced technologies like sonar and LiDAR, mapping what appear to be long, linear structures on the seafloor. These formations include a series of enormous circular walls, each over six meters (20 feet) high, arranged in a clearly organized pattern.

According to Donnellan, the second and third walls appear to be “completely displaced,” with scans showing they had broken into two sections. Between these outer walls, the team identified elaborately carved canals, and at the center, a rectangular monument—which Donnellan believes closely resembles Plato’s description of the Temple of Poseidon, possibly marking the capital of Atlantis.

“We Call It the Great Ancient Atlantic Culture”

“We call it the Great Ancient Atlantic Culture—it’s easier for people to believe in that,” Donnellan told the Daily Mail. “I think it’s a gateway for the world to gradually begin taking Atlantis seriously,” he added.

In scenes from the documentary, Donnellan and his team are seen diving in murky waters, quickly coming face-to-face with what appears to be the first wall. The archaeologist describes the submerged structure as having sharp right angles, flat surfaces, and a uniform width of several feet. Upon closer inspection, the wall appears to be built of cut and carefully stacked stones.

“It matches Plato’s words exactly,” Donnellan insists. “He says it came from beyond the straits in a region the Greeks knew 2,400 years ago as Gades. We know perfectly well today that Gades is modern Cádiz, the oldest continuously inhabited city in Western Europe.”

Whether Donnellan’s claim will hold up to scientific scrutiny remains to be seen, but the idea of a long-lost civilization beneath the waves continues to captivate public imagination. If validated, his discovery near Cádiz could become one of the most significant archaeological revelations in modern history.

The Forgotten Wonders of Ancient Greece

When we think of the wonders of the ancient world, images of the Egyptian pyramids, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, or the Colossus of Rhodes often come to mind. Yet, there were many other astonishing feats of engineering crafted in ancient Greece by our ancestors—achievements that, over time, have largely faded into obscurity.

Acrocorinth: The Star of Stars

From the moment a small settlement named Ephyra was founded near the towering rock of Acrocorinth—a village that would later grow into the wealthy and proud city of Corinth—this natural fortress has been a symbol of the city’s existence. According to korinthos.gr, Acrocorinth was fortified with exemplary skill, making it the most significant defensive structure in the region from antiquity to modern times.

Serving as Corinth’s acropolis, Acrocorinth (from “akro” meaning “high” and “Corinth”) was crowned with mighty fortifications. Originally built during the Mycenaean era, it achieved monumental grandeur in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE under the rule of the Cypselid dynasty, which brought Corinth to its peak prosperity. With its 574-meter elevation and strategic position, the fortress withstood every attempt at conquest and earned the nickname “The Star of Stars.” Today, it stands as the largest castle in Greece, and one of the largest in Europe.

In antiquity, the site was also home to the famed Temple of Armed Aphrodite, where priestesses engaged in sacred prostitution. The Greek geographer Strabo, writing in the early 1st century CE, noted that the temple was served by nearly a thousand hierodules—sacred prostitutes dedicated to the goddess of love. These women, offered to the temple by men and women alike, took part in sexual rituals with visitors as a form of religious devotion.

The Colossus of Naxos

At the ancient marble quarry of Apollonas on the island of Naxos lies a colossal, unfinished statue known as the Kouros of Apollonas—an awe-inspiring sight. Believed to date back to the 6th century BCE, the kouros is over 10 meters long. Scholars remain divided over whether it was meant to depict the god Apollo or Dionysus.

Intriguingly, construction of the massive Temple of Apollo at nearby Portara began during the same period, prompting speculation about whether the statue was connected to the sanctuary.

The kouros was never completed—possibly because it cracked and was deemed irreparable, or perhaps due to the cancellation or non-payment of the commission.

Eupalinos Tunnel – Samos

The Tunnel of Eupalinos, carved into the island of Samos in the 6th century BCE, is one of the most remarkable achievements of ancient engineering. Built to supply water to the capital city under the rule of tyrant Polycrates, the tunnel carried fresh water from springs located on the far side of Mount Kastri.

Greek historian Herodotus credited the project to Eupalinos of Megara, an ingenious engineer. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, the tunnel—over 914 meters (3,000 feet) long and about 2 meters wide—was dug straight through solid rock by teams of slaves using only hammers and chisels.

The aqueduct remained in operation for more than 1,000 years, and today, visitors can walk its full length—a rare opportunity to step inside the precision and ambition of ancient infrastructure.

The Paved Road of the Diolkos

A marvel of ancient Greek engineering, the Diolkos was a paved road designed to allow ships to be hauled across the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, enabling them to avoid the perilous and lengthy journey around the Peloponnese by sea.

As detailed by greekreporter.com, ships traveling eastward would arrive at the Diolkos’s northwestern end—modern-day Poseidonia in Corinth—where a stone ramp awaited. There, slaves would drag the vessels onto the ramp using giant ropes. Once ashore, the ships were stripped of their masts and other removable parts to reduce weight.

The massive vessels were then rotated 90 degrees using large winches operated by many men, aligning them with the Diolkos road. After being hoisted onto a heavy-duty wooden frame or sled mounted on metal wheels, the ships were pulled across the stone-paved route to the opposite coast.

The innovation is attributed to Periander, the second tyrant of Corinth (ca. 627–587 BCE), who fully exploited the city’s commercial and cultural potential. While he is often remembered as a harsh ruler, that reputation, according to Encyclopedia Britannica, likely stems from his fierce clashes with the Corinthian aristocracy.

Library of Pergamon

Founded in the city of Pergamon (in modern-day Turkey) by King Eumenes II of the Attalid dynasty (r. 197–159 BCE), the Library of Pergamon became one of the most esteemed centers of learning in the ancient world—second only to the legendary Library of Alexandria.

The Attalids, who rose from humble origins, embraced arts and letters as a way to establish themselves as a respected royal power. At its height, the library is said to have housed 200,000 volumes, most written on parchment. The growing demand for writing material from scholars visiting Pergamon led to increased parchment production in the city—so much so that the English word "parchment" derives from the Latin "pergamenum," referencing Pergamon.

According to worldhistory.org, the rivalry between the libraries of Pergamon and Alexandria triggered an intense race to collect as many texts as possible. Some scholars went so far as to hide their private collections to prevent them from being seized by King Eumenes, his brother Attalus II, or Egyptian Pharaohs Ptolemy V and Ptolemy VI.

After King Attalus III (r. 138–133 BCE) bequeathed Pergamon to the Roman Republic, the Romans continued to maintain the library, which remained active well into the Byzantine era.

These are just a few of the forgotten “wonders” of ancient Greece. While they may not be as widely recognized as their more famous counterparts, they undoubtedly deserve our admiration, attention, and thoughtful study. Their stories remind us that behind the ruins lie ingenious minds, daring feats, and civilizations that pushed the limits of their world.

Ancient Canoe Replica Tests 30,000-Year-Old Migration Theory Across Treacherous Seas

Experimental archaeology reveals how Paleolithic humans may have crossed deadly ocean currents—without maps, metal tools, or even sight of their destination.

A new study led by researchers from the University of Tokyo and their Taiwanese collaborators is providing unprecedented insight into how early humans may have migrated across open seas tens of thousands of years ago. Through a combination of cutting-edge ocean simulations and hands-on experimental archaeology, the team reconstructed what could have been one of the most dangerous sea crossings in human prehistory—navigating from Taiwan to the Ryukyu Islands of Japan some 30,000 years ago.

Their findings, published in Science Advances, offer compelling evidence that ancient people possessed not only the tools, but the seafaring skills and strategic knowledge needed to cross one of the world's strongest ocean currents: the Kuroshio Current.

How Did Paleolithic Humans Reach Okinawa?

Archaeological evidence suggests humans made the journey from Taiwan to Japan’s southern islands—such as Yonaguni and Okinawa—during the late Paleolithic. But exactly how they did it remained a mystery. Unlike migrations over land, open-water crossings erase the physical evidence: no footprints, no trail of tools, and no sunken boats to study.

That’s why Professor Yousuke Kaifu and his team turned to experimental archaeology—a research approach that involves recreating and testing ancient tools, techniques, and voyages to answer questions traditional archaeology can’t.

Building a 30,000-Year-Old Boat by Hand

In 2019, the researchers constructed a 7.5-meter-long dugout canoe using only replica stone tools consistent with those used by Paleolithic people. The canoe, named Sugime, was carved from a single Japanese cedar trunk and built using labor-intensive, period-accurate methods.

Armed with nothing but paddles, their instincts, and celestial navigation, the team paddled Sugime 225 kilometers from eastern Taiwan to Yonaguni Island—across open sea and without sight of land for most of the 45-hour journey.

"We wanted to understand how difficult this journey was, and what tools and strategies ancient humans might have used," said Kaifu. "The sea doesn’t preserve clues, so we recreated the experience ourselves."

Simulating Ancient Sea Crossings

In tandem with the real-life voyage, a second part of the study focused on numerical ocean simulations. Researchers used particle-tracking models to simulate hundreds of hypothetical voyages under both modern and ancient ocean conditions. Variables such as launch location, season, and paddling direction were tested to determine which strategies would give early humans the best chance of survival.

Their simulations revealed that launching from northern Taiwan gave a much higher success rate, and that paddling slightly southeast, rather than directly toward the islands, helped compensate for the pull of the Kuroshio Current.

"The Kuroshio is a powerful, often dangerous current," said Yu-Lin Chang, oceanographer and lead author of the modeling paper. "But our results showed that with the right approach, even Paleolithic voyagers could use it to their advantage."

What This Says About Our Ancestors

These findings reshape the way we think about early humans—not as aimless wanderers, but as skilled seafarers and strategic explorers.

"They didn’t just drift across the sea by accident," Kaifu emphasized. "They likely had paddling expertise, deep environmental knowledge, and the courage to venture into the unknown—without knowing if they'd ever return."

In fact, the researchers believe return trips were unlikely, as the necessary navigation techniques and understanding of ocean patterns likely developed much later in history.

Challengers of the Paleolithic Sea

This research echoes the spirit of other pioneering maritime cultures, such as the ancient Polynesians, who also used stars, swells, and natural signs to cross vast distances without maps or compasses.

“Humans have always been challengers,” Kaifu said. “Even 30,000 years ago, people were willing to brave the sea and seek out new lands.”

Why It Matters Today

The combination of experimental archaeology and computational oceanography creates a powerful toolkit for uncovering human history. It bridges the gap between what we know from artifacts and what we can only imagine from logic.

"This kind of interdisciplinary work helps us understand migration as more than just movement—it's a story of innovation, adaptability, and endurance," said Chang.

And perhaps, it’s a reminder that even tens of thousands of years ago, humanity's instinct to explore the unknown was already alive and well.

Boomerang Found in Polish Cave May Be the Oldest Ever Discovered – And It's Made from Mammoth Ivory

A 40,000-year-old hunting tool is challenging what we thought we knew about Ice Age ingenuity.

An international team of researchers has uncovered compelling new evidence that a mammoth ivory boomerang found in a cave in southern Poland could be the oldest known boomerang ever discovered. Their findings, recently published in PLOS ONE, suggest this sophisticated hunting weapon may date back as far as 42,000 years—making it a remarkable testament to early human innovation in Ice Age Europe.

An Ancient Discovery Revisited

The boomerang was originally unearthed in 1985, deep inside Obłazowa Cave in the Western Carpathians. Measuring 72 cm in length and carved from mammoth tusk, it featured a curved, flattened design nearly identical to the throwing sticks still used by Australian Aboriginal peoples today.

At the time of its discovery, the artifact was recognized as highly unusual—but its true age remained uncertain. An early radiocarbon test gave an estimate of 18,000 years, but this result was later called into question due to contamination from conservation chemicals.

Now, nearly four decades later, the mystery surrounding the boomerang’s origin may finally be solved.

New Clues from Bones, Not the Boomerang

Because the boomerang itself was too fragile to be tested again, the research team turned to indirect dating methods. They analyzed animal bones and a human thumb bone excavated from the same archaeological layer as the boomerang—Layer VIII of Obłazowa Cave.

One standout find: the human finger bone, which was genetically confirmed to be from a Homo sapiens individual who lived approximately 31,000 years ago.

More crucially, radiocarbon dating of numerous animal bones from the same layer—many of them also shaped by human hands—yielded an average age of roughly 41,500 years. Using advanced statistical modeling, the researchers estimate the boomerang dates between 39,280 and 42,290 years ago.

A Weapon Carved from a Mammoth

The boomerang wasn’t just old—it was also made from one of the Ice Age’s most iconic animals. Mammoth ivory, prized for its strength and flexibility, would have required serious skill to carve.

“This wasn’t just a shaped stick,” notes lead researcher Prof. Sahra Talamo. “It was a complex tool that required deep knowledge of materials and aerodynamic design.”

Its arched shape and flattened cross-section are hallmarks of boomerangs designed for straight flight, commonly used to hunt small game or birds—not necessarily to return to the thrower.

A Glimpse Into Prehistoric Intelligence

The discovery reshapes our understanding of early humans in Europe. If confirmed, this would push back the timeline for advanced toolmaking in the region by thousands of years, placing Ice Age Europeans on par with their more famous hunter-gatherer cousins in Australia and Africa.

“This find challenges assumptions that such sophisticated weapons were only developed in later, warmer periods,” says co-author Prof. Paweł Valde-Nowak.

Where It Was Found: Obłazowa Cave

Obłazowa Cave, located in Poland’s Podhale Basin, is a rich archaeological site with layers dating to multiple prehistoric cultures, including the Aurignacian, Szeletian, and Mousterian periods. It’s yielded tools, ornaments, and even a rare Paleolithic burial.

Now, it can add the world’s oldest known boomerang to that list.

What’s Next?

While direct testing of the artifact remains impossible, the authors emphasize that more discoveries like this may still be waiting beneath Europe’s soil—or inside museum storage rooms.

“We now have a more refined model for dating such finds,” says Prof. Adam Nadachowski. “And we hope this encourages further reexaminations of Ice Age tools using modern technology.”

When Ideas Traveled Further Than People: New Study Reveals How Farming Spread Across Ancient Anatolia

A groundbreaking study combining archaeology and ancient DNA is rewriting what we know about how farming and sedentary life spread through prehistoric Anatolia.

The rise of agriculture—arguably one of the most transformative shifts in human history—didn’t always move with migrating people. Instead, new research shows that in parts of ancient Anatolia, it was ideas, not farmers, that traveled the furthest.

This revelation comes from a Turkish-Swiss collaboration, published in Science, where researchers used a rare combination of ancient genome sequencing and large-scale archaeological data to untangle a long-standing debate: Did farming spread by cultural diffusion or population movement? The answer is more nuanced than previously imagined.

The Birthplace of Farming and a Puzzle of Movement

Modern-day Turkey, home to the Fertile Crescent’s western edges, was central to the Neolithic revolution. Around 10,000 years ago, communities here began the radical shift from hunting and gathering to settled village life with domesticated plants and animals.

Until now, scientists assumed that this change spread into neighboring regions primarily through migration. But the new study—led by experts from Middle East Technical University, Hacettepe University, and the University of Lausanne—suggests a more complex story.

“In some regions of West Anatolia, we see major cultural transitions, but without evidence of new populations arriving,” says Dr. Dilek Koptekin, lead author. “People didn’t move—but their ideas did.”

Genetics Meets Pottery: A Revolutionary Method

To reach these conclusions, the team sequenced the oldest known genome from West Anatolia, a 9,000-year-old individual, along with 29 other newly recovered ancient genomes. Surprisingly, across 7,000 years of settlement, the genetic signatures remained strikingly consistent—even as the material culture changed drastically.

“People moved out of caves, built homes, adopted new tools and rituals—all without being replaced by incoming populations,” explains Dr. Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas, a computational biologist at UNIL. “This clearly points to cultural transmission over mass migration.”

But the study didn’t stop with genetics.

The researchers also developed a novel approach to quantify archaeological data—assigning numerical values to artifacts like pottery styles, tools, and architectural features from hundreds of published sources. This allowed them to systematically match cultural shifts with genetic data from the same regions and timeframes.

“We finally had a way to directly compare how cultural practices spread in relation to biological ancestry,” says archaeologist Çiğdem Atakuman from METU. “This was a first.”

Not All Pots Mean People

The findings challenge the long-standing archaeological saying: “Pots don’t equal people.”

In West Anatolia, at least, the saying holds true. Communities took on new lifestyles without being genetically replaced. Farming and village life emerged not from colonization, but from cultural influence—perhaps via trade, seasonal visits, or symbolic exchanges.

However, other regions told a different story.

Around 7,000 BCE, DNA reveals clear signs of population movement and admixture in central and Aegean Anatolia. Here, both genes and ideas traveled together, signaling a new wave of migrations that would later push into Europe.

“The Neolithic was not one-size-fits-all,” says Dr. Füsun Özer of Hacettepe University. “It was a mosaic of local adaptations, cultural exchanges, and, in some places, true migration.”

Why It Matters: A New Model of Human Change

The study’s broader impact lies not just in what it reveals about the Neolithic, but how it was done. By integrating archaeological and genetic data at this scale, the researchers offer a new model for understanding ancient human transitions—one that moves beyond simplistic narratives of replacement or isolation.

“Humans don’t need a crisis or invasion to change,” says Koptekin. “We’re naturally innovative, curious, and open to new ways of life.”

A Call for Global, Inclusive Research

The study also highlights the value of locally led research. Unlike many high-profile genetics papers that center on labs in North America or Western Europe, this project was conceived and led by researchers in Turkey—the very region under study.

“It shows how powerful science can be when research is rooted in the communities and landscapes it investigates,” says Malaspinas. “This should be the model moving forward—more inclusive, more global, and more collaborative.”

Bottom Line:

The shift to farming in Anatolia wasn’t a single process—it was a patchwork of movement, tradition, and innovation. In many places, ideas outpaced people, changing the world without changing who lived in it.

This study not only reshapes our understanding of the Neolithic—it also opens the door to new, more sophisticated ways of exploring how humans adapt, exchange, and evolve.

First Hominin Fossils Recovered from Submerged Sundaland: A Game-Changer in Southeast Asia's Human Prehistory

For the first time ever, hominin fossils have been found beneath the sea floor of Sundaland—offering rare, tangible evidence that our early human ancestors once roamed these now-submerged lowlands.

A recent study led by Dr. Harold Berghuis and published in Quaternary Environments and Humans reveals that one of these fossils—recovered during a routine construction dredging operation—belongs to Homo erectus, a key player in the human evolutionary story. These are the first hominin fossils ever recovered from the submerged regions of Sundaland, a vast expanse of land that connected parts of Southeast Asia during the Pleistocene era.

The Forgotten Land Beneath the Waves

Much of what we know about ancient hominins in Southeast Asia comes from fossils found on present-day land: Java, Flores, Luzon. But during the Ice Age, sea levels dropped dramatically, exposing a massive landmass—Sundaland—that linked modern-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and parts of mainland Asia. This now-submerged region was once a continuous stretch of plains, valleys, and river systems, potentially teeming with hominins like Homo erectus.

Despite this potential, the seabed has remained largely unexplored. The main obstacle? Access. Excavating underwater sediments is expensive and usually only happens during industrial projects—like the one that led to this discovery.

How Construction Uncovered a Deep Past

In 2014–2015, the port company Berlian Manyar Sejahtera (BMS) initiated a large-scale land reclamation project near Surabaya, Indonesia. Over 5 million cubic meters of seabed sand were dredged to create a 100-hectare artificial island for cargo operations.

Later inspection of the newly formed island revealed an unexpected treasure: thousands of fossilized vertebrate remains—6,732 specimens in total—including two hominin fossils, now dubbed Madura Strait 1 (MS1) and Madura Strait 2 (MS2).

What the Fossils Tell Us

After rigorous comparative analysis, Dr. Berghuis and his team identified MS1 as belonging to Homo erectus, specifically resembling late Middle Pleistocene Javanese individuals dating to 140,000–92,000 years ago. MS2 was harder to pin down but appears to belong to an archaic Homo species.

This discovery extends the known range of Homo erectus beyond Java, suggesting they spread across Sundaland’s now-submerged lowlands during the Middle Pleistocene.

“It’s the first solid fossil evidence from underwater Sundaland,” said Dr. Berghuis. “It proves that hominins—specifically Homo erectus—occupied these lowland plains before they were swallowed by the sea.”

Ancient Landscapes, Modern Mysteries

Geological analysis places the fossil site within Marine Isotope Stage 6 (MIS6)—a glacial period around 160,000 to 120,000 years ago when sea levels were lower, and Sundaland was exposed.

The researchers ruled out the possibility that the fossils were reworked from older deposits. The sediment layers, depth of the site, and uniform mineralization of the fossils all point to in-situ deposition rather than later disturbance.

The broader fossil assemblage paints a picture of a dry, open landscape, populated by now-extinct species like Stegodon trigonocephalus and Duboisia santeng—herbivores that would have shared their habitat with hominins.

The High Cost of Discovery

Why haven’t more fossils been found in Sundaland’s submerged terrain?

“Extracting seabed sand is very expensive,” Dr. Berghuis notes. “We typically only get access to these materials during large-scale construction. That’s why it’s critical for scientists to collaborate with port authorities and developers.”

He adds, “We may one day see another dredging operation nearby. If that happens, having paleontologists involved from the start could be crucial.”

Why It Matters

This find fills a significant gap in our understanding of early human migration in Southeast Asia. It supports the idea that hominin populations moved across Sundaland—not just between isolated islands—and highlights how much of human history is still hidden beneath the waves.

It also raises new questions:

• How far did these early humans spread?

• What other species may lie buried beneath the seabed?

• And how much more are we missing simply because of lack of access?

One thing is clear: Sundaland holds secrets, and we’ve only just begun to unlock them.

Did Women Rule Çatalhöyük? DNA Suggests a Matrilineal Society in One of the World's Oldest Cities

A groundbreaking genetic study of Neolithic remains from Çatalhöyük, one of the earliest known cities in the world, is challenging long-held assumptions about ancient social structures. The analysis suggests that female lineage played a central role in household formation—hinting at a matrilocal or even matrilineal society nearly 9,000 years ago.

Life in Neolithic Anatolia

Located in central Turkey near modern-day Konya, Çatalhöyük thrived between 7100–5500 BCE. The site is famed for its densely packed mudbrick homes and rich archaeological layers—each house built atop the ruins of the previous. The community's dead were buried beneath their floors, giving researchers a direct window into the social fabric of this ancient world.

The Big DNA Breakthrough

In a collaborative international project, scientists examined the DNA of 131 individuals buried at Çatalhöyük. Using advanced analysis of the petrous bone—a dense part of the skull ideal for DNA preservation—they discovered something striking: people buried in the same house were more closely related through the maternal line than the paternal.

“This suggests that women were more important in forming households,” says Dr. Eva Rosenstock from the University of Bonn.

In other words, it appears that people lived in matrilocal households, where women stayed put and men possibly moved in—a setup radically different from the later patriarchal norms that would dominate much of Eurasian history.

Not Quite a Matriarchy—but Close?

While the researchers stop short of calling Çatalhöyük a true matriarchy—where women held political or institutional power—there are plenty of signs suggesting high female status. Women were buried with richer grave goods, and early excavators like James Mellaart noted the abundance of female figurines at the site, long speculated to indicate goddess worship or female-centered rituals.

“It’s not a matriarchy in the classic sense,” Rosenstock clarifies, “but the archaeological and genetic evidence points to women having a central social role.”

Two Infants, One House, No Kinship

Among the key findings were two newborn skeletons excavated from the West Mound. Though found buried beneath the same home, genetic analysis showed they weren’t closely related. This reinforces earlier theories that Çatalhöyük’s households weren’t based purely on blood ties, but perhaps on shared economic, cultural, or spiritual bonds.

Continuity and Change: East and West Mounds

For decades, scholars believed there was a cultural break between Çatalhöyük’s East and West Mounds. But the genetic similarities between the two infant skeletons and older East Mound remains suggest otherwise. “It’s strong evidence of cultural and genetic continuity,” says Rosenstock.

So why was there a brief disruption around 6000 BCE when the West Mound was first built? That mystery remains unsolved.

Why It Matters

This study adds fresh weight to an ongoing academic debate: Were ancient societies more gender-balanced—or even women-led—before the rise of patriarchal institutions? While Çatalhöyük may not have been a full-fledged matriarchy, it clearly operated on very different social principles than most of the ancient and modern world.

It also opens up new questions:

• When did the shift to male-dominated structures happen across Europe and the Near East?

• How did kinship systems evolve alongside agriculture, property, and inheritance?

• And how many more clues are buried—quite literally—beneath our feet?

As scientific methods like archaeogenetics continue to evolve, so too does our understanding of who we are—and who we were.

Ancient Greeks in America? What Plutarch Reveals About a Forgotten Voyage to the New World

The idea that ancient Greeks may have reached North America sounds outrageous to many—but becomes intriguingly plausible when one closely examines the writings of ancient authors like Plutarch.
Researcher and philologist Panagiota Preka-Papadima has explored one of Plutarch’s most enigmatic passages, shedding new light on the possibility of Greek presence in the New World, centuries before Christopher Columbus.

Plutarch’s Passage and the “Great Islands”

In his work “On the Face in the Moon” (Περί του εν τω Προσωπώ της Σελήνης φαινομένου), Plutarch refers to a Greek colony located beyond the Atlantic Ocean. The text suggests that Greeks had sailed great distances and settled on islands near a massive continent “beyond the Great Sea.”

He also mentions waypoints on a maritime route, including:

• The Islands of the Blessed (likely the Canary Islands);

• A Great Island, which some interpret as Atlantis or possibly Iceland;

• And finally, a continent located beyond the Pillars of Heracles (i.e., the Atlantic Ocean).

A Greek Colony in America?

Preka-Papadima highlights a striking phrase: “The Greeks sent colonists to lands beyond the Ocean.”
According to her, this cannot simply be dismissed as myth. Plutarch—a philosopher, historian, and priest at Delphi—was not known for fantastical storytelling.

She connects this account with astronomical references in the text. Plutarch describes time intervals, lunar positions, and star movements, adding a layer of credibility. He even claims the colony communicated with Delphi every 30 years, suggesting a structured and long-term exchange.

A Map of the Greeks’ Possible Route to America

Researchers have proposed a possible route, tracing the steps outlined in the passage—through the North Atlantic and toward the shores of North America.

Matching the Ancient Descriptions to the Americas

According to Preka-Papadima:

• The distances, landmarks, and sequences described by Plutarch align remarkably well with locations in the North Atlantic—possibly leading to North America.

• The description of a continent with fresh water and mild winds corresponds to areas like Canada and the Great Lakes.

• The term “Ogygia” (used to describe the large landmass) may refer to ancient mythological realms—and could be linked to the idea of Atlantis.

Greek Seafaring Knowledge and Capabilities

This theory gains credibility when we consider that:

• The Minoans and Mycenaeans were exceptional seafarers;

• They possessed advanced astronomical knowledge and built ships capable of long-distance voyages;

• Ships like the penteconter and evolving coastal charts show a higher level of sophistication than previously believed.

Skepticism and Challenges

Still, the theory faces significant challenges:

• There is no definitive archaeological evidence of Greek presence in America—only indirect clues and controversial artifacts.

• Many classical scholars interpret Plutarch’s text metaphorically rather than literally.

• Others believe the “unknown lands” refer to Ireland, Scandinavia, or other parts of the then-known world.

Rejection or Rediscovery? A Modern Interpretive Shift

Preka-Papadima calls for a reassessment of ancient texts, guided by modern science—from geography and maritime technology to comparative mythology.

She urges scholars not to treat ancient references merely as myths, but as fragments of historical memory, preserved through oral and written traditions.

Myth or Reality?

The theory of a Greek colony in North America isn’t just another fringe hypothesis. It draws from:

• Classical texts with precise descriptions,

• Demonstrated maritime abilities of ancient civilizations,

• And mythological parallels tied to real-world geography.

We may never know with absolute certainty whether ancient Greeks truly set foot in the New World.
But the fact that thinkers like Plutarch recorded such accounts—and that modern scholars like Preka-Papadima continue to explore them—keeps alive the possibility that our civilizational history is richer and deeper than we’ve ever imagined.

Note: Ogygia, or Ogygie, is the mythical island mentioned in Homer’s Odyssey as the home of the nymph Calypso, daughter of the Titan Atlas. Some later traditions associate it with Atlantis.

Ancient Peoples Claimed They Could Hear the Northern Lights — Now Science Says They Were Right

For centuries, Indigenous peoples living near Earth’s polar regions passed down legends, beliefs, and superstitions about the aurora borealis, also known as the Northern Lights.

To the Sámi people of Scandinavia, the lights were a source of awe and fear. Elders warned children never to disturb them, lest they be swept up into the sky. The Inuit of Greenland believed the aurora was a pathway to the heavens, where the spirits of the dead played ball with a walrus skull. In Finland, some believed Arctic foxes were responsible—running so fast across the mountaintops that their tails sent up sparks that lit the night sky.

But beyond myth and metaphor, there was one striking belief that united many of these cultures:

They claimed they could hear the lights.

Reports spoke of crackling, popping, and even a soft rustling sound, like rain falling from above.

As the Danish explorer Knud Rasmussen noted in 1932, one Greenlander told him the sound was made by "the souls running across the frozen sky."

Science Used to Say It Was Impossible

For decades, scientists dismissed the idea. The aurora occurs between 60 and 200 miles above Earth, in the ionosphere—a region so thin that it can’t effectively carry sound waves. Even if the lights somehow did make noise, it was believed the sound would dissipate long before reaching the ground.

So when people described hearing crackling or humming under the shimmering sky, researchers assumed it was either a psychological phenomenon or wishful imagination.

New Research Suggests Otherwise

But recent studies are challenging that skepticism.

Unto Kalervo Laine, a professor at Aalto University in Finland, once rejected the idea himself. However, in 2000, he and his team began investigating the ancient accounts, aiming to make sense of this seemingly impossible phenomenon.

Auroras occur when solar winds carry high-speed particles from the sun toward Earth, guided by our planet’s magnetic fields. These energetic particles collide with atoms in the upper atmosphere, creating dazzling displays of light around the magnetic poles.

But Laine’s theory takes us closer to the ground.

He explains that during auroral activity, a temperature inversion layer may form closer to Earth’s surface. In this layer, warm air traps cooler air underneath—along with negatively charged particles. These charges build up beneath a layer of positively charged particles.

Then, during an aurora event, a magnetic pulse may trigger a sudden discharge—producing the very crackling or popping sounds described in ancient lore.

Echoes of the Past, Confirmed by Science

This theory would explain why the sounds often occur at the same time as the lights and why generations of people believed they were hearing the sky itself "speaking" during these celestial events.

So while solar storms may trigger the aurora borealis, the ancient people weren’t imagining things when they said the lights could be heard.

As it turns out, those old legends weren’t just stories—they were science, waiting to be understood.