Excavations reveal life in England near Skipsea Castle

Recent archaeological discoveries in East Yorkshire are offering new insights into life in England before the Norman Conquest.

Excavations near Skipsea Castle, carried out by the University of York, have revealed high-status Anglo-Saxon structures along with signs of industrial activity at a site thought to have functioned as a “lordly centre” of power.

Among the most significant finds is a rare early medieval malthouse dating from around AD 750–850. The structure includes a drying oven and a clay floor set within a timber-framed building made with wattle and daub.

Dr Jim Leary of the University of York’s Department of Archaeology said that relatively little is known about this period of English history, making discoveries of this kind extremely uncommon. He noted that the Skipsea site is especially notable because the area later came under the control of Harold Godwinson, England’s last Anglo-Saxon king.

Additional nearby finds include the remains of a large timber hall, likely used for feasting and political events, as well as a possible wooden tower that may have functioned as a watchtower or bell tower.

The excavation is part of a six-year research programme that began in 2023 and is being conducted at Sparrow Croft, approximately 225 metres from Skipsea Castle.

Greek: The language that bridges millennia

UNESCO’s recognition of International Greek Language Day affirms Greek as a living, global vessel of culture, knowledge and civilisation

UNESCO's decision to designate 9 February as International Greek Language Day recognises the enduring contribution of Greek to thought, science, and culture.

The Greek language is a singular and foundational system of human communication, with a history stretching back more than 2,500 years. It forms part of humanity’s intangible cultural heritage, enduring, migrating, and evolving across time. Greek serves as a bridge linking centuries, nations, and cultures, and as a repository for philosophy, science, art, and intellectual thought. It acts as a civilisational binding force, connecting the ancient, medieval, and modern worlds.

On November 12, 2025, during its 43rd General Conference in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, UNESCO officially designated February 9 as International Greek Language Day—a decision carrying strong symbolic and educational weight. The Greek language also aligns with UNESCO’s 2003 Convention on Intangible Cultural Heritage, which recognises it as a living cultural practice transmitted across generations and essential to storytelling, poetry, philosophy, politics, and scientific inquiry.

A date rich in meaning

The selected date is highly symbolic. February 9 marks the anniversary of the death of Dionysios Solomos, Greece’s national poet. In fact, Greece had already recognised this date as Greek Language Day since 2017. UNESCO characterises Greek as a “vessel of values and ideas”—a language that connects generations, bridges cultures, and illuminates the development of human thought.

Greek stands out as an almost uninterrupted linguistic system. It has been the framework and driving force of Greek philosophy, from Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Epictetus to Philo, and later became the language of the New Testament. With an oral tradition spanning roughly 40 centuries and a written tradition extending over 35 centuries, Greek is the oldest known Indo-European language. Its influence runs deeply through science, medicine, mathematics, literature, and philosophy, shaping the intellectual foundations of the Mediterranean world, Asia Minor, the Middle East, and Western Europe.

Greek and the Diaspora: duty and innovation

UNESCO’s proclamation extends beyond symbolism and serves as a call to action, particularly for Greek-language schools in the Diaspora. The Greek Ministry of Education has proposed a range of educational initiatives designed to revitalise ancient linguistic forms through creative methods. These include vocabulary-based games, myth dramatizations, digital dictionaries, storytelling activities, virtual archaeological tours, and structured debates—approaches intended to transform Greek from a classroom subject into a lived experience.

Schools worldwide are encouraged to take part in the celebrations by submitting digital postcards and short videos under the theme “My favourite Greek word,” reinforcing the idea that language thrives through the voices of children, no matter where they live.

Greek encircling the world once more

A central aim of International Greek Language Day is to ensure its global reach. This will be supported through online discussions with university Chairs of Hellenic Studies, educational video screenings, and digital initiatives that highlight the worldwide impact of Greek. The objective is not only to preserve the language, but to renew and expand it, demonstrating its relevance in the modern world.

International Greek Language Day represents a commitment to continuity—a promise that Greek will endure, as it has for more than two millennia, while continuing to evolve, adapt, and interact with diverse cultures. Across the global Diaspora, Greek will remain a living force, nurturing creativity and sustaining its rich cultural legacy.

Opinion Three centuries of Roman limescale reveals a dirty secret about Pompeii’s public baths

Carbon isotope ratios suggest that pre-aqueduct, the water was often contaminated with human waste

Archaeology isn’t always about glamorous discoveries like gold, jewels, or perfectly preserved swords—the kind that capture headlines. More often, researchers work with subtle clues, teasing out history from the most ordinary or overlooked materials. A striking example comes from Germany, where scientists have used Roman limescale to trace Pompeii’s ancient water supply.

Pompeii is one of archaeology’s most iconic sites. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE buried the city almost instantly, preserving everything—from human bodies frozen in ash to buildings adorned with vibrant murals. The ruins provide a unique snapshot of Roman life in the first century CE, capturing both its grandeur and its human tragedies.

Supplying the Roman baths

Among the city’s remains are remarkably intact bath complexes, which reveal how sophisticated public bathing was in Roman society. Pompeii had three main public baths: the Republican, Stabian, and Forum Baths. Yet water was never abundant. Before the first century CE, residents relied on deep wells—up to 40 meters—and rainwater cisterns. Even when lifted by hand-powered devices, this water was not suitable for drinking.

Around 1 CE, the Aqua Augusta aqueduct was constructed, channeling water from springs 30–40 km away. This reliable supply could provide potable water and freed the city from dependence on deep wells, causing the Republican Baths to fall out of use.

As with all natural water sources, minerals dissolved in the water formed calcium carbonate deposits—limescale—on the walls of wells, cisterns, baths, and bronze heating devices. Preserved for centuries, these deposits provide a detailed record of Pompeii’s water sources and quality over nearly 300 years, with some crusts reaching 3 cm in thickness.

Reading the chemical record

The secret lies in the water’s chemistry. By comparing modern groundwater near Pompeii with spring water from the aqueduct, researchers identified distinctive patterns. Trace metals like copper and zinc reflect the use of bronze heating equipment. More revealing, however, are the ratios of stable carbon (δ¹³C) and oxygen (δ¹⁸O) isotopes, which differ depending on the geology of the water source and microbial activity.

In the Republican Baths, δ¹³C levels drop between the well deposits and those in the baths themselves, suggesting contamination from human waste and microbes. This indicates that bath water was replaced infrequently—likely no more than once a day—making late-evening dips somewhat unpleasant.

The Stabian Baths show a similar pattern in their older sections, which were fed by wells. Later sections, however, display isotopic signatures matching the aqueduct water. This innovation allowed for more frequent water replacement, improving hygiene and overall cleanlinessall information gleaned from ancient limescale.

People In China Kept Leopard Cats As Pets For 3,500 Years, Before Domestic Cats Arrived Via The Silk Road

For around 600 years, the people of ancient China lived without domestic cats—until the Silk Road brought the first feline companions around 1,300 years ago. Before this cat-less period, humans had shared their homes with a very different type of cat since the Neolithic era.

Analysis of 22 cat remains from 14 ancient Chinese sites shows that leopard cats began living alongside humans about 5,400 years ago, offering companionship for roughly 3,500 years. These small wildcats, native to Asia and similar in size to modern housecats, were likely valued for their spotted coats and skill at hunting vermin.

Around 150 CE, however, leopard cats vanish from the archaeological record. Researchers suggest this may have been due to the social and economic turmoil after the Han Dynasty’s collapse, which reduced rodent populations and made these cats less useful to humans—a pattern comparable to the disappearance of black rats in Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire.

For six centuries, China remained cat-less until 730 CE, when the earliest known domestic cat appeared in the Silk Road city of Tongwan. Genomic analysis links this cat to populations in the Levant and Central Asia, suggesting it was brought by merchants.

Cats re-entered Chinese culture at the same time, with images appearing in tomb art during the Tang Dynasty (7th–10th centuries CE). Further genomic study indicates this first domestic cat was likely either all white or a mackerel tabby with white markings. Since 85 percent of cats depicted in historical Chinese paintings are white, researchers speculate that lighter-colored cats were preferred by the ancient elite.

Gloucestershire village set to appear on BBC series after special discovery

A Roman settlement was uncovered on the banks of the River Severn during an archaeological dig

A village in Gloucestershire will feature on BBC Two’s Digging For Britain later this month after archaeologists uncovered a significant Roman settlement on the banks of the River Severn.

The excavation at Slimbridge revealed what may be a previously unknown Roman port. The dig was led by the Ernest Cook Trust, an educational charity and landowner, working alongside professional archaeologists and volunteers.

The TV episode will showcase the Trust’s Estate Forester, Lee James, who manages the project and has a long-standing interest in Iron Age and Roman history. He highlighted the site’s significance, suggesting it was first occupied by Iron Age Britons who traded with Romans before the conquest of Britain in AD 43. He noted that the Romans may have known their trading partners, possibly allowing for a peaceful takeover of the strategically placed site, which offered access south to the open sea and north to Gloucester.

James emphasized the community value of the project, alongside its contribution to understanding Britain’s history. He also plans to take Roman mosaic pieces from the site to Slimbridge Primary School so children can create their own mosaics using authentic Roman tiles.

In the episode, palaeontologist and lecturer Tori Herridge visits the 80m by 40m site with James and archaeologist Tony Roberts of Archeoscan to examine the discoveries. These include a Roman bathhouse, an unusual sign of wealth and luxury for the early Roman occupation of Britain. Coins date the site’s use to roughly AD 80–170.

Additional finds include finely crafted objects such as a bird-of-prey ornament from a box, a carved leaf from a statue, a bronze writing stylus for wax tablets, and a surgical bronze scalpel.

James expressed excitement at the filming, noting that the site revealed far more than a simple villa—it was a large complex of buildings. Excavations will continue through 2026, allowing time for recording and cataloguing finds. He described the thrill of uncovering objects, knowing they had not been touched for nearly 2,000 years.

The site appears to have started as an Iron Age trading centre before becoming a key Roman regional centre. A report on the project concluded that it was likely overseen by a Roman governor or commandant living in a luxurious compound on a spur of land into the Severn, marking the area as strategically important in early Roman Britain. Further work is required to confirm these initial interpretations.

600-year-old medieval trade shipwreck discovered in Danish strait

Copenhagen, Jan. 20 (SANA) – Marine archaeologists in Denmark have announced the discovery of a shipwreck over 600 years old in the Øresund Strait, the narrow waterway separating Denmark and Sweden and a key maritime route in Europe for centuries.

The wreck has been identified as a cog—the largest medieval trading vessel of its kind known to date—a type of ship that played a vital role in northern European commerce during the Middle Ages.

According to IFLScience, the find was made by a team from the Viking Ship Museum near Copenhagen during seabed surveys and excavation work in the strait, which links the Baltic Sea to the Atlantic via the North Sea. As sand and silt were removed, researchers uncovered the remains of what is now recognized as the largest documented cog ship.

Named Svæglet 2, the vessel measures about 28 meters long, 9 meters wide, and 6 meters tall, with a cargo capacity of roughly 300 tonnes. Tree-ring analysis of its timber indicates it was built around 1410.

The ship’s construction materials came from across northern Europe: the oak planks were sourced from Pomerania (modern-day Poland), while the internal ribs were made from wood from the Netherlands, reflecting the extensive trade networks of the era.

“This discovery is a milestone in European maritime history,” said Otto Uldum, the lead marine archaeologist on the project. He explained that cog ships were a major innovation in 15th-century shipbuilding, enabling the transport of large volumes of goods and fueling the growth of trade in northern Europe.

Thick layers of sand helped preserve large portions of the vessel, allowing archaeologists to study its distinctive high structures, known as “castles,” and to recover personal items and everyday tools used by the crew.

The find promises to shed new light on medieval seafaring, shipbuilding techniques, and daily life aboard commercial vessels of the period.

The Earliest-Known Astronomical Observatory in the Americas May Offer New Insights

Stonehenge was once thought to function as a kind of “Neolithic computer,” but archaeology has since debunked that idea. Current evidence now points to a different site: an arid hill in Peru’s Casma Valley, roughly 200 miles north of Lima.

There lies Chankillo, a complex constructed around 250 B.C.E., recognized as the earliest known solar observatory in the Americas. It stands as the clearest example of a monument designed to track the sun’s movements throughout the year, according to research published in Science. Though modest in appearance and largely absent from tourist brochures, Chankillo has garnered renewed interest as archaeologists release preliminary results from ongoing excavations.

Archaeologists Confirm Fano Discovery as Vitruvius’ Legendary Basilica: A Turning Point for Classical Architecture

Archaeologists have formally confirmed that architectural remains discovered in the centre of Fano are those of the long-lost basilica designed by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, the Roman architect whose treatise De Architectura became the cornerstone of Western architectural theory. The announcement, made today at the Mediateca Montanari, has been hailed by Italian officials as a landmark discovery that reshapes both Fano’s historical identity and scholarly understanding of Roman architectural practice.

The remains lie beneath Piazza Andrea Costa, at the heart of the city, and represent the first physical evidence of a building directly attributed to Vitruvius. Although many ancient structures have long been associated with him on stylistic or theoretical grounds, this is the first time archaeology has confirmed a building that Vitruvius himself claimed to have designed and constructed.

A centuries-long search

The Basilica of Vitruvius has been sought for generations. In Book V of De Architectura, Vitruvius described the building as a rectangular basilica enclosed by a peristyle of columns. Despite repeated excavations and numerous hypotheses over the centuries, no conclusive remains had previously been identified.

Momentum shifted in 2023, when renovation works on a property in Via Vitruvio unexpectedly exposed substantial Roman walls and marble flooring. These finds pointed to a prestigious public building, possibly administrative or ceremonial, but further investigation was constrained by modern construction above the site.

The current excavation, undertaken as part of the redevelopment of Piazza Andrea Costa, has now provided decisive evidence. A detailed stratigraphic investigation uncovered foundations and column bases belonging to a monumental basilica that closely matches Vitruvius’ own description.

Evidence that confirms the attribution

The building’s layout mirrors Vitruvius’ account with striking accuracy: a rectangular plan bordered by a colonnade, with eight columns along the long sides and four on the shorter sides. The discovery of a fifth corner column proved crucial, allowing archaeologists to establish the building’s precise orientation and full footprint.

The scale of the columns is particularly remarkable. On-site measurements indicate diameters of approximately five Roman feet—around 147 to 150 centimetres—and an estimated original height of about 15 metres. The columns were integrated with pilasters and corner supports, forming a sophisticated structural system capable of carrying an upper level. This approach reflects Vitruvius’ characteristic balance between structural efficiency and harmonious proportions.

Specialists have highlighted the extraordinary correspondence between the excavated remains and the dimensions inferred from De Architectura. In what has become a defining statement of the discovery, researchers note that the plan reconstructed from Vitruvius’ text aligns with the archaeological evidence “to the centimetre.”

2,000-year-old love note and gladiator fight scene uncovered on Pompeii wall

A 2,000-year-old love message and a drawing depicting a gladiator fight are among a series of ancient inscriptions recently revealed on a wall in Pompeii, according to an announcement by the archaeological park this week.

Often described as the graffiti of the ancient world, the inscriptions include accounts of everyday life, sporting events, emotions, and personal insults. They were carved into a passageway linking Pompeii’s theatre district with one of the city’s main roads. Although the wall itself was excavated more than 230 years ago, around 300 inscriptions remained unnoticed until advances in modern technology made them visible.

The rediscovery formed part of a research initiative known as Corridor Rumors, led by Louis Autin and Éloïse Letellier-Taillefer of Sorbonne University in Paris, alongside Marie-Adeline Le Guennec of the University of Quebec in Montreal, in collaboration with the Pompeii Archaeological Park. The team carried out two phases of investigation, first in 2022 and again in 2025, using a combination of archaeological methods and digital imaging techniques to bring the long-hidden messages back to light.

From left, a gladiator fight scene etched into a wall in ancient Pompeii, and researchers' rendering of the illustration.

“One inscription reads, ‘I’m in a hurry; take care, my Sava—make sure you love me!’” the archaeological park reported, adding that the writings “bear witness to the vibrancy, diversity of interactions, and forms of social life that flourished in a public space frequently used by the people of ancient Pompeii.”

Pompeii was once a thriving Roman city in what is now southern Italy, before it was engulfed by volcanic ash and pumice during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. The disaster preserved the city in extraordinary detail, effectively freezing it in time. Today, Pompeii is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, drawing large numbers of visitors and continuing to yield new insights through ongoing archaeological research.

Ancient inscriptions have been uncovered on a wall in Pompeii.

“Technology is the key that unlocks new spaces in the ancient world, and those spaces must be shared with the public,” said Gabriel Zuchtriegel, director of the archaeological park, in a statement on the recent discoveries. He explained that work is underway on a project to safeguard and enhance Pompeii’s inscriptions, which number more than 10,000 across the site and represent an extraordinary cultural legacy. Zuchtriegel added that only through the use of technology can this vast record of everyday life in Pompeii be preserved for the future.

Anglo-Saxon ‘lordly centre’ revealed by excavations near Skipsea Castle

Archaeologists working near Skipsea Castle in East Yorkshire say a series of rare discoveries is transforming understanding of life in the centuries before the Norman Conquest

The discoveries are considered as key indicators of elite or high-status sites in the period

Excavations led by the University of York have revealed evidence of elite Anglo-Saxon buildings and industrial activity, including what may be a malthouse, a timber tower, and a large hall used for feasting and assemblies.

The research is being carried out at Sparrow Croft, a field around 225 metres from the Norman castle at Skipsea, as part of a six-year project that began in 2023.

One of the most important recent discoveries is the remains of a rare early medieval malthouse, dated to around AD 750–850. The structure includes a drying oven and an adjacent clay floor, once housed within a timber-framed building made with wattle and daub.

Timber structures and elite activity

Close by, archaeologists uncovered a square, sunken feature lined with timber and mortar. This is believed to be the cellar of a wooden tower, which may have functioned as a watchtower, bell tower, or possibly a tower-nave church.

Both the malthouse and the tower are uncommon finds in England and are considered strong indicators of a high-status or elite site in the period before the Norman Conquest.

Above the remains of the malthouse, researchers also identified a later, large timber hall, likely used for feasting, drinking, and political gatherings. The hall, which predates the Norman castle, was enclosed within an extensive ditch system. Taken together, the evidence suggests the area functioned as a “lordly centre” within the late Anglo-Saxon landscape.

Links to Anglo-Saxon power

These findings build on earlier discoveries at Skipsea that have already transformed understanding of the site. Nearly a decade ago, University of York archaeologists Dr Jim Leary and Dr Elaine Jamieson demonstrated that the enormous mound on which Skipsea Castle stands—85 metres wide and 13 metres high—was not Norman, as previously believed, but Iron Age in origin.

Radiocarbon dating showed the mound was constructed around 1,500 years before the Norman Conquest, making it unique in Britain.

Dr Leary said that relatively little is known about this period of English history, making discoveries of this kind particularly rare. He added that the site is especially significant because the area later belonged to Harold Godwinson, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England, before becoming the estate centre of the Lords of Holderness after 1066.

Although there is no direct evidence that Harold himself visited Skipsea, the discoveries point to a landscape shaped by power and wealth in the late Anglo-Saxon period.

A much deeper history

The importance of the area extends far earlier still. Skipsea was once surrounded by three freshwater lakes—Skipsea Bail Mere, Skipsea Low Mere, and Skipsea Withow Mere—connected to the River Hull. Formed around 10,000 years ago, these lakes attracted human activity from the Mesolithic period through to medieval times.

Archaeological finds from the former lakes include stone tools, animal remains, and bone harpoons, while Neolithic and Bronze Age buildings and trackways have been identified along their margins.

Today, Skipsea Castle is a Scheduled Monument under the care of English Heritage. Each May, it hosts the University of York’s archaeology field school, involving around 120 undergraduate and postgraduate students.

Dr Elaine Jamieson noted that the project is only halfway complete, and that further discoveries may yet shed more light on how power, industry, and everyday life were organised in eastern England in the centuries leading up to the Norman Conquest.

Heritage policy doesn’t block development – weak professional judgement does

Dr James Weir argues that more planning officers with the ‘confidence to apply the planning balance pragmatically’ are necessary if hold-ups related to heritage concerns are to be avoided

When the government criticises “heritage blockers” for slowing down its “build, baby, build” agenda, it echoes a frustration familiar to many developers and their advisers. Pre-application discussions are often slow and unclear. Planning officers and committees appear hesitant when dealing with heritage matters. Applications drag on or stall altogether.

But can this really be resolved through policy changes alone? Much attention has focused on the loss of specialist historic environment expertise within local planning authorities. Historic England data shows there are now fewer than 800 full-time equivalent heritage specialists working across English councils, with just over 500 in conservation roles.

This reflects a long-term decline: since the mid-2000s, conservation and archaeology staffing levels have fallen by around a third. Historic England also reports that individual officers are handling increasing caseloads, even as the government moves to reduce consultation requirements. This shortage of capacity is real—but it does not fully explain why decision-making remains so cautious even where expertise is still present.

The problem, I would argue, has two interconnected causes.

First, planning officers often lack confidence in applying the planning balance pragmatically. Heritage objections are treated as barriers to be overcome rather than weighed critically against other material considerations, even when those objections are weakly supported by policy. That is not how the planning system is intended to operate.

Second, the quality of heritage consultee input itself can be an issue. Where advice is driven more by a protectionist mindset than by objective, policy-led analysis, increasing the volume of consultation will not improve outcomes or speed. In my experience—particularly on major schemes—public-sector heritage bodies are more likely to overstate heritage concerns than applicants are to underplay them. Too often, ideology overrides measured assessment.

A well-functioning system depends on experienced professionals, inside and outside planning authorities, being able to articulate clearly and confidently where the balance lies, using rational and defensible reasoning. In a dysfunctional system, fear of change takes precedence. Heritage becomes a stand-in for uncertainty: officers delay decisions, committees react defensively, and the quality of reasoning deteriorates.

What happens next?

Planning reform alone will not solve this. Changes to the NPPF, revised consultation thresholds, or adjustments to statutory consultees will not, by themselves, alter how heritage advice is framed or how it is received.

The solution is not simply to increase the number of heritage specialists in local authorities—doing so may even reinforce existing problems. Instead, priority should be given to training case officers to understand and apply the planning balance with confidence; to challenge consultee views where they diverge significantly from robust professional evidence; and to present reasoned, non-deferential advice to committees.

Equally important is fostering a less rarefied culture among heritage specialists themselves. Guidance and training from professional bodies and Historic England should emphasise facilitating well-managed change, rather than defaulting to resistance.

How developers should respond

Treating heritage as a late-stage regulatory obstacle is a mistake. In reality, it requires careful assessment and even more careful argument. The most effective schemes are already adapting in five key ways:

1. Addressing heritage early
   Early, scheme-shaping heritage analysis helps define a clear strategy, builds officer confidence, and reduces delays.

2. Focusing on significance
   Clear, accessible assessments rooted in impacts on defined aspects of significance—including setting—provide a strong foundation for advocacy.

3. Engaging proactive consultants
   In the current climate, consultants must act not just as report writers but as informed advocates who can robustly challenge unreasonable positions.

4. Strengthening the planning balance through public benefits
   Emphasising heritage benefits, not just mitigating harm, places schemes on firmer, defensible ground.

5. Designing for appeal resilience
   Resilience comes not from conceding every point, but from ensuring assessments are objective, proportionate, and well evidenced.

A final reframing

Developers who understand this dynamic and adapt accordingly will progress more quickly, regardless of national policy reform. When approached strategically and with confidence, the tools to counter resistance and secure consent are already available.

Hoard of coins buried on eve of the Battle of Hastings revealed in record-breaking treasure report

 A hoard of coins, believed to have been concealed shortly before the Battle of Hastings, is among the notable discoveries featured in the 2024 Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) and Treasures report.

The scheme, administered by the British Museum, has highlighted this find along with several other standout objects included in the latest report.

One of the 179 King Harold II silver coins discovered and included in the Treasure report

The report represents the third year in a row to set new records for the number of archaeological finds reported and objects officially declared treasure, helping to ensure their legal protection. Under the Treasure Act, anyone who uncovers a significant find is required to report it. This allows important artefacts to be secured for public collections before they can pass into private ownership, while also guaranteeing fair rewards for finders, most of whom are metal detectorists.

One of the most significant discoveries of 2024 is a hoard of 179 silver pennies dating to 1066. The coins were probably buried for safekeeping during the final weeks of Anglo-Saxon England, at a time when the kingdom’s future was deeply uncertain.

Notably, the hoard consists entirely of coins from the brief reign of King Harold II, indicating it was concealed very late in his rule. It may have been hidden as England prepared for invasion—either during the Norwegian assault led by King Harald Hardrada in September 1066, or in the tense weeks that followed, shortly before Harold confronted William of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings.

Harald Hardrada temporarily seized York after defeating English forces at the Battle of Fulford, near where the hoard was discovered, before being killed at Stamford Bridge. Harold II’s army then undertook a gruelling forced march south, only to face the Norman invasion almost immediately afterwards.

The hoard captures one of history’s great “what if” moments. Had Harold’s forces not been weakened by the northern campaign, the outcome at Hastings—and the future of English history—might have been very different.

The highest numbers of Portable Antiquities Scheme finds were recorded in Norfolk (7,120), Suffolk (5,410), Lincolnshire (5,133), and Gloucestershire (5,034), all predominantly agricultural counties with rich archaeological landscapes. Over the same period, Norfolk (138), Hampshire (110), and North Yorkshire (109) recorded the most Treasure finds. More than 92% of all objects were recovered from cultivated land, where archaeological remains are particularly vulnerable to damage from farming.

Also displayed was a rare, complete Roman copper-alloy vehicle fitting discovered by a detectorist in Essex. Such fittings are uncommon in Britain and were likely attached to a carriage or wagon body, or to the yoke used to harness draught animals.

One interpretation suggests the piece depicts a panther placing its paw on the head of a defeated Englishman who may have incurred Roman punishment. Although most items classed as treasure are made from precious metals, this object was deemed so historically significant that it was designated treasure despite being copper alloy, enabling a museum to acquire it.

The Essex panther

The final item presented at the event was a group of Early Medieval precious metal objects recovered from ploughed farmland in Wiltshire. The assemblage includes a silver, gold, and garnet bird’s-head terminal with elephant ivory inlays—possibly once attached to a drinking horn—along with several gold rings and other metal artefacts. Discovered by metal detectorists just metres apart, the objects may represent the remains of a high-status Early Medieval burial. Collectively, they offer valuable insight into elite life and long-distance connections during the period.

A follow-up excavation is scheduled to take place in the coming months, led jointly by Cardiff University and the Portable Antiquities Scheme.

Dr Nicholas Cullinan OBE, Director of the British Museum, said: “The British Museum is proud to manage the Portable Antiquities Scheme and the Treasure process. Together, they play a crucial role in safeguarding and documenting Britain’s past, ensuring that extraordinary discoveries made by the public are protected, researched, and shared with all.”

The British Museum has also placed the exceptionally rare Tudor Heart on display in its Treasures Gallery on the ground floor, as efforts continue to raise £3.5 million to secure it for the nation. It was announced this morning that the Art Fund has contributed £400,000 to the campaign. Visitors can now also make smaller contributions using a tap-to-donate screen located beside the display.

Tudor Heart on display at the British Museum

It was also announced that the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) website will undergo an upgrade later this year. The improvements are expected to make it much simpler for finders to record and report their discoveries, while also making it easier for the public to explore what has been found and see which museums have acquired objects for public display.

Hiker stumbles across ancient rock paintings in Kayseri

Neolithic Rock Paintings Discovered in Central Anatolia

A series of prehistoric rock paintings has been uncovered in the Kayseri region of Central Anatolia, Turkey, after a hiker spotted human-shaped figures on exposed rock and alerted local authorities.

Experts from the ÇEKÜL Foundation suggest the paintings may represent the earliest evidence of Neolithic activity in the area. Prof. Dr. Osman Özsoy noted that while the compositions resemble rock art found elsewhere in Anatolia—including Hakkari, Van, Mersin, Antalya, and Çatalhöyük—the Kayseri examples are unique in the region.

The figures appear to depict males, females, and families, indicating a symbolic or ritual purpose. Researchers plan to date the paintings using chemical analysis of the pigments, surface erosion studies, and typological comparisons with other international rock art. Preliminary estimates suggest they date to around 6000 BC, though further testing will determine whether natural pigments such as hematite, clay, and stone were used.

The discovery is also being praised as a model for cultural heritage protection, highlighting the importance of public awareness and responsible reporting. Özsoy added that the findings could lead to a reassessment of Kayseri’s early human history, potentially extending it back to the Neolithic.

An additional point of interest is whether Mount Erciyes, a prominent feature of the local landscape, is symbolically represented in the paintings—an element that could shed new light on the region’s prehistoric identity.

Italy Uncovers Basilica Designed by Vitruvius, the 'Father of Architecture'

Discovery of Vitruvius’ Ancient Basilica Stuns Italian Archaeologists

Italian officials have celebrated the unearthing of a public building in Fano, northeastern Italy, believed to have been designed by Vitruvius, the 1st-century BC Roman architect and engineer often called the “father of architecture.”

“It is a sensational finding … something our grandchildren will be talking about,” Italian Culture Minister Alessandro Giuli said at a press conference.

Vitruvius is renowned for his treatise De architectura (The Ten Books on Architecture), the oldest surviving work on architectural theory. His ideas on classical proportions influenced generations of artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, whose iconic “Vitruvian Man” was inspired by Vitruvius’ principles.

Archaeologists believe they have uncovered the remains of an ancient basilica in Fano, a rectangular public building matching descriptions in Vitruvius’ writings. “I feel like this is the discovery of the century; scientists have searched for this basilica for over 500 years,” said Fano Mayor Luca Serfilippi.

Regional archaeological superintendent Andrea Pessina noted the remarkable accuracy of the find: “We have an absolute match between the excavation and Vitruvius’ descriptions.” The basilica featured ten columns along its long sides and four along the short. When four columns were uncovered, archaeologists used Vitruvius’ specifications to locate the top right column—finding it immediately. “There are few certainties in archaeology … but the precision here was impressive,” Pessina said.

Further excavation will reveal whether more of the basilica lies underground and assess whether the site can be opened to the public.

The project is being undertaken by the Calton Hill Conservation Trust in partnership with Headland Archaeology, a firm with headquarters in Leith.

Archaeologists to Explore the Hidden History of Calton Hill

This year, archaeologists will begin surveys of Edinburgh’s iconic Calton Hill to investigate its ancient history and earlier uses.

Conservationists collaborating with an Edinburgh-based archaeology firm note that, despite the hill’s long-standing significance, surprisingly little is known about its use prior to the construction of its famous monuments.

The research will employ drones and remote-sensing technology to examine the land surface, with 3D models generated from overlapping photographs (drone photogrammetry) to aid analysis. These models will be incorporated into a geographic information system (GIS) and compared with historical records to reveal the hill’s past.

The project, led by the Calton Hill Conservation Trust in partnership with Headland Archaeology in Leith, is non-invasive, meaning there will be no excavation. Instead, it will focus on research, community engagement, and surveying techniques to identify indications of ancient human activity.

Headland Archaeology emphasised the project’s educational and participatory approach: “By involving local residents and community members through workshops and events, we aim to raise awareness and interest in the archaeological potential of Calton Hill.”

Workshops will provide opportunities for the public to explore what is already known about the hill, understand the technologies being used, and learn what remains to be uncovered. Participants will also take guided walks, experiencing the historic landscape firsthand while discovering the hidden stories of the hill.

Calton Hill’s prominence suggests it has long been a focal point of human activity, yet little is documented about its history before the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when the Calton Hill Observatory and Napoleonic War monuments were built. This project seeks to fill those gaps, combining cutting-edge technology with public engagement to uncover the hill’s rich archaeological heritage.

One of Europe’s Most Mysterious Languages May Share Ancient Roots with Iberian

By integrating epigraphic evidence, linguistic comparison, and historical analysis, recent research indicates that the enigmatic ancient Iberian language may be more closely connected to Basque than scholars have long assumed.

The origins of Basque have puzzled linguists for centuries. Still spoken today in parts of northern Spain and southwestern France, Basque (Euskara) is unique in that it does not belong to the Indo-European language family. A new study led by Eduardo Orduña Aznar of the University of Barcelona now offers fresh insight into this enduring mystery by identifying possible links between Basque and Iberian, an ancient language once widely spoken across the Iberian Peninsula prior to Roman rule.

What sets this research apart is its focus beyond the well-known parallels in numeral systems. Instead, it examines deeper linguistic features, including kinship terms and personal names. These elements point to the possibility that Basque and Iberian share a distant common ancestry, rather than their similarities arising from chance or simple cultural interaction.

Reassessing a Long-Standing Linguistic Debate

The proposal that Iberian and Basque are related is not a recent development. As early as the 16th century, scholars such as Ambrosio de Morales suggested a connection. In the 19th century, Wilhelm von Humboldt further advanced the idea, arguing for historical links between Iberian populations and Basque speakers, largely on the basis of place names.

However, this hypothesis—often referred to as Basque-Iberianism—lost credibility during the 20th century. Once the Iberian writing system was deciphered, it became evident that Basque could not be used to directly interpret Iberian texts. Consequently, many linguists abandoned the notion of a genetic relationship between the two languages.

Excavating the British tin trade that shaped the Bronze Age

In 2025, we published a study in Antiquity showing, through chemical and isotopic analysis, that around 1300 BC tin ingots produced from ores in southwest Britain were transported as far as the coast of Israel, where they were recovered from shipwrecks some 4,000 km away.

We also demonstrated that tin from the Rochelongue shipwreck, discovered off southern France and dated to around 600 BC, likewise originated in southwest Britain. We concluded by stressing the importance of surveying and excavating potential coastal sites linked to tin trade—and soon acted on that recommendation.

Just one week after publication, we travelled to St Michael’s Mount in Cornwall to begin fieldwork in partnership with the Cornwall Archaeological Unit and the National Trust. This well-known tidal island has long been associated with Ictis, the tin trading island described by the Greek writer Pytheas around 320 BC in the earliest written account of Britain.

The most recent archaeological work on St Michael’s Mount involved a series of narrow construction trenches monitored between 1995 and 1998, which produced pottery evidence of Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age activity (c. 1100–400 BC). The site’s potential was further underscored in 2009 by the accidental discovery of a large and remarkable Late Bronze Age bronze hoard dating to c. 1100–800 BC, containing objects commonly found across southern Britain, northern France, and beyond.

St Michael’s Mount near Penzance in Cornwall. Thought by many to be the island of Ictis, first described around 320 BC, and mentioned in later classical texts as a tin trading centre from where tin was shipped to France and reached the Mediterranean in 30 days.

Our excavations uncovered a substantial circular stone structure containing large amounts of Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age pottery, along with flint flakes and stone tools. Analysis of the tools’ surfaces—first using portable XRF and then scanning electron microscopy (SEM)—showed that they had been used to crush tin ore. Further post-excavation work is now underway, including detailed analyses and an extensive programme of radiocarbon dating for the structure and its associated features. If confirmed, this would represent the first direct evidence of prehistoric tin production and trade on St Michael’s Mount.

We plan to publish the full results in due course. In the meantime, those interested in our fieldwork can see more in the new series of Digging for Britain, for which our team was filmed.

Ice Age engraving discovered in Moravian Karst cave

Scientists have uncovered a 15,000-year-old Ice Age engraving in a cave within the Moravian Karst, representing the first confirmed example of prehistoric cave art discovered in Czechia.

The engraving, which depicts the head and neck of a horse, was carved into a limestone block in the Švédův stůl cave. It was identified by an international research team led by scientists from the Czech Academy of Sciences.

Dated to the late Magdalenian period, the discovery indicates that figurative cave art was not confined to western Europe.

Chinese team restores legendary Tang dynasty ‘golden’ armour found in Tibetan tomb

Tomb’s occupant confirmed to be a Tuyuhun king and the golden armour is likely to have been among his prized possessions, conservators say

“We will not leave the desert until we defeat the enemy, even if our golden armour is worn thin a hundred times.”

In this famous Tang dynasty poem, Wang Changling expressed the steadfast resolve of soldiers clad in golden armour as they fought on the empire’s desert frontiers.

For centuries, however, the brilliance of Tang gold-plated armour existed only in literature and imagination, as no physical examples had ever been discovered. That changed last week, when the Key Laboratory of Archaeological Sciences and Cultural Heritage at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) revealed the only known surviving example of Tang dynasty “golden” armour—a carefully restored set of gilded bronze armour uncovered in a royal tomb on the Tibetan plateau.

The restoration team not only painstakingly reassembled the armour fragment by fragment, but also created a video reconstruction showing how it likely appeared in its original form.

The artefacts—including armour, lacquerware and metal objects—were recovered and restored from the Tuyuhun royal tombs between 2022 and 2025.

“At the core of our approach was breaking the whole into parts and then reconstructing the whole from those parts,” said cultural heritage conservation specialist Guo Zhengchen at a press conference held on January 14 to unveil the armour. “We carried out layered cleaning, extraction and preservation, while carefully documenting every individual armour plate.”

The royal tomb had previously been damaged by looting and salvage excavations, leaving the armour plates heavily fragmented and severely deteriorated. A 2024 excavation report published in the journal Archaeology described the discovery as follows: “Several bronze armour plates were uncovered … nearly rectangular in shape with a semicircular lower edge … along with a large quantity of lacquered armour fragments.”

The copper and lacquered pieces were found mixed together in piles, with no obvious structural arrangement. Extremely fragile, they risked breaking apart with even the slightest contact.

“To preserve crucial information, we recorded the original spatial position of each plate using 3D scanning and examined their production techniques and material composition through scanning electron microscopy and ultra-depth microscopy,” the conservators explained.

This analysis showed that the armour was not simply bronze, but gilded—confirming it as true golden armour. On the basis of this discovery, the team produced a detailed restoration video.

The reconstructed armour depicted in the video echoes another Tang dynasty verse: “Like golden scales upon the water, sunlight glints off our coats of mail.”

According to the conservation report, analysis of gold artefacts, silk textiles, and tree-ring dating of the tomb’s wooden structure places the burial in the mid-8th century.

The report confirmed that the tomb belonged to a Tuyuhun king, and the golden armour on display was likely among his most treasured possessions.

Once a dominant power on China’s western frontier, the Tuyuhun kingdom was gradually defeated by the Sui dynasty and later the Tang, before eventually becoming a vassal state of the Tubo empire on the Tibetan plateau. In addition to the golden armour, the tomb contained a wide range of equestrian equipment as well as iron and lacquered armour, providing valuable insight into the military culture of the era.

The discovery is consistent with historical accounts in the New Book of Tang, compiled by 11th-century historian Ouyang Xiu, which describes the Tubo as possessing “superior armour that covered the entire body, leaving only the eyes exposed, so that even powerful bows and sharp weapons could not cause serious injury”.

The tomb was located in Dulan County in northwestern Qinghai province, a key crossroads for east–west trade along the Silk Road.

The Qinghai route functioned as a crucial trade artery, connecting the Tubo empire and the Tang dynasty through a corridor that extended east to Chang’an (present-day Xi’an) and west to Xinjiang, Persia (modern Iran), and other parts of Central Asia.

Revealing the epic story of ancient humans: Best ideas of the century

Since the turn of the millennium, our understanding of our ancestors and extended cousins has shifted dramatically, thanks to a swathe of surprising archaeological discoveries

Developments in the study of human evolution over the past 25 years can be captured in a single word: “more.” Archaeologists have uncovered far more fossils, species, and artefacts, spread across a wider range of locations than ever before—from the tiny “hobbits” of an Indonesian island to the enigmatic Homo naledi, known only from a deep cave in South Africa. At the same time, scientists have created increasingly sophisticated methods for analysing these remains. As a result, there is now an unprecedented volume of information about human origins and our extinct relatives.

From this surge of discoveries, two key insights have emerged. First, since 2000, the hominin fossil record has been pushed much further back in time. In the late 1990s, the oldest known hominin was Ardipithecus, dated to 4.4 million years ago. However, discoveries in 2000 and 2001 revealed even earlier species: Orrorin tugenensis, dating to about 6 million years ago, and Sahelanthropus tchadensis, which lived roughly 7 million years ago. More recently, a second Orrorin species, Orrorin praegens, was described in 2022 and appears to be slightly younger than O. tugenensis.

“These early hominin discoveries represent one of the major revolutions in the field,” says Clément Zanolli of the University of Bordeaux in France.