Ancient Qin Dynasty Inscription Found on Qinghai-Xizang Plateau Links the Kunlun Legend to Real History

An inscription dating back to the Qin Dynasty, discovered on the Qinghai–Xizang Plateau, connects the legendary Kunlun Mountains to a real geographic location, prompting a reassessment of China’s early western frontier.

A recently authenticated stone carving found on the windswept plateau is transforming our understanding of early Chinese civilization. Known as the Garitang Engraved Stone, the inscription shows that the influence of the Qin Dynasty reached much farther into the western highlands than scholars had previously assumed. It records an imperial journey ordered by Emperor Qin Shihuang in 210 BC, during which envoys traveled toward the fabled Kunlun Mountains in search of medicinal plants associated with the quest for immortality. Written in small seal script and located near the northern shore of Gyaring Lake, the inscription offers rare physical evidence of cultural exchange, geographic exploration, and long-distance communication at the very beginning of China’s imperial age.

Standing before the stone today, one can almost picture the moment of its creation: exhausted court envoys guiding a carriage across the desolate plateau after a long, bitter journey from the Qin capital of Xianyang, stopping beneath a rocky outcrop to carve a brief record of their progress before continuing toward the sacred peaks. For more than two millennia, this message lay exposed to wind, snow, and isolation, until modern researchers rediscovered it and confirmed that it was neither myth nor hearsay, but the authentic trace of a state-sponsored expedition — the highest-altitude Qin-era inscription ever identified.

The importance of the stone lies not only in its dramatic location, but in the historical insight it provides. The text records that the envoys’ carriage reached the site on the jimao day of the third month in the thirty-seventh year of Qin Shihuang’s reign, noting that Kunlun lay 150 li farther ahead. This precise geographic detail anchors a once-mythical landscape to a real place, situating Kunlun near the source region of the Yellow River and bridging ancient cosmology with a tangible, navigable world. What had long belonged to legend and poetry is here preserved in stone as evidence of actual movement across the plateau.

To confirm the inscription’s authenticity, archaeologists and cultural heritage experts conducted extensive multidisciplinary investigations at the site. They employed high-resolution photogrammetry, 3D modeling, and microscopic analyses of weathering patterns to study every incision, crack, and tool mark in the quartz sandstone. The carving techniques matched those of the Qin period, mineral deposits within the characters indicated prolonged natural exposure, and the surrounding terrain showed that the stone had remained in its original position since antiquity. Far from a later reproduction, the Garitang inscription stands as a genuine and undisturbed record from the final years of the Qin Empire.

The Garitang Keshi, or the Garitang Engraved Stone.

Beyond confirming its authenticity, the stone also overturns long-held ideas about how early China expanded and engaged with its frontier regions. The journey described in the inscription could not have taken place without assistance from local plateau communities who understood the terrain, climate, and travel routes. Rather than depicting a one-directional imperial push into an uninhabited wilderness, the discovery points to shared navigational knowledge, guidance, and a form of cultural interaction shaped jointly by the Central Plains and highland societies. The mission to collect medicinal herbs from Kunlun thus reflects not only imperial ambition, but also communication, cooperation, and contact across diverse landscapes.

The inscription further reveals the early roots of transportation networks that would later develop into major trans-Asian corridors. The mention of a carriage reaching the lakeside site implies the presence of defined routes and established pathways leading toward the source region of the Yellow River — the early foundations of what would eventually become the Qinghai branch of the Silk Road and the Tang–Xizang Ancient Road. Long before these routes were formally recorded, the Garitang stone shows that movement, exchange, and mobility were already shaping the Qin Dynasty’s western frontier.

At the same time, the discovery reinvigorates the Kunlun myth itself. For thousands of years, Kunlun has stood as a powerful symbol in Chinese cosmology — a sacred mountain linked to creation, immortality, and the connection between Heaven and Earth. The inscription captures the moment when this symbolic landscape entered the realm of physical geography. It shows that by the late Qin period, Kunlun was not only imagined, but actively pursued, approached, and incorporated into imperial missions and state knowledge. Myth and geography no longer exist separately; instead, they meet on the plateau, reflecting a fusion of belief and exploration.

The location of the Garitang Keshi engraved stone on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.

The surrounding area further underscores this long continuity of human activity. Extensive cultural heritage surveys have identified dozens of archaeological sites within a broad radius of the stone, dating from the Paleolithic period through to modern times. Rather than an empty, untouched wilderness, the plateau emerges as a long-used corridor of settlement, migration, and interaction — a landscape repeatedly traversed by travelers, herders, and envoys over thousands of years.

Today, as sunlight settles over the snow-covered peaks of the Three-River-Source region, the Garitang Engraved Stone stands as more than a relic of the past. It marks a pivotal shift in historical understanding, extending the western reach of the Qin Dynasty, grounding the Kunlun legend in physical reality, and revealing a civilization shaped not only by political unification, but by connection, movement, and shared cultural space. What began as a quiet message carved into an isolated rock has become a landmark discovery, transforming how the early history of China is understood, explored, and imagined.

Origins of Dental Braces Aren't as Ancient as We Once Thought

Ancient Egyptians and Etruscans are often credited with pioneering orthodontics, supposedly using delicate gold wires and catgut to straighten teeth. This idea has appeared in dentistry textbooks for decades, portraying our ancestors as surprisingly modern in their pursuit of the perfect smile.

But when archaeologists and dental historians closely examined the evidence, they found that much of this story is a myth.

Take the El-Quatta dental bridge from Egypt, dated to around 2500 BC. The gold wire discovered with the remains was not used to move teeth into alignment. Instead, it stabilized loose teeth or secured replacement ones. In other words, it functioned as a prosthesis, not a brace.

Gold bands found in Etruscan tombs tell a similar story. These were likely dental splints designed to support teeth loosened by gum disease or injury, rather than devices intended to reposition teeth.

There are also practical reasons why these ancient tools could not have worked as braces. Tests on Etruscan appliances show the gold used was about 97% pure—and pure gold is extremely soft. It bends and stretches easily, making it unsuitable for orthodontics. Braces require continuous, controlled pressure over long periods, which demands strong, springy metal. Pure gold would simply deform or break.

Another clue lies in who wore these gold bands. Many were found with the skeletons of women, suggesting they may have served as status symbols or decorative items rather than medical devices. Notably, none were found on children or adolescents—the age group most likely to receive orthodontic treatment.

Perhaps most revealing of all is that ancient people rarely needed braces. Malocclusion, or crowded and misaligned teeth, was uncommon in the past. Studies of Stone Age skulls show little to no crowding. The key difference lies in diet.

Malocclusion is far more common today than it was in the ancient past.

In ancient times, crooked teeth were extremely rare, so there was little need to develop techniques to straighten them.

Even so, people in antiquity sometimes tried simple ways to address dental irregularities. The Romans offer one of the earliest dependable accounts of orthodontic treatment.

Aulus Cornelius Celsus, a Roman medical writer from the first century AD, wrote that if a child’s tooth erupted out of alignment, it should be gently pushed into place with a finger each day until it moved into the correct position. Although very basic, this approach relies on the same principle used today: steady, gentle pressure can shift a tooth.

After the Roman period, progress in this area was minimal for many centuries. By the 18th century, interest in straightening teeth returned, though the methods were often quite painful.

People without access to advanced dental instruments used wooden “swelling wedges” to create space between crowded teeth. A small piece of wood was placed between the teeth, where it absorbed saliva and expanded, gradually forcing them apart. While crude and uncomfortable, this technique showed a growing understanding that pressure could be used to move teeth.

Scientific orthodontics

The foundations of scientific orthodontics were laid in 1728 by the French dentist Pierre Fauchard. Widely regarded as the father of modern dentistry, Fauchard published a groundbreaking two-volume work, The Surgeon Dentist, which included the first detailed explanation of how to treat malocclusions.

He also invented the “bandeau,” a curved metal strip fitted around the teeth to expand the dental arch. This was the first appliance specifically designed to move teeth using controlled force.

Archaeologists Unearth Ancient "Party Boat" in Alexandria's Harbor

Beneath the shifting waters of Alexandria’s eastern harbour on Egypt’s Mediterranean coast lie the drowned remnants of a once-splendid city—ports, palaces, and temples swallowed by the sea. Submerged by earthquakes and rising sea levels, these lost monuments have become the focus of surveys and excavations by the European Institute for Underwater Archaeology, in conjunction with Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

Much of the recent work has centered on Antirhodos Island, revealing a temple dedicated to the ancient Egyptian goddess Isis, which was renovated by Cleopatra VII, as well as the Timonium—a palace built by her partner, the Roman general Mark Antony.

The shipwrecks discovered in the Royal Port of Antirhodos tell the story of Alexandria’s transformation from a city defined by the wealth and extravagance of the Ptolemaic dynasty into an economic powerhouse of the Roman world.

The most recent excavations have uncovered a shipwreck dating to the early Roman period. Buried beneath the sand were the remains of a thalamagos, a type of Nile yacht with a colorful reputation in Roman literature as a “party boat.” However, the discovery of such a vessel in a busy commercial harbor was unexpected, prompting researchers to ask whether the wreck was being interpreted correctly.

Discovering the ship

The wrecks in the Royal Port were identified through a new high-resolution sonar survey of the seabed. This survey produced vast quantities of data, which were processed using a machine-learning algorithm trained to recognize the distinctive “signatures” of shipwrecks. The initial results were promising, with excavations of algorithm-generated targets revealing a small boat and a 30-meter-long merchant ship.

Together with a similar merchant vessel found in the early years of the project, these discoveries illustrate the increasing commercialization of the Royal Port during the Roman period.

At the outset of the 2025 mission, researchers were confident that the newly identified wreck was another merchant ship. However, with each dive, new evidence reshaped this interpretation, gradually revealing a vessel unlike the one originally expected.

The wreck displays many features typical of Roman Imperial shipbuilding, yet Greek graffiti carved into its planks suggests that it was built and repaired in Alexandria. Its form also differs from the cargo vessels found elsewhere in the Royal Port. Measuring approximately 28 meters in length and 7 meters in width, the preserved remains indicate a flat-bottomed boat with a relatively wide, boxy hull. The bow and stern were asymmetrical, forming sweeping curves at each end. Notably, the vessel lacked a mast step, suggesting that it was propelled by oars rather than sails. These characteristics make it ill-suited for long-distance seafaring, deepening the mystery of its function.

Searching for clues in ancient texts

To better understand the vessel, researchers turned to roughly 500 fragments of Ptolemaic and Roman papyri documenting nautical activity. About 200 of these texts mention different types of river vessels, often named after the cargoes they carried, ranging from grain, wine, and stone to manure and corpses.

Among the less frequently mentioned vessels is the thalamagos, or cabin boat. This type of craft is depicted in the Palestrina mosaic, a roughly contemporary landscape scene discovered in a temple near Rome.

With its crescent shape and rows of oars, the mosaic vessel bears a striking resemblance to the remains uncovered in the Royal Port. While research on the wreck is still in its early stages, the evidence strongly suggests that it is indeed a thalamagos—one of the Nile’s infamous “party boats.”

What happened on ancient party boats?

The Palestrina mosaic depicts a cabin boat used for hunting hippopotami, a ritual associated with the pharaohs of ancient Egypt. The association of such vessels with royalty is echoed in the philosopher Seneca’s dismissive description of them as “the plaything of kings.”

Although the Ptolemaic royal family owned luxurious Nile yachts, including oversized ceremonial versions, vessels of this size were likely common along the river. The ancient geographer Strabo described Alexandrians holding feasts aboard cabin boats in shaded waterways around the city, linking them to the revelry and licentious behavior associated with public festivals in the nearby town of Canopus.

However, Roman authors often exaggerated the luxury and excess of their recently defeated enemies to portray Ptolemaic society as decadent and morally corrupt. Interpreting the thalamagos solely as a party boat risks accepting this propaganda uncritically.

Administrative papyri present a more practical picture. Thalamagoi were not merely pleasure vessels; they could transport cargo and carry officials up and down the Nile. From this perspective, the presence of a cabin boat in a bustling commercial harbor is not entirely unexpected.

There is, however, another intriguing possibility. The vessel was found close to the temple of Isis and may have been destroyed in the same seismic event that caused the sanctuary’s collapse. This raises the question of whether it served as a ceremonial barge during festivals such as the Navigation of Isis.

This festival celebrated the “opening of the sea” after the winter season and sought divine protection for the grain fleet upon which Rome depended to feed its population. Although Strabo focused on the excesses of the festival’s participants, his account likely reflects Roman prejudice rather than the event’s true purpose.

Detailed post-excavation analysis of the wreck is now underway. Researchers aim to reconstruct the vessel’s original form, understand how it functioned on the Nile, and further examine ancient texts for additional clues. What is certain is that scholars are only beginning to uncover the secrets of this remarkable thalamagos.

Meet the AAS Keynote Speakers: Dr. Adam Burgasser

Brown Dwarfs: Failed Stars With a Big Role in Galactic History

What’s smaller than a star but bigger than a planet? The answer is a brown dwarf. Formed from the same material as ordinary stars, brown dwarfs never grow massive enough to ignite hydrogen fusion in their cores—the process that makes stars shine. Because of this, they are often called “failed stars.” Yet far from being failures, brown dwarfs are proving to be powerful tools for understanding the history and structure of our galaxy.

Dr. Adam Burgasser, professor of astrophysics and astronomy and director of the Cool Star Lab at the University of California, San Diego, will highlight this growing field in his Monday plenary talk, “The Brown Dwarf–Milky Way Connection: How Failed Stars Play a Unique Role in Galactic Archaeology.” His recent work shows how these faint objects can reveal the ages, composition, and evolution of different regions of the Milky Way.

The study of brown dwarfs is entering an especially exciting era thanks to new technology. Instruments such as the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) and the upcoming Roman Space Telescope are transforming what astronomers can observe. Brown dwarfs are cool and faint, emitting most of their light in infrared wavelengths, which made them difficult to detect in the past. Until recently, nearly all known brown dwarfs were located relatively close to the Sun, within a few dozen parsecs.

JWST’s exceptional sensitivity in the infrared has changed that picture. Astronomers are now identifying dozens of brown dwarfs at distances of thousands of parsecs, extending observations into older and more distant regions of the galaxy, including the thick disk and the halo. This expanded view allows scientists to use brown dwarfs not just as individual curiosities, but as tracers of galactic environments.

Burgasser emphasizes that brown dwarfs offer a unique advantage for galactic archaeology. Because they slowly cool over time, their spectra carry age-related signatures that can be decoded by astronomers. For decades, this method has been used to date young star clusters. With JWST data, it can now be applied to much older systems, such as globular clusters. Spectral data also reveal a brown dwarf’s metallicity—the chemical makeup of its atmosphere—which reflects the environment in which it formed. Since brown dwarfs are common, making up roughly 20% of all stars, and extremely long-lived, they provide an abundant and enduring record of the Milky Way’s past.

Beyond their role as galactic probes, brown dwarfs are also valuable laboratories for studying atmospheric chemistry. Similar in size to giant planets, they help bridge the gap between stars and exoplanets. One of the most intriguing recent discoveries from Burgasser’s research is the detection of phosphine in the atmosphere of a brown dwarf. Phosphine is well known in the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn, and models predicted it should exist in brown dwarfs as well. Yet until now, it had never been clearly observed.

The new detection raises more questions than it answers. Why does one brown dwarf show phosphine while others do not? What are current atmospheric models missing? The finding also has implications for the search for life beyond Earth, since phosphine has been proposed as a possible biosignature on terrestrial planets. Burgasser cautions that if scientists cannot fully explain phosphine in lifeless environments, they must be careful when interpreting it as evidence of life elsewhere.

In addition to his research, Burgasser is deeply involved in science education, outreach, and equity initiatives. He describes curiosity as the common thread running through all his work. His own career path reflects that mindset. Although fascinated by astronomy from a young age, he once aspired to become an astronaut, inspired by working with Sally Ride while an undergraduate at UC San Diego. Graduate studies in astrophysics eventually led him to realize that research, rather than spaceflight, was his true calling.

For students beginning their own research journeys, Burgasser offers straightforward advice: don’t overthink it. Exploring different topics builds transferable skills, even if interests change over time. Trying—and sometimes rejecting—various directions, he says, is all part of the process. As he puts it, even a “random walk” can turn out to be exactly the right path.

The First Metallurgists of Anatolia

Origins of Metalworking
Anatolia (modern Turkey) was a center for early metallurgy, beginning in the Chalcolithic period (c. 5000–3000 BCE). Early communities learned to extract and shape copper, marking the transition from stone tools to metal implements.

Techniques and Innovations
The first metallurgists employed smelting, casting, and alloying to produce tools, weapons, and ornaments. Hammering and annealing techniques improved durability, while molds allowed standardized production of axes, daggers, and jewelry.

Cultural and Economic Significance
Metal tools increased agricultural efficiency, enabled construction projects, and enhanced warfare capabilities. Ornamentation demonstrated social status and ceremonial importance, while surplus production facilitated trade with neighboring regions.

Archaeological Evidence
Artifacts such as copper axes, bronze ornaments, and slag remnants illustrate the sophistication of Anatolian metalworking. Sites like Çatalhöyük and Alacahöyük provide insight into workshops, trade networks, and early technological knowledge.

Legacy
Anatolian metallurgists influenced neighboring civilizations, including the Hittites, Greeks, and Mesopotamians. Their innovations laid the groundwork for the Bronze Age, transforming economies, warfare, and social hierarchies across the ancient world.

The Ritual Feasting of the Celts

Introduction and Cultural Context
Ritual feasts were central to Celtic society (c. 800 BCE–100 CE) and served as both social and religious gatherings. These communal meals reinforced tribal bonds, celebrated seasonal festivals, and honored deities through offerings of food and drink.

Structure of Feasts
Feasts were often held in large halls or open-air enclosures. Attendees included nobles, warriors, priests, and sometimes the general populace. Rituals included toasts to gods, ceremonial drinking, and storytelling, often accompanied by music and dancing.

Religious Significance
Food offerings symbolized reciprocity with the divine. Certain animals, like pigs or cattle, were sacrificed, while crops and fermented beverages were shared to ensure fertility, prosperity, and protection. Feasts were also linked to seasonal cycles such as Samhain, Beltane, and Lughnasadh.

Social and Political Functions
Feasts allowed leaders to demonstrate wealth and generosity, establishing or reaffirming social hierarchies. Alliances were formed, disputes mediated, and warriors honored for bravery. Participation reinforced communal identity and cultural cohesion.

Legacy
Ritual feasting illustrates the Celts’ integration of religion, politics, and social life. Archaeological evidence, including large cauldrons, dining halls, and decorated drinking vessels, provides insight into these ceremonial practices.

The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts

Definition and Context
The Coffin Texts are a collection of funerary spells inscribed on coffins during the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom (c. 2100–1600 BCE). They evolved from the earlier Pyramid Texts and were intended to protect the deceased in the afterlife, guiding them safely through the Duat, the Egyptian underworld.

Purpose and Function
These texts provided magical instructions for navigating obstacles, warding off demons, and ensuring rebirth. Spells addressed both practical and spiritual concerns, such as ensuring sustenance, preserving identity, and enabling transformation into divine forms.

Themes and Content
Common themes include resurrection, judgment before Osiris, protection against serpents, and acquiring magical powers. The texts also reflect the democratization of the afterlife; unlike earlier Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts were used not only by pharaohs but also by nobles and priests.

Artistic and Religious Significance
Inscriptions often include vignettes depicting gods, protective symbols, and the deceased interacting with divine beings. These images reinforced the spells’ efficacy and reflected a worldview where art and writing were intertwined with spiritual protection.

Impact and Legacy
The Coffin Texts influenced later Book of the Dead traditions, cementing Egypt’s reputation as a civilization deeply concerned with life after death. They offer invaluable insight into religious beliefs, funerary practices, and the evolution of Egyptian literacy.

The First Musical Instruments of China

Origins and Early Development
Music in ancient China dates back thousands of years and was closely tied to ritual, court life, and spiritual practices. Archaeological evidence from the Neolithic period, such as bone flutes, indicates that early Chinese communities experimented with sound and rhythm for ceremonial purposes.

Types of Instruments
Key ancient Chinese instruments include the guqin, a seven-stringed zither associated with scholars and ritual practice, and bronze bells (zhong), often crafted in sets to produce harmonious scales. Percussion instruments like drums and clappers were used to mark ceremonial rhythms, while flutes made from bones and bamboo carried melodic lines.

Ritual and Spiritual Use
Music was essential in ancestor worship, state ceremonies, and Confucian rituals. Instruments like the guqin were considered conduits for personal cultivation and moral harmony. Bronze bells were often placed in tombs or temples, reflecting the belief that music could maintain cosmic and social order.

Technological and Cultural Impact
The metallurgical skills required to cast bronze bells show a sophisticated understanding of metallurgy, acoustics, and musical theory. These instruments influenced neighboring cultures in Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia, highlighting China’s role as a musical innovator.

Legacy
The reverence for music in ancient China shaped education, governance, and spiritual life. Instruments like the guqin continue to symbolize cultural refinement, reflecting continuity from ancient rituals to modern Chinese culture.

The Stone Circles of Britain

Definition and Examples
Stone circles, such as Avebury and Callanish, are megalithic monuments dating to the Neolithic and Bronze Age (c. 3000–1500 BCE). These circles consist of standing stones arranged in geometric patterns.

Purpose and Function
The exact purpose remains debated, but circles likely had religious, ceremonial, and astronomical significance. Some stones align with solstices, equinoxes, and lunar cycles, suggesting use in calendrical observations.

Construction and Labor
Building these circles required immense planning, manpower, and transportation skills. Stones were quarried, transported, and erected using simple machines, demonstrating advanced engineering knowledge.

Cultural Significance
Stone circles were communal centers for rituals, seasonal festivals, and social gatherings. They reflect early society’s spiritual beliefs and the human desire to connect with the cosmos.

The Bronze Age Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean

Introduction to Maritime Archaeology
Bronze Age shipwrecks (c. 3500–1200 BCE) reveal the vast trade networks connecting ancient Mediterranean civilizations. Archaeologists study these wrecks to understand commerce, navigation, and cultural exchange.

Trade and Goods
Shipwrecks often contain pottery, metals, tin, copper, glass, and luxury items, reflecting the economic interdependence of regions like Crete, Egypt, and the Levant. Tin and copper, essential for making bronze, were particularly valuable.

Technological Insights
Construction techniques and hull design found in wrecks illustrate early shipbuilding knowledge. Ancient sailors developed navigation strategies using stars, landmarks, and currents to traverse long distances safely.

Impact on Civilization
Trade via these routes facilitated cultural diffusion, including artistic styles, religious practices, and technological innovations. Shipwrecks provide physical evidence for ancient economies, showing the scale and sophistication of Bronze Age maritime commerce.

The Astronomy of the Nabataeans

Petra as an Astronomical Center
The Nabataeans, famous for constructing Petra in modern-day Jordan, were skilled astronomers. Many structures were aligned with celestial events, particularly solstices and equinoxes, suggesting a sophisticated understanding of the heavens.

Religious Connections
Astronomical alignments had ritual significance. Temples, tombs, and public spaces were designed to mark seasonal changes, important for agriculture, religious ceremonies, and trade. Certain monuments captured sunlight during specific times of the year, reinforcing divine connections.

Integration with Architecture
The Nabataeans combined topography, astronomy, and engineering. Structures like the Treasury and Monastery incorporate alignments that highlight celestial events while blending seamlessly with the cliffs.

Cultural Significance
Astronomy guided civic planning, religious festivals, and timekeeping. This integration of celestial knowledge into daily life illustrates the Nabataeans’ complex worldview, where science, religion, and art intersected.

The Agriculture of the Indus Valley

Introduction to Harappan Agriculture
The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) thrived along the fertile plains of the Indus River. Agriculture formed the backbone of this early civilization, supporting dense urban populations in cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

Farming Techniques
Harappans cultivated wheat, barley, peas, sesame, and cotton. They developed sophisticated irrigation systems, including canals and reservoirs, to manage seasonal monsoon floods. Farmers used plows and tools made from stone and copper, improving efficiency and crop yields.

Animal Husbandry
Domesticated animals, such as cattle, water buffalo, goats, and sheep, played an essential role. Livestock provided meat, milk, hides, and labor, supporting both subsistence farming and trade.

Economic and Social Impact
Agricultural surplus enabled urban growth, trade specialization, and social stratification. Granaries stored excess grain to stabilize food supply, demonstrating a highly organized administrative system.

Environmental Adaptation
The Indus farmers adapted to fluctuating river patterns and arid zones, showing an advanced understanding of hydrology and soil management. Agriculture not only sustained life but also enabled the civilization to flourish culturally and economically.

The Sacred Groves of Ancient Greece

Definition and Significance
Sacred groves in ancient Greece were natural wooded areas considered holy spaces dedicated to gods, goddesses, and spirits. Unlike constructed temples, these groves were naturally occurring and often left untouched, reinforcing the idea that divinity could inhabit the natural world. They served as places for worship, meditation, and religious rituals.

Religious Practices
Worship in sacred groves involved rituals such as sacrifices, prayers, and libations. Certain groves were dedicated to specific deities—for example, groves of oaks were sacred to Zeus, while those near water sources were linked to nymphs or Artemis. Sacred groves were sites for festivals and processions where the community participated collectively, connecting spiritual devotion with social cohesion.

Protection and Cultural Beliefs
Groves were protected by religious taboos. Cutting trees, hunting, or desecrating these areas was prohibited, often under the threat of divine retribution. This practice reflected a broader Greek understanding of the natural world as a sacred ecosystem, intertwining ecological preservation with religious belief.

Legacy and Influence
The concept of sacred groves influenced later European and Roman practices, including the use of natural sanctuaries for religious and social purposes. These groves also provide archaeologists with insight into the spiritual lives of ancient communities and the integration of nature into religious thought.

Public talk in Oswestry explores archaeological findings

A decade of archaeological discovery will be explored at a public talk.

Professor Henry Chapman from the University of Birmingham’s Department of Archaeology will speak in Oswestry about excavations at The Berth near Baschurch, carried out by the university’s Field School over a ten-year period.

The talk, hosted by the Oswestry & Border History & Archaeology Group (OBHAG), will take place on Friday, January 9 at 7.30pm at the Methodist Church Hall on Castle Street.

John Pryce-Jones, chairman of OBHAG, said: "the Berth is very important site, a mixture of marshy peatland and open pasture, including an Iron-Age fort – a marsh fort rather than a hill fort – and raised trackways.
"Now that these extensive excavations have been concluded, it will be fascinating to hear what Professor Chapman’s thoughts are on this site".

OBHAG welcomes new members and visitors to its monthly talks.

7,500-Year-Old Stone Seal Discovered at Tadım Höyük in Türkiye

Archaeologists working at Tadım Castle and Höyük in Elazığ, eastern Türkiye, have uncovered a stone seal believed to be around 7,500 years old — a discovery that sheds new light on the deep cultural history of the Upper Euphrates Basin and confirms the region as one of Anatolia’s earliest settlement centers.

The excavations, carried out under the coordination of the Elazığ Museum Directorate and the Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism with the support of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the Governorship of Elazığ, form part of the national “Heritage for the Future Project.” The multi-layered mound at Tadım Höyük has revealed cultural remains stretching from the Ottoman and Seljuk eras back to the Neolithic period.

A Unique Artifact Linked to Identity, Ownership, and Early Social Organization

Governor Numan Hatipoğlu emphasized the exceptional nature of the seal within the context of discoveries made so far at Tadım Höyük.

“Among the finds unearthed in Tadım Village, we discovered a stone seal unlike anything previously seen in our city,” Hatipoğlu said. “It is believed that this seal may have been associated with ownership, property marking, or an early form of identity. Research is ongoing. This discovery indicates that civilization in our region dates back to approximately 7500 BCE. All of these finds show that Elazığ has been a settlement center since ancient times.”

The stone seal is currently preserved at the Elazığ Archaeology and Ethnography Museum, where specialists are conducting detailed analysis to better understand its function, symbolism, and possible administrative role within prehistoric society.

Year-Round Conservation and Expanding Excavations
Excavations at Tadım Castle and Höyük continue year-round, with the Elazığ Museum Directorate leading conservation, restoration, analysis, and documentation efforts. The project advances scientific research while promoting cultural tourism and awareness of regional heritage.

Elsewhere in Elazığ—including Harput Castle, Palu Castle, and Salkaya village—archaeologists have made notable discoveries. Among the latest finds are a Roman bath identified via ground-penetrating radar and a mosaic depicting animals, adding to the city’s rich archaeological record. Plans are underway to expand excavation areas, improve visitor facilities, and enhance accessibility for cultural tourism in future seasons.

Governor Hatipoğlu highlighted that preserving these discoveries strengthens both historical understanding and local identity. “As we continue working layer by layer, we expect even more significant archaeological outcomes for our province,” he stated.

The unspoiled village between Darlington and Newton Aycliffe

Blink as you drive between Darlington and Newton Aycliffe, and you’ll miss it.

But the tiny village of Brafferton, just off the A1 at junction 59, carries a history that stretches back more than 4,000 years, which includes one of the most famous animals Britain has ever produced.

With a parish population of no more than 200 people, Brafferton is a reminder that some of England’s richest stories are hidden in its smallest places.

The village near to the A1(M)

That significance continued into the Norman period.

In 1086, Brafferton is recorded in the Domesday Book as land owned by the Bishop of Durham, featuring farmland and woodland. It functioned as a typical medieval village, shaped by both agriculture and the church.

At its center stands St Peter’s Church, a medieval parish church that has been the heart of community life for generations.

Yet Brafferton’s most unexpected claim to fame came on four legs.

Brafferton

In the late 18th century, the Durham Ox—a massive white shorthorn bred at nearby Ketton Hall—weighed over a ton and became a national sensation.

Touring across Britain, the ox came to symbolize a new era of agricultural improvement. Its fame spread through prints, pamphlets, and pub signs, unexpectedly placing Brafferton on the national stage.

Today, the village has few amenities of its own, which only adds to its appeal. Darlington’s shops, restaurants, and rail links are just minutes away, while the surrounding countryside remains largely untouched.

Visitors can stop at the Foresters Arms for a traditional local experience, or stay at the nearby Hall Garth Hotel, which offers food and accommodation in historic surroundings.

Brafferton might not appear on many tourist maps, but perhaps that’s part of its charm.

The History Behind the Shoes in King Tutankhamun’s Tomb

Jonathan Bailey, Pharrell Williams and Gigi Hadid may have helped the flip-flop reach a new level of popularity. But long before thong sandals became one of the hottest shoes of 2025, King Tutankhamun was a champion of the style — and shoes were some of the thousands of items included in his tomb.

The Grand Egyptian Museum opened its doors in Cairo in November, where King Tutankhamun’s tomb and all of its contents — counting more than 5,500 items — are on display altogether. At least 82 pairs of shoes are in the tomb of the famous young pharaoh, including many from daily life and the gold burial pair placed on his feet.

When Did Europeans Begin Hunting With Bows and Arrows?

TÜBINGEN, GERMANY—A SciNews report indicates that modern humans may have used bows and arrows during the early Upper Paleolithic, around 40,000 to 35,000 years ago. Previously, it was believed that Europeans hunted primarily with thrusting spears, only advancing to spear-throwers roughly 20,000 years ago and bows and arrows about 12,000 years ago, based on artifacts from Paleolithic sites.

Keiko Kitagawa and colleagues at the University of Tübingen conducted experiments by attaching replica stone, antler, and bone points to shafts and launching them as arrows, spears, and darts. They then compared the resulting wear patterns with those on prehistoric points. The findings suggest that early humans may have used multiple types of weapons simultaneously, adapting their hunting strategies to different environments and prey.

The researchers noted that the study highlights the complex nature of reconstructing prehistoric projectile technology, much of which relied on perishable materials.

Volyn archaeologists study “Merchant’s Treasure” discovered in Volodymyr

Archaeologists in the Volyn region are examining the so-called “Merchant’s Treasure” discovered in Volodymyr in 2025, which includes a unique assemblage of ancient Rus glass bracelets—573 complete pieces along with a large quantity of fragments.

According to Baiuk, the hoard was uncovered during extensive archaeological investigations carried out in 2025 in the historic Apostolshchyna area, located within the bounds of Prince Vladimir’s Okolnoe City in Volhynia.

Alongside numerous archaeological finds, an exceptional hoard was uncovered at archaeological site No. CLXXXVII (187). Known as the “merchant’s treasure,” it consists of 573 complete Old Russian glass bracelets, a large cross-encolpion worn by high-ranking clergy, nine bronze and eight marble small pectoral crosses, 18 diamond-shaped buckles decorated with pseudo-granulation, five silver temple rings, a lead plate shaped like a stylized falcon trident, a shield-shaped silver ring, a bronze bracelet, seals bearing a solar symbol within a circle of the “Dorohhychyn type,” as well as various other artifacts and fragments, according to the report.

The archaeologist stressed that finding such a large quantity of complete glass bracelets is without precedent in archaeological research across the territory of the Kyivan Rus’ state. The Volodymyr assemblage contains 573 intact bracelets, classified into 109 types that vary by form (twisted, smooth, trapezoidal), color (including green, blue, purple, yellow, and multiple shades of gold), and diameter, ranging from 4.0 to 5.9 cm. Some groups consist of identical pieces numbering between five and 31 items, while others appear as single examples or in small sets of two to five.

This refers only to bracelets found intact. The reconstruction of a large number of fragments found here should significantly supplement the collection.

The researcher stated that the owner of such riches was likely a merchant who either intentionally brought the goods to the market in Vladimir or fled with them to Volhynia during wartime. The hiding of the hoard, he explained, was most likely connected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion led by Batu Khan, which struck the center of the Volhynian principality — Prince Vladimir — at the end of winter in 1241. These events are recorded in the Galician-Volhynian Chronicle, which recounts that Batu captured Vladimir and devastated it mercilessly, along with the city of Halych and countless other towns.

He highlighted that the research results are of outstanding scientific and social importance. This marks the first discovery of such a large collection of bracelets. While these women’s jewelry pieces were common in the urban material culture of the pre-Mongol period, intact examples were previously found only rarely. For the first time, researchers can conduct a comprehensive analysis of this type of artifact, drawing on the extensive source base provided by the treasure.

After scientific processing, the materials will be transferred to the Volodymyr Historical Museum named after Omelyan Dvernitsky for exhibition, following the precedent of previous finds from the princely capital. Baiuk also noted that further display in national museums is highly likely.

The research, carried out as a legally required stage before developing archaeologically sensitive areas, was conducted by the Volyn Archaeological Expedition of the State Enterprise “Scientific Research Center ‘Archaeological Protection Service of Ukraine’” of the Institute of Archaeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, in collaboration with Volyn National University named after Lesia Ukrainka, the Administration of the State Historical and Cultural Reserve in Lutsk, the Administration of the State Historical and Cultural Reserve “Ancient Volodymyr,” and the All-Ukrainian Association of Archaeologists, commissioned by Volodymyr City LLC. Ukrinform also reported that this year, valuable artifacts from the Scythian, Sarmatian, and other historical periods were uncovered by researchers from the Bilsk Historical and Cultural Reserve in Poltava region.

Earliest Human Ancestor May Have Walked on Two Legs

A fossil belonging to an ancient hominin that lived seven million years ago bears the hallmarks of bipedalism, according to a new study

Aside from our large brains, one of the defining features that sets humans apart from other animals is our ability to walk upright on two legs—a form of movement unmatched elsewhere in the animal kingdom. Exactly when this trait first appeared in our ancestors has long been debated, but new fossil research suggests that the earliest known hominin was already developing traits linked to bipedalism.

Sahelanthropus tchadensis lived in north-central Africa about seven million years ago, around the time the hominin lineage diverged from that of chimpanzees and bonobos. When skull fragments of Sahelanthropus were uncovered in Chad in 2001, researchers immediately questioned whether the species walked upright. The position of the opening at the base of the skull, where the spinal cord enters, appeared suitable for supporting the head in an upright posture. However, with only part of a cranium available, the evidence was limited.

Later, scientists determined that a femur found near the skull fragments also belonged to Sahelanthropus. An initial analysis, published in 2020, concluded that the bone showed no signs of bipedalism, casting doubt on earlier interpretations and even on whether the species should be classified as a hominin. “The field is kind of split right now on how to interpret these fossils,” said Scott Williams, a paleoanthropologist at New York University and co-author of the new study, who was not involved in the 2020 research.

In a new study published in Science Advances, Williams and his colleagues challenge that conclusion. Using three-dimensional geometric morphometrics—a technique that allows precise measurement of fossil shapes—they identified early versions of several anatomical traits associated with bipedalism in later hominins, including Australopithecus and modern humans.

Two of these traits had been noted before: the inward twist of the femur and a small projection where the gluteus maximus muscle would attach. In 2022, a research team led by Guillaume Daver and Franck Guy of the University of Poitiers used these features to argue that Sahelanthropus was a habitual biped, meaning it regularly walked upright, unlike modern humans, who are obligate bipeds.

Williams identified an additional, more subtle feature. While examining the femur, he noticed a small bump where the iliofemoral ligament—a crucial structure for stabilizing upright walking—attaches in humans. “I was super excited about it,” he said. “It’s there; it’s just hard to see.” He later informed Daver and Guy, who independently confirmed the presence of this femoral tubercle.

Not all researchers agree with the interpretation. Marine Cazenave, a paleoanthropologist at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, who co-wrote a rebuttal to Daver and Guy’s 2022 study, argues that the new analysis provides only “weak evidence” for bipedalism. She notes that some primates that do not walk upright also have inward-twisted femurs. Regarding the femoral tubercle, Cazenave says its function remains unclear and that the fossil’s poor state of preservation makes it “impossible to determine the true extent of this feature.”

Even so, Williams maintains that Sahelanthropus was “clearly dependent on trees,” which it likely used for foraging, sleeping, and protection. However, he believes that when on the ground, the species moved on two legs and used its hands to carry food. With such limited fossil evidence, certainty remains elusive. Daver and Guy plan to revisit the original excavation site later this year in hopes of uncovering additional material that may have been overlooked. “Resolving the debate,” they said in a joint statement, “will require the discovery of new remains.”