New publication explores Spanish Armada Captain’s remarkable survival after shipwreck off Sligo coast

Extraordinary story of Captain Francisco de Cuéllar who was shipwrecked at Streedagh but survived is told in new joint Irish/Spanish publication

The Spanish Armada is commemorated each year at Streedagh

Spanish Armada museum at the former courthouse in Grange

The National Monuments Service of Ireland, in collaboration with the Spanish Ministry of Culture, has released a new publication titled “The Letter from Captain Cuéllar – Shipwrecks of the Spanish Armada in Ireland”. The book examines Captain Francisco de Cuéllar’s firsthand account of surviving the wreck of three Spanish Armada ships—La Juliana, La Lavia, and Santa Maria de Visón—off Streedagh Bay, Sligo, in 1588. It includes contributions from experts in both Ireland and Spain, incorporating contemporary historical records and recent archaeological findings. A facsimile of Cuéllar’s letter, La Carta, is also presented alongside an English translation.

Cuéllar’s letter vividly recounts his extraordinary experiences following the shipwreck. He describes Ireland’s geography, inhabitants, language, and society in the late 16th century, as he navigated a hostile and unfamiliar land after losing his crew and ship. His journey involved traveling through northwestern Ireland, seeking shelter with Gaelic chieftains, evading English forces, and ultimately securing passage to Scotland, then the Spanish Netherlands, and finally back to Spain. In 1589, he wrote a detailed account of these events in a letter to King Philip, offering one of the most valuable firsthand perspectives of the period.

Minister of State for Heritage, Nature and Biodiversity, Christopher O’Sullivan, praised the work of the National Monuments Service in preserving and highlighting Ireland’s Armada heritage. He noted that Ireland’s ratification of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage demonstrates a commitment to safeguarding submerged archaeology and fostering international cooperation with Spain.

The archaeological remains of the Armada lie off Streedagh beach. In response to winter storms in 2015, the National Monuments Service recovered nine bronze guns and a cauldron from La Juliana, along with carriage wheels and ship timbers. These artifacts represent the largest collection of Armada guns recovered from a single wreck worldwide.

The Spanish Ambassador to Ireland, Teresa Lizaranzu, highlighted the shared history between the two nations and the courage of Captain Cuéllar and his comrades. Carmen Cabrera, Assistant Deputy Director of Spain’s Ministry of Culture, emphasized that the publication underscores the importance of underwater cultural heritage and promotes ongoing collaboration between Ireland and Spain.

La Juliana, La Lavia, and Santa Maria de Visón sank on 21 September 1588, resulting in over 1,100 fatalities. La Juliana, a 860-ton ship, carried 325 soldiers and 70 crew. Survivors like Pedro Blanco went on to serve in Ireland, while Cuéllar’s detailed letter from 1589 offers insight into his survival and travels across northwest Ireland. He encountered both friend and foe, found refuge under Gaelic lords, and eventually reached Derry, from where he secured passage home.

Cuéllar’s Carta provides a vivid description of Ireland at the time:

“The custom of these savages is to live as the brute beasts among the mountains, which are very rugged in this part of Ireland where we lost ourselves. They live in huts made of straw. The men are all large bodied, and of handsome features and limbs; and as active as the roe-deer. The most of the women are very beautiful, but badly dressed up…wearing no more than a chemise, and a blanket, with which they cover themselves, and a linen cloth, much doubled, over the head and tied in front.” — Captain Cuéllar, Antwerp, October 1589.

Archaeologists Digging Beneath Britain’s Houses of Parliament Discover 6,000-Year-Old Flint Artifacts and a 2,000-Year-Old Roman Altar Fragment

During restorations at the Palace of Westminster in London, excavations have revealed a trove of historic objects, the oldest of which date to around 4300 B.C.E.

Evidence of prehistoric flint tool-making dating to approximately 4300 B.C.E.

At London’s Palace of Westminster, home to Britain’s Parliament, archaeologists have uncovered a diverse collection of artifacts, ranging from a 19th-century beer jug to prehistoric flint flakes dating back 6,000 years.

The discoveries were made by researchers from the Museum of London Archaeology during excavations commissioned by the Houses of Parliament Restoration and Renewal Program’s Delivery Authority. The digs are part of an ongoing project designed to explore Westminster’s rich history and guide restoration efforts.

“The Palace of Westminster has played a central role in the nation’s story for a thousand years, witnessing events that have shaped the U.K.,” said historian Simon Thurley, chair of the Delivery Authority. “As we carry out major restoration and renewal, we must proceed carefully to preserve and learn from the history lying beneath our feet.”

Archaeologists observing the dig

The 60 prehistoric flint fragments date back to around 4300 B.C.E. The irregularly broken stones indicate tool-making activity from the late Mesolithic or early Neolithic periods, according to the statement. Flint was commonly used during these eras for its sharp edges, and among the fragments discovered in sand deposits near Westminster was a complete tool. These sand layers were once part of Thorney Island, where prehistoric communities fished, hunted, and foraged.

“Although research suggested there might be traces of early human activity here, I was surprised to find direct evidence of flint tool-making from about 6,000 years ago,” said Diane Abrams, archaeology lead for the Delivery Authority. She added that uncovering prehistoric remains in central London is “incredibly rare.”

The excavations also revealed substantial remains of the Lesser Hall, a medieval two-story structure also known as the White Hall. Built in 1167, it originally served as a royal dining hall and later accommodated the Court of Chancery, the Court of Requests, and at times both the House of Commons and House of Lords.

Abrams described the hall’s remains as one of the “most exciting and unexpected” finds of the project. “It was uncertain how much of it would survive beneath the current courtyard and car park,” she said.

In 1834, while Lesser Hall housed the House of Lords, a fire broke out in the basement furnace room, sparking the Great Fire of 1834. The recent excavation showed that the hall’s medieval stone walls survived the blaze. The building was reroofed and remained in use until its demolition in 1851. According to the statement, these walls are “the most significant discovery of the current archaeological investigations,” offering “vital insights into the layout and preservation of historic structures beneath the modern palace.”

The medieval stone remnants of Lesser Hal.

Abrams told Fox News Digital that the remains of Lesser Hall and other pre-1834 structures at Westminster were meticulously recorded, with some even reconstructed as 3D models, before being reburied for preservation.

Beyond the flints and medieval structures, the team also uncovered a Roman altar fragment, estimated to be about 2,000 years old, which was likely reused in a later building. Other finds included 800-year-old shoe soles, straps, and a leather boot. The archaeologists additionally discovered a lead badge shaped like a flowering heart, a romantic symbol dating to the 14th or 15th century.

A 19th-century five-pint beer jug with the words “Geo Painter"

The team found several artifacts dating to the 19th century, like fragments of clay tobacco pipes probably smoked by the stonemasons working in the wake of the 1834 fire. They also unearthed a five-pint beer jug marked with the words “Ship and Turtle Tavern” and “Geo Painter”—likely referring to George Painter, owner of the tavern.

3,500-Year-Old Burial Discovered in Sudan

KERMA, SUDAN—A burial from the Kerma culture, dated by radiocarbon to between 1775 and 1609 B.C., has been uncovered in Sudan’s Bayuda Desert, once part of ancient Nubia. The discovery was made by a team including Monika Badura and Henryk Paner from the Gdańsk Archaeological Museum.

The grave contained the remains of a robust man, approximately 5 feet 4 inches tall. His lumbar vertebrae were flattened and his left ankle showed changes consistent with heavy physical labor. Thickening of his skull suggests he may have suffered malnutrition, disease, or trauma during his life.

Two clay vessels were also found. One was an upside-down bowl, a common feature in Kerma burials, which researchers suggest may symbolize the “emptying of life” from the vessel and the body. The other vessel, more unusual, had a black stripe and contained traces of fire, animal bones, coprolites, and insects, indicating a burial ritual that involved fire and possibly feasting, according to Paner.

Additionally, 82 faience disk-shaped beads were discovered near the man’s neck. These beads, likely acquired through Nubia’s extensive trade networks, reflect the social connections and material wealth of the period.

A New Study Revealed the Secret Origin of One of America’s Most Mysterious Monuments

Poverty Point, a 3,500-year-old earthen mound, is a well-researched UNESCO World Heritage Site, but a pair of studies re-examines its original purpose.

Poverty Point, located north of New Orleans, is an archaeological site believed to have been a major trading center between roughly 1700 B.C.E. and 1100 B.C.E. A new study suggests that the massive 1.5-square-mile site was built by an egalitarian hunter-gatherer society, challenging earlier ideas that such monumental earthworks required hierarchical leadership. The discovery of artifacts from across the Midwest and Southeast supports the view that Poverty Point functioned as a significant trade hub.

Around 1,500 B.C.E., major civilizations were emerging worldwide. Ancient Egypt was entering its New Kingdom, the Hittites were establishing themselves in the Middle East, the Shang Dynasty rose in China, and the Olmecs appeared in what is now Mexico. At the same time, hunter-gatherers in the Lower Mississippi Valley about 350 miles from the river’s mouth were constructing one of the oldest and most impressive earthwork complexes in the Americas.

Today known as Poverty Point a name originating from a 19th-century plantation nearby this 3,500-year-old site is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its scale is remarkable: the ancient builders moved the equivalent of 140,000 dump trucks of soil, accomplishing this feat without the use of horses or wheels.

Humanity’s history of eating ‘processed’ food goes back much farther than you would thinkld think

Researchers say processing plant foods was key to human spread across globe

Archaeologists argue that the belief our early ancestors lived solely on meat and that modern “carnivore” diets reflect ancient eating habits is incorrect.

Evidence now shows that humans have been preparing and consuming plant-based foods far earlier than once believed, gaining significant nutritional advantages along the way.

The latest findings challenge the idea of strictly “palaeolithic meat-eaters,” revealing that early humans used a wide variety of plant resources. They gathered, stored, and ate ground nuts, as well as cooked starchy roots and tubers.

By examining multiple studies on ancient plant use, researchers found that sophisticated plant processing played a major role in the global expansion of early human populations.

Plant-based diets were not a late development tied to farming. Archaeological discoveries from many regions indicate that our ancestors were grinding wild seeds, preparing tubers, and removing toxins from bitter nuts thousands of years before agriculture emerged.

Archaeological sites that show direct evidence of early processed plant food use.

Researchers explain that the human body is not built to rely heavily on protein for energy. The liver can only regulate a small amount of amino acids the components of protein  in the bloodstream. Because of this, eating too much meat can lead to “protein poisoning.”

They note that this biological limit creates an upper “protein ceiling” of roughly 250–300 grams per day. Plant-based foods, therefore, are not just sources of key nutrients and easily absorbed carbohydrates; they also provide the extra calories humans need beyond protein alone.

The research team examined fossils containing unusually large amounts of charred grass grains, including wild cereals and various small-seeded grasses. They also uncovered evidence of early food-processing methods such as cooking, pounding, and grinding.

These techniques made plant foods easier to digest and more flavorful, while also helping release more nutrients and energy from them.

Further findings came from the shores of the Sea of Galilee, at the 23,000-year-old site of Ohalo II, where over 150,000 plant fossils were preserved. These remains show that early humans were collecting and processing plant foods long before the rise of agriculture.

According to the researchers, the ability to prepare plant foods allowed early humans to tap into essential calories and nutrients and thrive in diverse environments around the world. It highlights that our species developed as resourceful, tool-using foragers who could turn a wide range of plants into nourishing meals.

Archaeologists Found a 4,000-Year-Old Handprint That Was Never Meant to Be Seen

The hand print was likely left by an Egyptian potter on an ancient structure used in burial practices.

Roughly 4,000 years ago, an ancient Egyptian potter left a full handprint on the bottom of a clay “soul house” used in a burial. At the time, the mark would likely have gone unnoticed, as potters did not hold high status in society. Today, however, this rare handprint is set to be part of a new fall display at the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge.

Helen Strudwick, curator of the Made in Ancient Egypt exhibit and senior Egyptologist at the museum, explained that while fingerprints are sometimes seen on coffins or in wet varnish, finding a complete handprint beneath a soul house is exceptional. The mark was left by the maker before the clay dried, capturing a direct, personal connection to the object.

The soul house itself is a small structure shaped like a building with an open courtyard, designed to hold food offerings in tombs. These miniature installations served as symbolic offering sites and resting places, reflecting ancient Egyptian burial practices and beliefs in the afterlife.

Ancient Rock Paintings Hidden in Texas Canyons Reveal a 6,000-Year-Old Artistic and Spiritual Tradition

Ancient murals in Texas reveal a 4,000-year story of faith, art, and survival

The murals depict humans engaged in hunting, ritual, and daily activities alongside a wide array of animals, including deer, bighorn sheep, and birds. The consistency of style and iconography over millennia suggests a deeply rooted cultural tradition, with knowledge and techniques passed down across countless generations.

Analyses of the pigments indicate the use of locally sourced minerals mixed with organic binders, demonstrating not only artistic skill but also an intimate understanding of available natural resources. The radiocarbon dates show that some paintings were created as early as 4,000 BCE, making them among the oldest known examples of sustained pictorial expression in North America.

This discovery sheds light on the social and spiritual life of the ancient peoples of the Lower Pecos region, emphasizing continuity, cultural identity, and the enduring power of visual storytelling.

An example of Pecos River-style artworks depicting a human-like figure holding a black spear thrower, with a dart in one hand and red darts and a staff in the other hand.

The study highlights the remarkable continuity and precision of the Pecos River style over thousands of years. Each mural was not a random accumulation of images but a carefully composed “visual manuscript,” reflecting a shared system of symbols and storytelling that persisted across generations.

The use of consistent layering techniques and pigment sequences indicates that the artists followed established conventions, likely taught through apprenticeships or communal instruction. This deliberate method allowed large, complex murals—sometimes spanning over 100 feet—to convey coherent narratives about cosmology, hunting practices, and social life.

Ultimately, the research underscores how the Lower Pecos Canyonlands’ murals are not only artistic masterpieces but also enduring records of the intellectual and spiritual sophistication of the region’s ancient hunter-gatherer communities.

This photomicrograph, taken at Halo Shelter, shows the yellow over red over black paint layers. The black was applied first, then the red, then the yellow. 

The research highlights the deep spiritual significance of the murals. Over 175 generations, artists adhered to consistent rules of composition, paint layering, and iconography, demonstrating a remarkable cultural continuity.

Recurring motifs—such as human-like figures holding spears or staffs, animal hybrids, and “power bundles” extending from the arms—persisted even as environmental conditions, tools, and daily life evolved.

The Lower Pecos Canyonlands emerge as a sacred landscape, repeatedly revisited for ritual purposes. From an Indigenous perspective, these murals are not merely ancient art—they are living entities. They are regarded as sentient ancestral deities, actively participating in creation and the ongoing maintenance of the cosmos.

More characteristic designs of the Pecos River-style tradition, examples of which are found across the Lower Pecos Canyonlands.

The Lower Pecos region has inadvertently preserved an extraordinary cultural archive. Its dry, stable climate protected the pigments on limestone walls, keeping the organic binders intact and enabling precise radiocarbon dating.

Each mural captures a moment of ritual practice frozen in time. At site 41VV584, one of the oldest murals dated to around 5,400 years ago, an anthropomorphic figure with a “power bundle” spans the wall. Remarkably, at site 41VV1230, one of the youngest murals, similar motifs appear unchanged in form and meaning, despite a 4,000-year interval.

Pecos River style artists incorporated natural features in the rock wall to serve as the eyes and nose of this human-like figure. Like several figures at Halo Shelter, this one has a halo-like headdress and fine lines running vertically down its forehead.

The researchers interpret this remarkable continuity as proof of an enduring Archaic worldview that persisted despite changes in economy, climate, and population. The murals’ consistent imagery, they argue, “guaranteed accurate transmission of this sophisticated metaphysical system” over thousands of years.

Ancient Chinese DNA shows gender bias in human sacrifice ritual 4,000 years ago

Sacrificial victims in mass burials were mostly male, while burial attendants for nobles or elites were overwhelmingly female, study finds

Female sacrifice in China occurred much earlier than previously thought, according to a new study analyzing ancient DNA.

The research, conducted by Chinese archaeologists and anthropologists, examined elite burials at a major Stone Age settlement in northwestern China and found evidence of an early hierarchical society. The study also indicates that sacrificial practices were influenced by gender, with different types of rituals performed for men and women.

Shimao, situated in the Yellow River valley in Shaanxi province, is one of China’s largest prehistoric settlements and dates to the late Neolithic period, roughly 3,800–4,300 years ago. By sequencing over 100 ancient genomes from Shimao and its satellite sites, researchers discovered that victims in mass burials, likely intended for public ritual purposes, were primarily male. In contrast, females were overwhelmingly buried as attendants alongside dead nobles or elite individuals.

“These findings reveal a predominantly patrilineal descent structure across Shimao communities and possibly sex-specific sacrificial rituals,” the team reported in a paper published in Nature.

Shimao itself spans approximately 4 square kilometers (1.5 square miles) and sits on the edge of the northern Loess Plateau and the Ordos Desert. The settlement exhibits hallmarks of state-level societies, including craft production, massive fortifications, social stratification, and extensive human sacrifice.

Study anchors obscure pharaoh in time, opening research path into dating the Exodus.

A PLOS ONE paper places Ahmose’s reign over Egypt decades after the famous Thera volcanic eruption in the Aegean Sea, with vast implications for the region’s history

Nebpehtire Ahmose ruled Egypt, showing that his accession likely occurred in the latter half of the 16th century BCE.

This breakthrough also opens new possibilities for exploring a long-suspected link between the biblical Exodus and a major volcanic eruption in the Aegean Sea, which many scholars have long associated with Ahmose’s reign, according to Prof. Hendrik J. Bruins of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, lead author of the study.

Published last month in PLOS ONE, the research has important implications for understanding the history of Egypt, the land of Israel, and the broader Eastern Mediterranean region.

The eruption of the Thera (Santorini) volcano has captivated archaeologists for generations because of its potential connection to myths and historical events, including the Greek story of Atlantis and the biblical account of the Israelites’ liberation from slavery in Egypt.

Situated roughly 120 kilometers (75 miles) north of Crete, the volcano likely caused days of darkness, massive tsunamis, and perhaps even a dramatic pillar of fire visible in Egypt. Evidence of pumice from this eruption has been discovered in both present-day Israel and Egypt, linking the event to regional historical and geological phenomena.

Previous assessments claimed that the eruption occurred around 1500 BCE.

The Crossing of the Red Sea by Nicolas Poussin,1634.

Ahmose was the founder of the 18th Dynasty and of the New Kingdom, a period of renewed prosperity in ancient Egypt following several difficult centuries.

An important archaeological artifact from the time of Ahmose, the “Tempest Stela,” describes disastrous climate phenomena. In the past, many scholars suggested the inscription refers to the Thera eruption.

However, Bruins and his co-author Johannes van der Plicht from the University of Groningen used the same radiocarbon analysis method on samples associated with Ahmose and on seeds and branches charred by the eruption.

By comparing the results, the scholars determined that the pharaoh clearly ruled over Egypt several decades after the eruption.

“In the last decade, geologists have found ash from the Thera eruption in many places in the eastern Mediterranean,” Bruins told The Times of Israel over the phone. “Eruptions can be very useful as anchors in time, because they happened over the course of a couple of days, and then they are over. Ash from this eruption is a kind of stratigraphic marker.”

Scientific methods, such as radiocarbon analysis, provide independent dating to compare with the more traditional methods used by scholars, including historical sources, pottery typology, and archaeological artifacts. These traditional methods often fail to provide exact dating.

“In many parts of the Mediterranean, including ancient Israel, the local stratigraphies are floating in time and [scholars] try to connect them to Egyptian history for the simple reason that Egyptian history is more well established in time,” Bruins explained.

Yet, even Egyptian chronology, based on when different dynasties and pharaohs ruled over the kingdom, leaves many questions open, even after radiocarbon dating has become more prevalent, offering new tools to support what historians had traditionally dated based on written sources.

The Second Intermediate Period, one of the most obscure periods in Egypt’s ancient history, roughly spanned from 1700 to 1550 BCE. Its beginning, duration, and end are debated among scholars.

During this period, Egypt was divided into the Upper and Lower Kingdoms. Ahmose was the sovereign who reunited the country, defeated the Hyksos Dynasty that ruled over the Lower Kingdom, marking the beginning of the New Kingdom, and started his own dynasty.

“There has been a question about when the 18th Dynasty really began, also in relation to the Thera eruption, and so I was looking for material from the Second Intermediate Period [to date],” Bruins said.

“It was quite difficult to find, because these periods are less well known in historical terms, as its pharaohs do not always have records of them, nor do museums have many remains that could be dated with radiocarbon,” he added.

The scholar began pursuing this research avenue in 2013, approaching several museums and requesting their artifacts. Many did not respond positively, mainly because the study required extracting samples from the items for analysis. However, the British Museum and the Petrie Museum of Egyptian and Sudanese Archaeology (University College, London) ultimately agreed to provide some artifacts from their collections.

“The most important object has been a mud brick excavated around 1900 by British archeologists in the temple of Ahmose in Abydos, in southern Egypt,”  Bruins said. “The brick is stamped with the throne name of the king Nebpehtire. Ahmose was a quite common name in Egypt at the time, and other pharaohs were carrying it, but thanks to his throne name, this marked the first time that we could put our hands on an object that can be confidently related to this particular pharaoh.”

A mudbrick from the Temple of Pharaoh Ahmose at Abydos on display at the British Museum. The artifact has been radiocarbon dated in a study published in PLOS ONE in September 2025, supporting a low chronology for the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, in the first half of the 16th century BCE.

The researchers managed to extract a straw piece added to the brick to strengthen it, as was done at the time.

“Scholarly opinions about Ahmose’s accession year ranged from 1580 BCE to 1524 BCE,” Bruins explained. “Our radiocarbon dating of the Ahmose mudbrick supports the two youngest Egyptological dating assessments for when the mudbricks for his temple were made, around 1517 or 1502 BCE, or what we archaeologists refer to as the ‘low chronology.'”

Since the temple depicts scenes of Ahmose’s battles against the Hyksos, the brick must date to a period in his kingdom after the war, possibly around the 22nd year of his reign.

Bruins was also able to study six shabtis, or human figurines roughly carved from wood representing mummies buried with the deceased, which he received from the Petrie Museum.

“One shabti carries the name of a person that is also mentioned on an important tomb in Southern Egypt as the mayor of Thebes, and his rule covered part of the time of Pharaoh Ahmose and of his son Amenhotep I,” Bruins said. “The radiocarbon date of this shabti is virtually the same as that of the mud brick. They confirmed each other.”

An Egyptian shabti figurine from ancient Thebes. The artifact has been radiocarbon dated in a study published in PLOS ONE in September 2025, supporting a low chronology for the beginning of the 18th Dynasty in the first half of the 16th century BCE.

At the same time, the researchers’ analysis of the Thera eruption yielded a time range of 60-90 years earlier.

According to the Bruins, therefore, the Tempest Stela must refer to a different meteorological event.

A new chronology for the land of Israel?

The PLOS ONE paper does not address the implications of the new datings for the history and chronology of the land of Israel, which have generally been based on the Egyptian chronology.

However, Bruins told The Times of Israel that they are significant and he is already working on a study on the subject.

The transition between the Middle Bronze Age and the Late Bronze Age in Israel has traditionally been linked to the beginning of the 18th Dynasty in Egypt.

“At the time, many powerful city-states in the Middle Bronze Age were somehow destroyed or replaced or didn’t continue [to exist] afterward, and usually this transition was linked with the beginning of the New Kingdom and its pharaohs,” Bruins said.

3,500-year-old Canaanite clay piece found on Tel Gama (the Canaanite city of Yarza) in March 2020. (Emil Eljam/Israel Antiquities Authority)

According to the researcher, the incursions into Canaan have been generally attributed to Pharaoh Thutmose III, the fifth king of the 18th Dynasty.

“We have historical accounts about this pharaoh that he really penetrated into the Levant, in ancient Israel, and also more to the north,” he said.

According to Bruins, if Thutmose was not the one responsible for the destruction of the Canaanite city-states, it is important to investigate who else was.

“If these cities, or some of these cities, were destroyed before the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, then there’s a question about which Egyptians did this? Because we have no records from the Second Intermediate Period that Egyptian pharaohs made large military excursions into the Levant,” he said.

Looking for the Exodus in the right century

According to Bruins, there are questions to be explored around a potential correlation between the Thera eruption, the destruction of Canaanite cities, and the Exodus.

Many academics believe that the biblical narrative does not reflect historical events. At the same time, they tend to suggest that the mass escape of the Israelites from Egypt is supposed to have happened at some point in the early 13th century BCE.

A silver boat donated by Pharaoh Ahmose I to Queen Ahhotep II for her burial is seen at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Bruins, however, disagrees.

“I don’t think that is the right interpretation because we do not have any evidence that the 13th century fits with the archeological record they have been looking for,” he said.

“There are so many Exodus views by different scholars that have no link to the biblical record anymore,” he added. “If you lose any connection with the biblical record, then it becomes a kind of abstract thinking.”

According to Bruins, the strategy for exploring whether and when the Exodus occurred should entail seeking evidence of destruction associated with the Israelites’ conquest of the land under Moses’s successor, Joshua.

Asked in which century he would look, he went back to the Thera eruption.

“If we take the [biblical] text, one of the features of the Exodus is the darkness in Egypt,” he noted, referring to one of the plagues that God sent against the Egyptians according to the Bible.

“From a scientific perspective, what can cause three days of darkness?” he added. “Some suggest a sandstorm, but after living 35 years in the Negev Desert, I can vouch that no sandstorm causes something like that. Others say a solar eclipse, but that is a matter of minutes, not days.”

The rocky promontory of Skaros on the Greek island of Santorini seen on June 15, 2022.

Bruins said that records from the eruption of the Tambora volcano in Indonesia in 1815 state that the event caused three days of darkness at a distance of 500 to 600 kilometers (roughly 310 to 370 miles).

“If darkness in Egypt was really for three days, then the only mechanism we can think of from from the geological or natural science [perspective] is a volcanic eruption, and the only volcanic eruption that was very powerful and could have caused such an effect is the Santorini eruption, that was one of the largest worldwide in the last 10,000 years,” he said.

Bruins believes the destruction of the Canaanite cities in the Levant may have occurred in the following years, but he also stressed that this cannot be stated until there is scientific evidence. The scholar is therefore working to collect and date samples from the relevant destruction layers of these cities to understand when they actually ceased to exist.

“If we are talking about a theory, anybody can make up all kinds of ideas,” he said. “It has to be proven by hard facts, by dating, and this is something that I’m working on publishing.”

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Why Did Indus Valley Civilisation Disappear? IIT Scientists Explain

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also called the Sindhu-Saraswati civilisation, flourished between 5,000 and 3,500 years ago in what is now northwest India and Pakistan.

The Indus River was the lifeblood of the civilisation.

Why the Indus Valley Civilisation Disappeared: Insights from IIT Scientists

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Sindhu-Saraswati civilisation, thrived between 5,000 and 3,500 years ago across what is now northwest India and Pakistan. Famous for its advanced cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal, the IVC featured sophisticated urban planning, drainage systems, and remarkable craftsmanship, including iconic artifacts like the “Dancing Girl.”

Despite its achievements, the civilisation eventually declined, and the reasons for its disappearance have long puzzled historians and archaeologists. Recent research from IIT Gandhinagar offers a compelling explanation: prolonged droughts over centuries forced urban populations to abandon their cities.

Climate Change and Water Scarcity

The Indus River was essential for the civilisation, supporting agriculture, trade, and daily life. Paleo-climate records and climate simulations reveal significant variability in rainfall, driven by shifts in both the Indian summer and winter monsoons. Using high-resolution climate models and geological proxies, such as stalactites and lake sediments, researchers reconstructed rainfall and river flow patterns over thousands of years.

Findings indicate a persistent drying trend, with average annual rainfall dropping by 10–20% and temperatures rising by roughly 0.5°C during the civilisation’s existence. Four major droughts, each lasting more than 85 years, occurred between 4,450 and 3,400 years ago, with the longest spanning 164 years and affecting over 90% of the region. These were part of a broader pattern of declining water availability rather than isolated events.

Impact on Settlements and Agriculture

Initially, IVC communities were concentrated in areas with reliable rainfall. As droughts intensified, people moved closer to the Indus River in search of water. Hydrological simulations show that even riverbanks experienced reduced flows during these droughts, creating widespread water scarcity. Archaeobotanical evidence indicates that farmers attempted to adapt by shifting from wheat and barley to drought-tolerant millets, but these efforts could not fully mitigate the impact of prolonged aridity.

Lake level records and cave data support these findings, showing declines in water bodies and rainfall during key drought periods. The final century-long drought, between 3,531 and 3,418 years ago, coincides with archaeological evidence of large-scale urban abandonment and population dispersal into smaller rural communities.

The Role of Global Climate Drivers

The study also highlights the influence of global climate phenomena on the IVC’s decline. Events like El Niño and North Atlantic cooling weakened the Indian monsoon. Higher Pacific and Indian Ocean temperatures reduced the land-sea temperature gradient, suppressing monsoon rainfall, while changes in atmospheric circulation further limited moisture transport into South Asia.

A Gradual Decline, Not an Abrupt Collapse

Rather than collapsing suddenly, the IVC underwent a slow, complex decline shaped by climate, social, and economic pressures. While severe droughts were a major factor, communities adapted through migration, crop diversification, and trade. The civilisation fragmented into smaller units, representing a transformation rather than a complete disappearance.

Lessons for Today

The story of the Indus Valley Civilisation serves as a warning about the vulnerability of complex societies to environmental stress. It underscores the importance of effective water management and climate adaptation—lessons that remain highly relevant today as modern societies confront increasing risks from climate change and water scarcity. Encouragingly, paleo-climate researchers note that global warming may lead to increased rainfall in the Indian monsoon, offering some hope for the region.